AR6304-BUILDING MATERIALS-III

QUESTION PAPER AND ANSWER

PART-A-2marks
1. Write the properties of cement.
• It gives strength to the masonry.
• It is an excellent binding material.
• It is easily workable.
• It offers good resistance to the moisture.
• It possesses a good plasticity.
• It stiffens or hardens early.
2. Mention the composition of cement.

3. List the classification of sand.

• According to the size of grains, sand is classified as fine, coarse and gravelly.
• Sand passing through a screen with clear openings of 1.5875mm is known as the fine
sand. Mainly used for plastering.
• Sand passing through a screen with clear openings of 3.175mm is known as the coarse
sand. Generally used for masonry work.
• Sand passing through a screen with clear openings of 7.62mm is known as the
gravelly sand. Generally used for concrete work.
4. Classify and differentiate types of sand used in the cement mortar.
• According to the natural sources from which sand is obtained, it is of the following
three types.
1. Pit Sand
 2. River Sand
3. Sea sand.
Pit sand:
• Obtained by forming pits into soils of a depth of about 1m to 2m from ground level.
• Pit sand consists of sharp angular grains that are free from salts and proves as
excellent material for mortar
• When rubbed between fingers it should not leave any stains on fingers.
River sand:
• Obtained from banks or beds of rivers.
• It consists of fine rounded grains.
• Colour is almost white.
• As the sand is clean, it is widely used for all purposes.
Sea sand:
• Obtained from sea shores.
• Consists of fine rounded grains and light brown in colour.
• Salt content in sea water absorbs moisture from atmosphere.
• Such absorption causes dampness, efflorescence and disintegration of work.
• It also retards the setting action of cement.
• It is generally avoided except for filling of basement.
5.Defines the term ‘bulking of sand ‘.
• The presence of moisture in sand causes increase
in volume of sand.
• Finer the sand, the more will be the increase in
volume for a given moisture content.
6. What are the tests carried out for sand?
1. Silt Content Test of Sand: The maximum quantity of silt in sand shall not exceed 8%.
Fine aggregate containing more than allowable percentage of silt shall be washed so as to
bring the silt content within allowable limits.
2. Grading of sand: On the basis of particle size, fine aggregate is graded into four zones.
Where the grading falls outside the limits of any particular grading zone of sieves, other than
600 micron IS sieve, by a total amount not exceeding 5 percent, it shall be regarded as
falling within that grading zone.
3. Deleterious materials in sand: Sand shall not contain any harmful impurities such as
iron, pyrites, alaklies, salts, coal or other organic impurities, mica, shale or similar laminated
materials, soft fragments, sea shale in such form or in such quantities as to affect adversely
the hardening, strength or durability of the mortar. The maximum quantities of clay, fine silt,
fine dust and organic impurities in the sand / marble dust shall not exceed the following
limits:
7. What should be the characteristic and significance of the aggregate mixed in
cement concrete.
Aggregate:
• They are inert and chemically inactive.
• These aggregates are bound together by means of cement.
• The material which is passed through BIS test sieve no 9 is termed as fine aggregate.
• The natural river sand is not available economically; finely crushed stone may be used
as a fine aggregate.
• The material that is retained on BIS test sieve no.480 is coarse aggregate.
• For thin slabs and walls, the maximum size of coarse aggregate should be limited to
one third the thickness of the concrete section.
• The aggregates to be used for cement concrete work should be hard, durable and
clean.
• Should be free from lumps of clay, organic and vegetable matter, line dust etc.
8. Explain the purpose of grading of coarse aggregate.
• Good grading implies that a sample of aggregates contains all standard fractions of
aggregate in required proportion such that the sample contains minimum voids.
• Practical method of arriving is the practical grading by trial and error method, i.e. to
mix aggregates of different size fractions in different percentages and to choose the
one sample which gives maximum weight or minimum voids per unit volume.
Sieve analysis:
 • The sieve analysis is conducted to determine the particle size distribution in a sample
of aggregate, which is called as gradation.
• The consecutive sieve openings are constantly doubled such as 10mm, 20mm, 40mm
etc., at equal intervals.
• The aggregates used for making concrete are normally of the maximum size 80mm,
40mm, 20mm, 10mm, 4.75mm, 2.36mm, 600 micron, 300 micron, 150 micron.
• The aggregate fraction from 80mm to 4.75mm are termed as coarse aggregate.
• The aggregate fraction from 4.75mm to 150 micron are termed as fine aggregate.
• Sieves are stacked with larger sieve at top. The material retained on each sieve after
shaking, represent the fraction of aggregates.
9. What is meant by rapid hardening cement?
• High strength in early days and contains high percentage of tricalcium silicate of 56%.
• Burns at high temperature, increased lime content, very fine grinding.
• Sets rapidly, form work can be removed earlier.
• Light in weight
• Not damaged easily
• Short period of curing.
• Economic in design.
10. What is meant by Portland pozzolana cement?
Portland Pozzolana Cement is a kind of Blended Cement which is produced by either
intergrinding of OPC clinker along with gypsum and pozzolanic materials in certain
proportions or grinding the OPC clinker, gypsum and Pozzolanic materials separately and
thoroughly blending them in certain proportions.
11. Enumerate the role of water in concrete.
 Important ingredient of concrete that actively takes part in chemical reaction with
cement.
 Quality of water affects the strength, so it is necessary to select pure quality water.
 The best way to find out the quality of water is prepare concrete with this water and
compare its 7th and 28th day’s strength with companion cubes prepared with distilled
water.
 If the compressive strength is up to 90 percent, the source of water is accepted.
  Carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium and potassium will effect the setting time of
cement.
 In brackish water the chloride should not exceed 10,000ppm and sulphate does not
exceed 3000ppm.
12. Describe the properties of uses of cement concrete.
Properties:
• High compressive strength.
• Free from corrosion and there is no appreciable effect of atmospheric agents on it.
• Hardens with age and the process of hardening continues long time after the concrete
has attained sufficient strength.
• More economical than steel.
• It binds rapidly with steel as it is weak in tension, the steel reinforcements is placed in
cement concrete at suitable places to take up the tensile stresses, which is called as
Reinforced Cement Concrete
13. State the significance of materials used for the construction of formwork.
 Formwork in concrete construction is used as a mould for a structure in which fresh
concrete is poured only to harden subsequently.
 Types of formwork for concrete construction depend on formwork material and type
of structural element.
 Formworks can also be named based on the type of structural member construction
such as slab formwork for use in slab, beam formwork, column formwork for use in
beams and columns respectively etc.
 The construction of formwork takes time and involves expenditure upto 20 to 25% of
the cost of the structure or even more.
 Design of these temporary structures is made to economic expenditure. The operation
of removing the formwork is known as stripping. Stripped formwork can be reused.
Reusable forms are known as panel forms and non-usable are called stationary forms.
 Timber is the most common material used for formwork. The disadvantage with
timber formwork is that it will warp, swell and shrink. Application of water
impermeable cost to the surface of wood mitigates these defects.
14. What is meant by ‘curing’?
Curing is the process in which the concrete is protected from loss of moisture and kept
within a reasonable temperature range. This process results in concrete with increased
strength and decreased permeability. Curing is also a key player in mitigating cracks, which
can severely affect durability.
15. Differentiate between corrosion and rusting.
Corrosion is a natural process, which converts a refined metal to a more stable form, such as
its oxide, hydroxide, or sulfide. It is the gradual destruction of materials (usually metals) by
chemical and/or electrochemical reaction with their environment.
Rusting is the common term for corrosion of iron and its alloys, such as steel. Many other
metals undergo equivalent corrosion, but the resulting oxides are not commonly called rust.
Other forms of rust exist, like the result of reactions between iron and chloride in an
environment deprived of oxygen.
16. Mention few special concretes.
 Light weight concrete
 Aerated concrete
 No fine concrete
 High density concrete
 Ready-mix Concrete
 Polymer concrete
 Fibre reinforced concrete
17. What are different physical properties of cement mortar used in ceiling
plastering?
 Rate analysis of plastering with cement mortar requires the quantity estimation of
materials cement mortar, i.e. quantity of cement, sand and water for various grades of
mortar required. Grades of mortar used for plastering is generally same grade as used
in the masonry work. There are different grades of mortar that can be used for
plastering of masonry structural members such as in CM 1:2, 1:4, 1:6, 1:8 etc. Cement
Mortar in ratio 1:6 is generally used for plastering work.
18. Differentiate the term guniting and grouting of cement concrete in
building construction.
 • Guniting is a process of repairing the concrete work which has been damaged due to
inferior works. Also used for providing impervious layer.
• Gunite is a mixture of cement and sand of 1:3.
• Cement with moist sand and water is added as
the mixture in cement gun. A regulating valve is
provided to regulate water.
• The surface to be treated is cleaned and washed.
• Cement gun is used to deposit this mixture on
the concrete surface under a pressure of 20 to
30 N/cm2.
• The nozzle of gun is kept at a distance of 750mm to 850mm from the surface to be
treated and velocity of nozzle varies from 120 to 160 m/sec.
Advantages:
• High compression strength of 56 to 70 N/mm2 on 28th day.
• High impermeability
• Repairs are carried out in short time
Grouting:
Grout is a particularly fluid form of concrete used to fill gaps. It is used in construction to
embed rebars in masonry walls, connect sections of pre-cast concrete, fill voids, and seal
joints such as those between tiles
19. Define ‘water cement ratio’.
• Ratio of amount of water to the amount of cement by weight is known as
water cement ratio.
• Generally water cement ratio to be maintained is 0.6.Addition of 1 litre of
water to 1 bag of cement – strength reduces by 1.47 N/mm2.
• Water cement ratio for thin sections – 0.45
• Water cement ratio for mass concrete – 0.55
• Water cement ratio for thin sections continuously under water – 0.55
• Water cement ratio for mass concrete continuously under water – 0. 65.
20. Write a brief notes on proportioning of concrete.
 • Selection of relative proportions of cement, sand, coarse aggregate and water.
• Theory of formation of concrete is voids of coarse aggregate filled with sand,
voids of sand filled with cement and voids of cement filled with water. Thus
forms a solid substance known as concrete.
• The proportioned mixture should have easy workability, maximum density
and cost of material and labour should be minimum.
21. What do you understand by workability of concrete?
• Workability describes the ease or difficulty with which the concrete is handled,
transported and placed.
• Mixture too wet – a coarse aggregate settles at the bottom.
Solution: slightly changing the proportion of fine and coarse aggregates
• Mixture is dry – difficult to handle.
Solution: adding small quantity of cement paste.
• More water causes poor workability and strength.
Stiff concrete mix used in vibrated concrete work
• Wet concrete mix used in thin sections containing reinforced bars.
• Workability affected by water content, water cement ratio, aggregate cement ratio,
grading, shape, texture and maximum size of coarse aggregate.
22. Outline any four materials that can be used partially as aggregates in
concrete.
 In Portland cement concrete when the aggregate is mixed together with the dry cement
and water, they form a fluid mass that is easily molded into shape.
 The cement reacts chemically with the water and other ingredients to form a hard
matrix which binds all the materials together into a durable stone-like material that has
many uses.
 Often, additives are included in the mixture to improve the physical properties of the
wet mix or the finished material. Most concrete is poured with reinforcing materials
embedded to provide tensile strength, yielding reinforced concrete.
23. What is meant by RMC?
 Ready-mix concrete, or RMC as it is popularly called, refers to concrete that is
specifically manufactured for delivery to the customer's construction site in a freshly mixed
and plastic or unhardened state.
24. What is meant by Aerated concrete?
• Introducing air or gas into a slurry composed of Portland cement or lime so that it
forms uniformly cellular structure.
• It’s a mixture of water, cement and finely crushed sand.
• Ways in which aerated concrete can be formed are,
• By formation of gas by chemical reaction.
• By mixing preformed stable foam with the slurry.
• By using finely powdered metal (usually aluminium powder), react with calcium
hydroxide during hydration process forms cellular structure.
25. What is light weight concrete? How is it different from conventional
concrete?
• Density of light weight concrete is 300 to 1850 kg/m3, whereas normal conventional
concrete is 2200 to 2600 kg/m3.
• Reduction of dead load, increase the progress of building.
• Economy in design.
• Low thermal conductivity, thermal comforts and lower power consumption.
• Adoption of light weight concrete gives an outlet for industrial wastes such as clinker,
fly ash, slag etc.. Which otherwise creates problem for disposal.
• Method for making light weight concrete is inclusion of air,
- By using porous aggregates.
- By introducing gas or air bubble known as aerated concrete.
- By omitting sand, no fines concrete
• Natural light weight aggregates are pumice, diamite, scoria, volcanic cinders, saw
dust, rice husk.
26. What are the advantages of light weight concrete?
1. It is governed primarily by economic considerations
2. Reduced Seismic Forces
3. Improved Structural Efficiency
4. Reduces the dead load of a structure
 5. Smaller sections as well as smaller sized foundations can be used
6. Formwork will withstand low pressures
7. Improved Constructability
8. Ease of Transport
9. Pumping to large distances
10. Self-compaction
11. Quick production
12. Improved hydration due to internal curing
13. Ease of Renovation and repair
14. Better thermal insulation
15. Can be used as Designer Dirt for Geotechnical Stabilization
27. Write notes on Polymer Concrete.
• As reduction in porosity increase the strength in concrete, process like vibration,
pressure is used.
• Even then the water voids could not be avoided, which is about 28%.
• So the impregnation of monomer and subsequent polymerization is the latest
technique called as polymer concrete, adopted to reduce the inherent porosity of
concrete and improve the strength.
28. Mention few materials for damp proofing.
Materials widely used for damp proofing include: Flexible materials like butyl
rubber, hot bitumen, plastic sheets, bituminous felts, sheets of lead, copper, etc. Semi-
rigid materials like mastic asphalt. Rigid materials like impervious bricks, stones, slates,
cement mortar or cement concrete painted with bitumen, etc.
29. Explain the term ‘Integral water-proofing’.
Integral waterproofing goes INSIDE the concrete. Membrane waterproofing has a number
of issues. It can be expensive, time-consuming, and easy to damage. Most membranes are
made using oil-based materials and are not sustainable.
30. Differentiate damp-proofing and water-proofing in concrete structures?
Waterproofing:
• Waterproofing describes making an object waterproof or water-resistant.
• "Water resistant" and "waterproof" often refer to penetration of liquid water.
• Permeation of water vapor is reported as a water vapor transmission rate.
• Also, water from condensation is usually separate from "water resistant".
 • The conventional system of waterproofing involves 'membranes'.
• Oil based waterproofing is generally used for roof leakage after construction
Damp proofing:
• A damp-proof course (often abbreviated to DPC) is a horizontal barrier in a wall
designed to resist moisture rising through the structure by capillary actions.
• A damp-proof membrane (DPM) performs a similar function for a solid floor.
Moisture resistance is not necessarily absoluteces.
• In simpler words, DPC is used to stop dampness in buildings.
• In theory, due to capillary movement of water, water rises from earth to the building.
Passing through the foundation, it rises higher to reach the walls. Contact between
water and walls may damage them by creating cracks, breaking cement-paint bonds
and creating dark-spots on the wall, etc.
• So, to avoid water from reaching walls, a DPC layer at plinth level (the joint level of
walls and foundations) is laid.
• DPC layer is usually laid below all the walls, regardless of the issue that the respective
wall is a load bearing wall or a partition wall. Usually, a DPC membrane is 4" to 9"
wide.
31. Write notes on materials used for different surface finishing.
 Surface finish, also known as surface texture or surface topography, is the nature of
a surface as defined by the three characteristics of lay, surface roughness,
and waviness.
 It comprises the small local deviations of a surface from the perfectly flat ideal (a
true plane).
 Surface texture is one of the important factors that control friction and transfer layer
formation during sliding.
 Considerable efforts have been made to study the influence of surface texture on
friction and wear during sliding conditions. Surface textures can
be isotropic or anisotropic. Sometimes, stick-slip friction phenomena can be observed
during sliding depending on surface texture.
32. Outline any four types of internal wall surface finishes.
 brick interior walls
 ceramic tile walls
  concrete wall finishes
 drywall
 paneling, wood, other
 plaster walls
 stucco wall coatings
33. Give a brief note on exposed aggregate finish.
• Exposed aggregate concrete can almost be compared to a piece of granite or marble
transformed by polishing: A plain, unremarkable surface has been stripped away to
reveal the exceptional beauty lying beneath.
• In the case of concrete, that beauty is in the form of decorative aggregate, either
natural or manufactured.
• The decorative process of exposing aggregate has been around since the early 1900s,
well before pattern stamping, stenciling, and decorative overlays became trendy.
• But this method is far from being ready for retirement. An exposed aggregate finish
offers numerous advantages.
• And many of today's contractors are finding creative ways to take exposed aggregate
to a new level.
34. State the properties and use of Asphalt.
 Emulsified Asphalt (also simply called emulsion) is a mixture of asphalt cement,
water and an emulsifying agent.
 Emulsion is made by combining these materials and passing them through a mill.
 Emulsions are liquid at ambient temperatures.
 They can be applied at cooler temperatures than asphalt cements and cutback asphalts.
 There are two major categories of emulsion: Cationic and Anionic. Anionic emulsions
have negatively charged asphalt droplets and cationic emulsions have positively
charged asphalt droplets.
 Emulsions appear as a thick brown liquid when initially applied.
 When the asphalt cement starts to adhere to the surrounding material (aggregate,
existing surface, subgrade, etc.) the color changes from brown to black and the
emulsion is said to have “broken” . Although the primary use of asphalt has always
 been in highway and airfield pavement mixtures, there are many other versatile uses
for this material.
 They include water treatment basins, fish breeding ponds, water storage basins, liners
and caps for sanitary landfills, sludge beds and asphalt mulching.
35. What are the constituents of paint?
Paints contain:
 pigment(s) - prime pigments to impart colour and opacity
 binder (resin) - a polymer, often referred to as resin, forming a matrix to hold the
pigment in place
 extender - larger pigment particles added to improve adhesion, strengthen the film and
save binder
 Solvent (sometimes called a thinner) - either an organic solvent or water is used to
reduce the viscosity of the paint for better application. Water-borne paints are
replacing some paints that use volatile organic compounds such as the hydrocarbons
which are harmful to the atmosphere.
 Additives - used to modify the properties of the liquid paint or dry film.
36. List out the defects in paints.
• Blistering: Caused by water vapour which is trapped behind painted surface. It is due
to imperfect seasoning of timber or excess oil in final coat.
• Bloom: Formation of dull patches on finished polished surface. It is due to defect in
paint or bad ventilation.
• Fading: Gradual loss of colour is known as fading and it is due to effect of sunlight on
pigments of paint.
• Flaking: Small portion of the painted surface is sometimes seen loose known as
flaking and is due to poor adhesion.
• Flashing: Glossy patches are seen on the painted surface known as flashing and are
due to poor workmanship, cheap paint or weather actions.
37. What are the causes of dampness?
1. POOR QUALITY OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
Most of the construction materials such as concrete, brick or plaster possess interconnected
void within them. When these materials come in contact with water, water finds a path to
penetrate into these voids. Again this water when aided by capillary action; moves in
different direction causing dampness.
2. BAD DESIGN
At the time of designing a building, it is very important to consider what can be the source of
water that can penetrate through building and accordingly the designer must mention where
to provide what kind of damp proof course.
3. FAULTY CONSTRUCTION OR BAD WORKMANSHIP
Suppose a designer has specified that the thickness of damp-proof-course must be 15 mm.
but due to lack of adequate supervision, the thickness of completed damp proof course
become 10 mm. then this will not serve the purpose for which it is constructed and
consequently it will lead to dampness in building.
38. What are the types of flooring?
1. Laminate Flooring. Being a very popular choice, carpet flooring can be an economical
way to cover a room or entire house.
2. Hardwood Flooring.
3.Stone Flooring.
4.Tile Flooring.
5. Carpet Flooring.
39. Discuss the purpose of using building exterior paints.
There are many purposes for using paint in building construction. These includes increase
the visual appeal of building surface, protect surface against weathering impact, make the
surface water proof, protect surface from termite attack and increase the surface durability.
40. Enumerate the types of varnishes.
 Violin
 Resin
 Shellac
 Alkyd
 Spar varnish
 Drying oils
 Polyurethane
 Lacquer
 Acrylic
41. What is POP application? State any two advantages of its application in
building construction?
• Gypsum plaster, or plaster of Paris, is produced by heating gypsum to about 300°F
(150 °C):
• 2CaSO4·4H2O + Heat → 2CaSO4·H2O + 3H2O (released as steam).
• When the dry plaster powder is mixed with water, it re-forms into gypsum.
• The setting of unmodified plaster starts about 10 minutes after mixing and is complete
in about 45 minutes; but not fully set for 72 hours.
• If plaster or gypsum is heated above 392°F (200°C), anhydrite is formed, which will
also re-form as gypsum if mixed with water.
• Plasterers often use gypsum to simulate the appearance of surfaces of wood, stone, or
metal, on movie and theatrical sets for example.
• Nowadays, theatrical plasterers often use expanded polystyrene, although the job title
remains unchanged.
USES OF PLASTER OF PARIS:
• Plaster of Paris is a sculpting material with a variety of decorative and practical
applications.
• Plaster of Paris is inexpensive and simple to work with.
• Decorate a finished project with paint or embellish it with beads, stones and wire.
• Common uses for plaster of Paris include making castings for other artistic mediums,
creating sculptures and making home décor objects.
 42. Name of any two types of protective coating available in the market and
explain the application procedure of the products.
• Epoxy is a tough, long-lasting coating that you paint onto the concrete.
• It resists grease, oil and many other substances that would ruin ordinary paint.
• It cleans easily and can be found in a variety of colors (if you look hard enough), so
you can keep your garage floor sparkling clean and attractive for years.
Is epoxy electrically conductive?
• "An epoxy is a resin used for bonding or coating.
• Most epoxies are not conductive, but some epoxies contain conductive metals, such
as silver or nickel.
• These electrically conductive resins are used to coat or bond electrical components."
43. Define RMC and mention its advantages.
Ready mix concrete is a tailor-made concrete which improves durability and sustainability.
Instead of purchasing the raw materials by individuals and experimenting every time with
handling and proportioning, it would be far better idea to entrust all these activities to some
expert supplier who is having a professional acumen.
Advantages of Ready Mixed Concrete:
1. Quality assured concrete:- Concrete is produced under controlled conditions using consistent
quality of raw material.
2. High speed of construction- Speed of construction can be varying fast in case RMC is used.
3. Reduction in cement consumption by 10 – 12 % due to better handling and proper mixing.
Further reduction is possible if mineral admixtures or cementitious materials are used.
4. Versatility in uses and methods of placing: The mix design of the concrete can be tailor
made to suit the placing methods of the contractor.
5. Since ready mixed concrete (RMC) uses bulk cement instead of bagged cement, dust
pollution will be reduced and cement will be saved.
44. Mention the types of external renderings in general.
Special Finishes
Polymer Render
Acrylic Render
Scratch Render
Brick Effect Render
Traditional Finishes
Pebble Dash
Lime Render
Sand & Cement
45. List out the functions of admixtures.
• Water-reducing admixtures usually reduce the required water content for a concrete
mixture by about 5 to 10 percent.
• Retarding admixtures, which slow the setting rate of concrete, are used to counteract
the accelerating effect of hot weather on concrete setting.
• Accelerating admixtures increase the rate of early strength development; reduce the
time required for proper curing and protection, and speed up the start of finishing
operations. Accelerating admixtures are especially useful for modifying the properties
of concrete in cold weather.
• Super plasticizers, also known as plasticizers or high-range water reducers (HRWR),
reduce water content by 12 to 30 percent and can be added to concrete with a low-to-
normal slump and water-cement ratio to make high-slump flowing concrete.
• Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures fall into the specialty admixture category and are
used to slow corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete.
46. Mention any four types of floor finishing materials used in general.
Types of floor finishes:
1) Natural stone floor finish
a) Slate
b) Limestone and Sandstone
c) Granite
d) Marble
e) Mosaic
2) Artificial semi hard floor finishes
a) Linoleum
b) Rubber
 c) Cork
d) Flexible vinyl
47. State any two properties and uses of glass wool.
Glass wool is an insulating material made from fibres of glass arranged using a
binder into a texture similar to wool. The process traps many small pockets of air
between the glass, and these small air pockets result in high thermal insulation
properties.
Uses:
 Glass wool is a thermal insulation that consists of intertwined and flexible glass fibers,
which causes it to "package" air, resulting in a low density that can be varied through
compression and binder content.
 Glass wool can be a loose fill material, blown into attics, or, together with an active
binder sprayed on the underside of structures, sheets and panels that can be used to
insulate flat surfaces such as cavity wall insulation,ceiling tiles, curtain walls as well
as ducting. It is also used to insulate piping and for soundproofing.
48. Describe the composition of glass primarily used in building industries.
Glass is not a single compound, so difficult to give chemical formula.
Generally it is expressed as,
aX2O, bYO, 6SIO2.
Where a and b are numbers of molecules,
X = an atom of an alkali metal such as Na, K etc.
Y= an atom of a bivalent metal such as Ca, Pb, etc.
Soda-lime glass: Na2O, CaO, 6SiO2
Potash-lime glass: K2O, CaO, 6SiO2
Potash-lead glass: K2O, PbO, 6SiO2
49. Name the energy conservation measured adopted in design and
performance of glass.
• The increased use of glass in architecture today makes it imperative to consider the
comfort of a building's occupants.
 • Solar control glass can be an attractive feature of a building whilst at the same
time minimizing, or even eliminating the need for an air conditioning system, reducing
running costs of the building and saving energy.
• In hot climates, solar control glass can be used to minimize solar heat gain and help
control glare.
• In temperate regions, it can be used to balance solar control with high levels of natural
light.
• Solar control glass can be specified for any situation where excessive solar heat gain is
likely to be an issue, eg. Large façades, glass walkways, atria and conservatories.
50. What is meant by ‘Annealing’?
• The glass articles, after being manufactured, are to be cooled down slowly and
gradually.
• This process of slow and homogeneous cooling of glass articles is known as the
ANNEALING OF GLASS.
• The annealing of glass is a very important process.
• If glass articles are allowed to cool down rapidly, the superficial layer of glass cools
down first as glass is a bad conductor of heat.
• The interior portion remains comparatively hot and it is therefore in a state of strain.
Hence, such glass articles break to pieces under very slight shocks or disturbances.
51. Mention the uses of glass in buildings.
Glass is now being used in the building industry as insulation material, structural
component, external glazing material, cladding material; it is used to make delicate looking
fenestrations on facades as well as conventional windows.
52. Mention the Properties of glass.
• It absorbs, refracts or transmits light.
• It can take up high polish and may be used as substitute for costly gems.
• No definite crystalline structure
• No sharp melting point
• It is affected by alkalies
• Good electrical insulator.
• Available in colours
• Extremely brittle
• Behaves more of solid and capable of worked in many ways like blown. Drawn,
pressed etc.
• Not affected by air or water, chemical reagents
• Obtained with diversified properties.
53. State the purpose of foamed glass.
• The foam glass is prepared in the form of rectangular blocks.
• The finely ground glass and carbon are thoroughly mixed and the mixture is then
melted in a furnace.
• At the time of melting, the mixture expands and assumes the form of black foam.
• The resulting glass material contains more than 350 million inert air cells per m3.
• The foam glass floats in water and it can be cut like wood.
• It is fire-proof, rigid and an excellent heat insulator.
• It can be used as a substitute for cork for use in air-conditioning and refrigeration
industries.
54. Outline any two advantages and two limitations of using glass on the
building exterior.
Advantages:
1. Use of glass in construction work adds beauty to the building.
2. Its use fulfills the architectural view for external decoration.
3. By using glass in interior, it saves the space inside the building.
4. Glass cladding in building fulfill functional requirement of lighting, heat retention and
energy saving.
5. Its use appear a sense of openness and harmonious.
Disadvantages:
1. As glass is very costly material, it may increase the budgeted cost of construction work.
2. Use of glass also enhances the cost of security.
3. Its use in hilly area and desert may cause more maintenance cost.
4. Glass is also unsafe for earthquake proven area.
55. How is colored glass made?
Colored glass call for the addition of powdered metal oxides, sulfides, or other compounds
to the molten glass mixture. Here are some common additives and the colors they produce:
Cobalt Oxide: blue-violet. Cadmium Sulfide: yellow.
56. Write short notes on Glass Blocks.
 Glass brick, also known as glass block, is an architectural element made from glass.
Glass bricks provide visual obscuration while admitting light.
 The glass block was originally developed in the early 1900s to provide natural light
in manufacturing plants.
 Glass bricks are produced for both wall and floor applications.
 Glass blocks for use in floors are normally manufactured as a single solid piece, or as
a hollow glass block with thicker side walls than the standard wall blocks.
 These blocks are normally cast into a reinforced concrete gridwork or set into a metal
frame, allowing multiple units to be combined to span over openings in basements and
roofs. Glass wall blocks should not be used in flooring applications.
 Hollow glass wall blocks are manufactured as two separate halves and, whilst the
glass is still molten, the two pieces are pressed together and annealed.
 The resulting glass blocks will have a partial vacuum at the hollow centre.
57. Explain perforated glass.
 Patentroughplate 1/8 and 1/4 inch thick, and 26.Sheet glass, are both made in panes
containing up to 8 feet superficial.
 The perforations run across the width of the pane, and are useful for purposes of
ventilation.
 "There are two kinds of perforated glass: one having the perforations manufactured in
theglass, the other having them afterwards cut.
58. Discuss the treatment of glass.
The glass may be given any of the following treatment:
1. Bending
2. Cutting
3. Opaque making.
4. Silvering.
BENDING:
• The glass may be bent into desired shape by placing it in ovens in which the
temperature can be regulated.
• The glass in the form of rods, sheets or tubes is placed in such ovens and heated. It is
then bent when it is suitably heated.
CUTTING:
• The glass is cut in required sizes with the help of diamond or rough glasses or small
wheels of hardened steel.
OPAQUE MAKING:
• The glass can also be made opaque or impervious to light.
• It is done by grinding the glass surface with emery.
• It can also be achieved chemically by the application of hydrofluoric acid.
SILVERING:
• This process consists in applying a very thin coat of tin on the surface of glass.
• The silver is deposited on this layer of tin.
• A suitable paint is then applied to give protection against the atmospheric effects.
59. Defines vehicles in paint.
 The vehicle is composed of the binder; or, if it is necessary to thin the binder with a
diluent like solvent or water, it is the combination of binder + diluent.
 In this case, once the paint has dried or cured very nearly all of the diluent has
evaporated and only the binder is left on the coated surface.
 Thus, an important quantity in coatings formulation is the "vehicle solids", sometimes
called the "resin solids" of the formula. This is the proportion of the wet coating
weight that is binder, i.e. the polymer backbone of the film that will remain after
drying or curing is complete.
 Part-B
1. Explain in detail the test for cement and types and qualities of cement
available in market.
Test for cement:
Laboratory test for cement:
When cement is loose:
• It should be taken from at least 12 points from heap or heaps of cement.
When cement is in bags:
• It should be taken from at least 12 different bags or packages. The quantity of cement
so collected is intimately mixed and the final sample of cement weighing at least 50 N
is prepared and stored in air tight container till the tests are started.
Purpose of testing the cement:
• To determine the physical and chemical properties of cement.
• To regulate the various stages in the manufacturing process as slight change during
manufacture of cement cause a great change in quality of cement.
• To understand the behaviour of cement after its use on the works.
Standard tests for cement:
1. Chemical composition
2. Fineness
3. Compressive strength
4. Tensile strength
5. Consistency
6. Setting times
7. Soundness
1. Chemical composition:
• Ratio of percentage of alumina to that of iron oxide:
Should not be less than 0.66
• Ratio of percentage of lime to those of alumina, iron oxide and silica:
This ratio is known as lime saturation factor (LSF) and it should not be less than 0.66 and
should not be greater than 1.02, when calculated by the following formula:
CaO-0.7SO3
2.8 SiO2+1.2Al2O3+0.65FE2O3
• Total loss on ignition: should not be greater than 4 percent.
 • Total sulphur content: should not be greater than 2.75 percent.
• Weight of insoluble residue: Should not be greater than 1.50 percent.
• Weight of magnesia: Should not exceed 5%
2. Fineness test:
• To check proper grinding of cement
• Determined either by sieve test or by permeability apparatus test
Sieve test:
Cement weighing 100 gm. is taken and passed for 15 min through BIS sieve no.9.the
residue is then weighed and this weight should not be more than 10 percent of original
weight.
Permeability apparatus test:
Specific surface area of cement particles is calculated. Specific surface area acts as a
measure of frequency of particles of average size, and should not be less 2250 cm2/gm.
3. Compressive strength:
• The mortar of cement and sand is prepared in the ratio 1:3.
• The water is then added to the mortar with water cement ratio as 0.4.
• The mortar is placed in metal moulds in the form of cubes of 3 nos. with side as 70.6
mmx76mm and compacted in vibrating machines for 2 minutes.
• Then the moulds are placed in damp cabin for 24 hours and the specimens are
removed from moulds and submerged in clean water for curing.
• The cubes are tested in compression testing machine at the end of 3rd day and 7th day.
The load applied is uniform at the rate of 350 kg/cm2 or 35 N/mm2. The average
value is then worked out.
• The compressive strength at the end of 3rd day, it should not be less than 115 kg/cm2
or 11.50 N/mm2 and at the end of 7th day, it should not be less than 175 kg/cm2 or
17.50 N/mm2.
4. Consistency:
Purpose: to determine the % of water required for preparing cement pastes for other tests.
i. Take 300 grams of cement and add 30 percent by weight or 90 gm of water to it.
ii. Mix the water and cement in a non-porous surface.
iii. Fill the mould in vicat apparatus. The interval between the addition of water to the
commencement of filling the mould is known as the time of gauging and it should be 3
¾ to 4 ¼ minutes.
iv. Vicat apparatus has the following attachments, square needle, plunger and needle. The
square needle is used for initial setting time test, the plunger is used for consistency
test and the needle with annular collar is used for final setting time test.
v. The plunger is lowered on the paste in the mould. The settlement of plunger is noted.
If the penetration is between 5mm to 7mm from the bottom of the mould, the water
added is correct, if not proper the process is repeated with different % of water till
desired is obtained.

6. Setting times:
This test is to detect the deterioration of cement due to storage. It is carried out to find the
initial and final setting time.
Initial setting time:
a) Cement weighing 300 gm. is taken as determined in consistency test. The cement
paste is filled in the vicat apparatus.
b) The square needle of c/s 1mmx 1mm is attached to the moving rod of Vicat apparatus.
c) The needle is released immediately and is allowed to penetrate the cement paste. In
the beginning needle gets penetrated completely. The procedure is repeated till the
needle does not penetrate completely.
d) The initial setting time is the interval between the addition of water to cement and the
stage when needle ceases to penetrate completely. This time should be about 30
minutes for ordinary cement.
Final setting time:
e) The cement paste is prepared and filled in the vicat mould.
f) The needle with annular collar is attached to the moving rod of the vicat apparatus.
 g) The needle is released; the time the needle makes the impression on test block is
noted.
h) The final setting time is the difference between the time at which water was added to
cement and time as recorded when impression is created. This time should be about 10
hrs for ordinary cement.
Types of cement:
1. Acid resistant cement
2. Blast furnace cement
3. Coloured cement
4. Expanding cement
5. High alumina cement
6. Hydrophobic cement
7. Low heat cement
8. Pozzuolana cement
9. Quick setting cement
10. Rapid hardening cement
11. Extra rapid hardening cement
12. Sulphate resisting cement
13. White cement
2. Write in detail the test for bulking of sand and quality of sand.
Bulking of sand:
• The presence of moisture in sand causes
increase in volume of sand.
• Finer the sand, the more will be the increase
in volume for a given moisture content.
Test for bulking of sand:
• The container is taken and it is filled with the
sand to be tested.
• Height of container is 200mm.
• Then the sand is taken out of the container and care should be taken to see there is no
loss of sand during transaction.
 • The container is filled with water.
• The sand is slowly dropped in the container and thoroughly stirred by rod.
• The height of sand measured is 160 mm.
• Then, Bulking of sand= (200-160) = 40 = 1 or 25%.
160 160 4

Quality of sand:
• Good grading implies that a sample of aggregates contains all standard fractions of
aggregate in required proportion such that the sample contains minimum voids.
• Practical method of arriving is the practical grading by trial and error method, i.e. to
mix aggregates of different size fractions in different percentages and to choose the
one sample which gives maximum weight or minimum voids per unit volume.
Sieve analysis:
• The sieve analysis is conducted to determine the particle size
• Distribution in a sample of aggregate, which is called as gradation.
• The consecutive sieve openings are constantly doubled such as 10mm, 20mm, 40mm
etc., at equal intervals.
• The aggregates used for making concrete are normally of the maximum size 80mm,
40mm, 20mm, 10mm, 4.75mm, 2.36mm, 600 micron, 300 micron, 150 micron.
• The aggregate fraction from 80mm to 4.75mm is termed as coarse aggregate.
• The aggregate fraction from 4.75mm to 150 micron is termed as fine aggregate.
• Sieves are stacked with larger sieve at top. The material retained on each sieve after
shaking, represent the fraction of aggregates.
Fineness modulus:
• Index of fineness or coarseness of the material.
 • It is an empirical factor obtained by adding the cumulative percentages of aggregate
retained on each of the standard sieve and dividing the sum by 100. Higher the values
coarser the sand.
• Fine aggregate are categorised as coarse sand, medium sand and fine sand.
• Fine modulus of fine sand: 2.2 - 2.6
• Fine modulus of medium sand: 2.6 - 2.9
• Fine modulus of coarse sand: 2.9 – 3.2
• FM >3.2 unsuitable for making satisfactory concrete.
Specific surface and surface index:
• Indirect measure of aggregate grading.
• Surface area per unit weight of the material is termed as specific surface.
• Specific surface increase with the reduction of size of aggregates.
3. Explain the physical properties, types etc of sand and the analysis and
sampling methods adopted to grade the sand quality.
• The sand particles consist of small grains of silica (sio2).
• It is formed by the decomposition of sandstones due to various effects of weather.
• According to the natural sources from which sand is obtained, it is of the following
three types.
1. Pit Sand
2. River Sand
3. Sea sand.
Pit sand:

• Obtained by forming pits into soils of a depth of about 1m to 2m from ground level.
• Pit sand consists of sharp angular grains that are free from salts and proves as
excellent material for mortar
• When rubbed between fingers it should not leave any stains on fingers.
River sand:
• Obtained from banks or beds of rivers.
 • It consists of fine rounded grains.
• Colour is almost white.
• As the sand is clean, it is widely used for all purposes.
Sea sand:
• Obtained from sea shores.
• Consists of fine rounded grains and light brown in colour.
• Salt content in sea water absorbs moisture from atmosphere.
• Such absorption causes dampness, efflorescence and disintegration of work.
• It also retards the setting action of cement.
• It is generally avoided except for filling of basement.
Classification of sand:

• According to the size of grains, sand is classified as fine, coarse and gravelly.
• Sand passing through a screen with clear openings of 1.5875mm is known as the fine
sand. Mainly used for plastering.
• Sand passing through a screen with clear openings of 3.175mm is known as the coarse
sand. Generally used for masonry work.
• Sand passing through a screen with clear openings of 7.62mm is known as the
gravelly sand. Generally used for concrete work.
Impurities of sand:

• Impurities can be in the form of clay, fine dust or organic impurities.

Bulking of sand:
• The presence of moisture in sand causes increase in volume of sand.
• Finer the sand, the more will be the increase in volume for a given moisture content.
Test for bulking of sand:
• The container is taken and it is filled with the sand to be tested.
 • Height of container is 200mm.
• Then the sand is taken out of the container and care should be taken to see there is no
loss of sand during transaction.
• The container is filled with water.
• The sand is slowly dropped in the container and thoroughly stirred by rod.
• The height of sand measured is 160 mm.
• Then, Bulking of sand= (200-160) = 40 = 1 or

25%.
160 160 4
4.Describe the composition ,strength and properties of cement.
Depending upon chemical composition, thoroughness of burning and fineness of grinding:
The properties are,
• It gives strength to the masonry.
• It is an excellent binding material.
• It is easily workable.
• It offers good resistance to the moisture.
• It possesses a good plasticity.
• It stiffens or hardens early.
Function of cement ingredients:
• This proportion is to be carefully maintained.
• Excess make cement unsound-Expands and Disintegrate.
• Deficiency strength decreases-sets quickly.
5. Explain in detail the manufacture of cement and the test conducted to
determine the quality of cement.
Three operations are involved in the manufacture of cement.
1. Mixing of raw materials.
2. Burning.
3. Grinding.
Mixing of the raw material:
The raw materials are lime stone or chalk and shale or clay may be mixed either in dry
condition or in wet condition.
Dry process:
• The raw materials are reduced in size of about 25mm in crushers.
• A current of dry air is then passed over it.
• These materials are pulverized into fine powder in ball mills, and tube mills.
• All these operations are done separately for each raw material incorrect proportions
and made ready for the food of rotary kiln.
• This finely ground powder is raw mix.
• It should in storage tank.
• The dry process has been modernized and it is widely used at present because of the
following reasons.
 • Competition, power,
quality of the cement, technology.

Wet process:
 • Argillaceous material such as
clay is thoroughly mixed with water in the container known as wash mill.
• This washed clay is stored in basins. Now the cursed limestone from silos and wet
clay from the basins are allowed to fall in a channel in correct proportions.
• This channel loads to grinding mills and forms slurry.
• The grinding is carried out in ball mill or tube mill or both.
• The slurry is led to the correcting basin where it is constantly stirred.
• The corrected slurry is stored in the storage tanks and kept to serve as feed for rotary
kiln.
Burning -wet process:

• Burning is carried out in rotary kiln.

• Rotary kiln is formed is formed of steel tubes of dia 2.5 to 3m.
• Its length varies from 90m to 120 m and its laid at a gradient of 1 in 25 or 1 in 30.
• The kiln is supported at intervals by columns of masonry or concrete.
• Slurry injected from upper end of kiln and hot gases or flames from lower end of kiln.
 • The portion of kiln near the upper end is
known as the dry zone, water of slurry gets
evaporated.
• As slurry gradually descends,Co2 gets
evaporated.
• Small lumps formed are called as nodules.
• Nodules run through zones of rising
temperatures and reach the burning zone,
where temperature is about 1400 deg c to
1500 deg c.
• The calcined product is formed and nodules are converted into hard dark greenish blue
balls known as clinkers
Burning -dry process:

• Coal from coal fields is pulverised in vertical coal mill and is stored in silos.
• It is pumped with required quantity of air through the burners.
• The preheated materials roll down the kiln and gets heated to an extent the Co2 is
driven off.
• The materials then heated to a temperature of 1400 to 1500 deg c.
• The fused product is called as clinkers or raw cement. The size of clinkers varies from
3mm to 20 mm.The temperature at the outlet will be 1000 deg c.
• Rotary kiln of small size is laid down in opposite direction to cool the clinkers.
Grinding :

• Clinkers obtained from kilns are finely ground in ball mills and tube mills.
• During grinding gypsum is added to control the initial setting time of concrete.
• The grinding of clinkers in modern plants is carried out in cement mills which
contains chromium steel balls of various sizes. These balls roll within the mill and
grind the mixture, which is collected in hopper and stored in silos.
• From silos it is fed to the packer machines.
Ball mills:

• These mills are used to carry out grinding out of raw materials of mixture or clinkers.
 • It has a steel cylinder of diameter 200cms to 250
cms.
• Its length is about 180-200 cms.
• The cylinder is placed in a horizontal position and
rotates around a steel shaft.
• On the inside surface of the cylinder the perorated
curved plates are fixed.
• The ends of these plates overlap with each other.
• The cylinder is filled with steel balls of size
varying from 50—120mm.
• The action of the ball mill is very simple. The material to be ground is fed from top.
Tube mills:

• This mill has a long horizontal steel cylinder of diameter 150cms and of length abouts
7mts to 10 mts.
• The cylinder is filled partly with steel balls of size varying from 20mm -25mm.
• The action of tube mill is similar to that of the ball mill.
• But the fine grinding is achieved due to steel balls of smaller size.
• A worm is providing to feed the material to the mill. The pulverized material is
collected at the outlet funnel.
 Field Tests for cement:
Four field tests carried out to ascertain the roughly the quality of cement
• Colour
• Physical properties
• Presence of lumps
• Strength
Colour:
• Should be uniform, grey colour with light greenish shade
Physical properties:
• Cement should feel smooth when touched
• If hand inserted in a bag of cement, it should feel cool.
• Small quantity of cement thrown in bucket of water, It should sink.
• Thin paste of cement with water should feel sticky between fingers.
• If cement has too much of clay, the paste will give an earthy smell.
Presence of lumps:
Cement should be free from hard lumps.
Strength:
• The briquettes with a lean or weak mortar are made. Size of briquette
75mmx25mmx12mm.Proportion of cement to sand 1:6.Briquettes immersed in water
for 3 days. After 3 days the briquettes would not be broken easily.
• A block of cement 25mmx25mm and 200mm long is prepared and immersed for 7
days in water. It is then placed on supports 150 mm apart and is loaded with a weight
of 340 N. The block should not show signs of failure.
• A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of thick glass and it is kept
under water for 24 hours. It should set and not crack.
6. How does cement set? List out the functions of four principle minerals.
 When mixed with water, the molecular structure of the cement powder actually
changes.
 Once all of the components are thoroughly mixed, and a more-or-less homogeneous
mixture is obtained, the wetted components begin to recrystallize.
 But they don't just form the same things that they were before.
 What makes this work is that the components recrystallize as hydrated compounds.
 Each molecule of recrystallized and reformed material now incorporates a specific
number of water molecules into the crystal.
 The water that was added to the mixture doesn't just evaporate or drain away; it
actually becomes an integral part of the solid concrete.
 As the wet mixture sets and hardens, billions of very small crystal blooms form
throughout the mass and bind the whole thing together into a solid block.
 It is due to the physical interconnectedness of these crystal blooms and the other solid
inclusions that concrete is so resistant to crushing, fracturing, stretching, and shearing.
 Once the wet mixture has solidified, it is not affected by water.
 Nor does water have much of an effect on the wet mixture once it has been put in
place.
 A minor excess of water on the outside of the mass, such as occurs with standing
water or when the surface is troweled smooth actually results in the formation of a
smoother hard surface.
 The outside material separates from the larger aggregate particles and contains mostly
recrystallized components and small aggregate particles.
 On solidification, these finer particles produce a smoother finished surface.
 Too much water added to a mixture will prevent proper solidification; there is simply
too much water to be included in the recrystallization process.
 Similarly, water that washes across the surface of the wet mixture carries away the
dissolved components and prevents the mixture from solidifying.
 Mixtures for underwater applications - so-called 'hydraulic cement' - are blends
designed to resist the intrusion of new water.
Four principle minerals.
The cement clinker formed has the following typical composition:

Compound Formula Shorthand % by

form weight1
Tricalcium aluminate Ca3Al2O6 C 3A 10
Tetracalcium Ca4Al2Fe2O10 C4AF 8
aluminoferrite
Belite or dicalcium Ca2SiO5 C 2S 20
silicate
Alite or tricalcium Ca3SiO4 C 3S 55
silicate
Sodium oxide Na2O N )
Potassium oxide K2O K )Up to 2
Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O CSH2 5
Properties of cement compounds
These compounds contribute to the properties of cement in different ways
Tricalcium aluminate, C3A:-
It liberates a lot of heat during the early stages of hydration, but has little strength
contribution. Gypsum slows down the hydration rate of C3A. Cement low in C3A is sulfate
resistant.
Tricalcium silicate, C3S:-
This compound hydrates and hardens rapidly. It is largely responsible for Portland cement’s
initial set and early strength gain.
Dicalcium silicate, C2S:
C2S hydrates and hardens slowly. It is largely responsible for strength gain after one week.
Ferrite, C4AF:
This is a fluxing agent which reduces the melting temperature of the raw materials in the kiln
(from 3,000o F to 2,600o F). It hydrates rapidly, but does not contribute much to strength of
the cement paste.By mixing these compounds appropriately; manufacturers can produce
different types of cement to suit several construction environments.
7. Mention the tests on water. List out the effects of salt water used for
concrete.
 A simple way of determining the suitability of water for mixing is to compare the
setting time of cement and the strength of mortar cubes using the water in question
with the corresponding results obtained using de-ionized or distilled water.
 The initial setting time should not be less than 1 hour and to be within 25% of the
result with distilled water.
 Final setting time shall not exceed 12 hours and also be within 25% with the distilled
water.
 The mean strength should be atleast 90 per cent of that obtained with distilled water.
Those requirements may be compared with BS 3146: 1980, which suggests a tolerance
of 30 min in the initial setting time and recommends a tolerance of 10 per cent for
strength.
 The ASTM C 1602 – 06 requirement for setting time is from 1 hour early to 1 hour
30min later, while strength has to be at least 90 per cent.
 Whether or not staining will occur due to impurities in the curing water cannot be
determined on the basis of chemical analysis and should be checked by a performance
test involving simulated wetting and evaporation.

Effects of sea water for mixing concrete:

• Sea water has a salinity of 3.5% in that 78% is sodium chloride& 15% chloride and
sulphate of magnesium. It contains small quantities of sodium and potassium salts that
react with aggregates.
• Sea water is not used for PCC if the aggregates are alkali reactive.
• It accelerates the early strength of concrete and reduces the 28 days strength of
concrete of about 10 to 15 percent. Loss of strength is gained by redesigning the mix.
• The precaution to be taken, if the sea water is used for preparing RCC are as follows,
• Use low water cement ratio coupled with vibration to give an adequate cover of 7.5
cm.
 • The use of sea water is avoided in pre stressed concrete and sea water can be used for
mixing and curing of PCC under unavoidable condition.
• When appearance of concrete is important, sea water is avoided.
8. Discuss the uses and application of various types of cement in the building
industry.
Types of Cement Composition Purpose
Attains high strength in early days it
Rapid Hardening
Increased Lime content is used in concrete where form work
Cement
are removed at an early stage.
Small percentage of
aluminium sulphate as an Used in works is to be completed in
Quick setting
accelerator and reducing very short period and concreting in
cement
percentage of Gypsum with static and running water
fine grinding
Manufactured by reducing tri- It is used in massive concrete
Low Heat Cement
calcium aluminate construction like gravity dams
It is prepared by maintaining It is used in construction exposed to
the percentage of tricalcium severe sulphate action by water and
Sulphates resisting
aluminate below 6% which soil in places like canals linings,
Cement
increases power against culverts, retaining walls, siphons
sulphates etc.,
It is obtained by grinding the
Blast Furnace Slag clinkers with about 60% slag It can use for works economic
Cement and resembles more or less in considerations is predominant.
properties of Portland cement
It is obtained by melting
mixture of bauxite and lime It is used in works where concrete is
High Alumina and grinding with the clinker subjected to high temperatures, frost,
Cement it is rapid hardening cement and acidic action.
with initial and final setting
time of about 3.5 and 5 hours
 respectively
It is more costly and is used for
It is prepared from raw architectural purposes such as pre-
White Cement
materials free from Iron oxide. cast curtain wall and facing panels,
terrazzo surface etc.,
It is produced by mixing
They are widely used for decorative
Coloured cement mineral pigments with
works in floors
ordinary cement.
It is used in marine structures,
It is prepared by grindin
Pozzolanic sewage works, sewage works and for
pozzolanic clinker with
Cement laying concrete under water such as
Portland cement
bridges, piers, dams etc.,
It is produced by adding This type of cement is specially
indigenous air entraining suited to improve the workability
Air Entraining
agents such as resins, glues, with smaller water cement ratio and
Cement
sodium salts of Sulphates etc to improve frost resistance of
during the grinding of clinker. concrete.
Hydrographic It is prepared by mixing water This cement has high workability
cement repelling chemicals and strength

9. Discuss types of the special mortars.

The kind of binding material for a mortar is selected by keeping in mind several factors such
as expected working conditions, hardening temperature, moisture conditions, etc. According
to the kind of binding material, the mortars are classified into the following five categories:

i. Lime mortar
ii. Surkhi mortar
Iii cement mortar
IV gauged mortar
V .Gypsum mortar
i. Lime mortar:
In this type of mortar, the lime is used as binding material. The lime may be fat lime or
hydraulic lime. The fat lime shrinks to a great extent and hence it requires about 2 to 3 times
its volume of sand. The lime should be slaked before use. This mortar is unsuitable for
water-logged areas or in damp situations. It possesses good cohesiveness with other surfaces
and shrinks very little. It is sufficiently
durable, but it hardens slowly. It is generally used for lightly loaded above-ground parts of
buildings.
ii. Surkhi mortar:
This type of mortar is prepared by using fully surkhi instead of sand or by replacing half of
sand in case of fat lime mortar. The powder of surkhi should be fine enough to pass BIS No.
9 sieve and the residue should not be more than 10% by weight. The surkhi mortar is used
for ordinary masonry work of all kinds in foundation and superstructure. But it cannot be
used for plastering or pointing since surkhi is likely to disintegrate after some time".
iii. Cement mortar:
In this type of mortar, the cement is used as binding material. Depending upon the strength
required and importance of work, the proportion of cement to sand by volume varies from
1:2 to 1:6 or more. It should be noted that surkhi and cinder are not chemically inert
substances and hence they cannot be used as adulterants with matrix as cement. Thus the
sand only can be used to form cement
mortar. The proportion of cement with respect to sand should be determined with due regard
to the specified durability and working conditions. The cement mortar is used where a
mortar of high strength and water-resisting properties is required such as underground
constructions, water saturated soils, etc.
iv. Gauged mortar:
To improve the quality of lime mortar and to achieve early strength, the cement is sometimes
added to it. This process is known as the gauging. It makes lime mortar economical, strong
and dense. The usual proportion of cement to lime by volume is about 1:6 to 1 :8. It is also
known as the composite mortar or lime-cement mortar and it can also be formed by the
combination of cement and clay. This mortar may be used for bedding and for thick brick
walls.
v. Gypsum mortar:
These mortars are prepared from gypsum binding materials such as building gypsum and
anhydrite binding materials.
10.Detail out the properties of sand and function of sand in mortar.
FUNCTION OF SAND.
BULK
It does not increase the strength of mortar. But it acts as adulterant. Hence the bulk volume
of mortar is increased which results in reduction of cost
SETTING
If building material is fat lime, the carbon dioxide is absorbed through the voids of sand and
setting of fat lime occurs effectively.
SHRINKAGE
It prevents excessive shrinkage of the mortar in the course of drying and hence the cracking
of mortar during setting is avoided.
STRENGTH
It helps in the adjustment of strength of mortar by variation of its proportion with cement or
lime. It also increases the resistance of mortar against crushing.
SURFACE AREA
It subdivides the paste of the binding material into a thin film and thus more surface area is
offered for its spreading and adhering.
PROPERTIES OF SAND.
 Sand is primarily composed of finely granulated silica and, depending on its location,
can include various rock, coral, and shell or lava fragments.
 It is lightweight and easily transported by wind and water. Its composition directly
affects its color, resulting in black, white, pink and green coloring.
11. What are the properties of cement concrete? Explain in detail.
The cement concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, pebbles or crushed rock and water,
which when placed in the skeleton of forms and allowed to become hard like a stone.
Properties:
• High compressive strength.
• Free from corrosion and there is no appreciable effect of atmospheric agents on it.
• Hardens with age and the process of hardening continues long time after the concrete
has attained sufficient strength.
• More economical than steel.
• It binds rapidly with steel as it is weak in tension, the steel reinforcements is placed in
cement concrete at suitable places to take up the tensile stresses, which is called as
Reinforced Cement Concrete.
• Under two conditions, it has tendency to shrink:
• a) Initial shrinkage due to loss of water through forms, absorption by surface of
forms, etc.
• b) Shrinkage of cement concrete occurs as it hardens. This tendency of cement
concrete can be minimized by proper curing of concrete.
• It has a tendency to be porous. This is due to the presence of voids which are formed
during and after placing.
• Precaution to avoid this tendency are
i) There should be proper grading and consolidating of the aggregates.
• ii) Minimum water cement ratio should be adopted.
• Capable of resisting abrasion.
• Final strength and quality depends entirely on local conditions and persons handling it.
Materials used in RCC:
• cement
• Aggregate
• Steel
• Water.
Cement:
• Before Portland cement lime was used as cementing material.
• Other varieties are rapid hardening cement and alumina cement.
Aggregate:
• They are inert and chemically inactive.
• These aggregates are bound together by means of cement.
• The material which is passed through BIS test sieve no 9 is termed as fine aggregate.
• The natural river sand is not available economically; finely crushed stone may be used
as a fine aggregate. The material that is retained on BIS test sieve no.480 is coarse
aggregate.
• For thin slabs and walls, the maximum size of coarse aggregate should be limited to
one third the thickness of the concrete section.
• The aggregates to be used for cement concrete work should be hard, durable and
clean.
• Should be free from lumps of clay, organic and vegetable matter, line dust etc.
Steel:
• The steel reinforcement is generally in the form of round bars of mild steel.
• The diameter of bars varies from 5mm-40mm.
• Square, twisted, ribbed for steel are used as steel reinforcement.
• For slabs, the reinforcement may consist of sheets of rolled steel of suitable thickness.
Concrete works while wet concrete mix is required for thin sections of reinforcing
bars.
• The workability of concrete is also affected by the grading, shape, and texture and
maximum size of the coarse aggregates to be used in the mixture. To know the
workability of concrete the slump test is carried out.
12. Explain the procedure for quality assurance testing of cement concrete.
Quality assurance testing of concrete:
Workability of concrete
• Slump test
• Degree of compatibility
• Compacting factor test
• VB test
• Flow table test
• Self-compacting concrete test
- L box test
- V funnel test
When carrying out the slump test:
• Ensure that the base on which the test is to be carried out is flat, level, cleaned free
from vibration and of adequate size to stand the cone next to the slumped concrete for
measurement.
• Check that the cone is not bent or dented and the inside surface is clean.
• Check that a length of 16 mm diameter steel bar is available for tamping.
 • Fill the cone carefully tamping it in three layers. Lift it off vertically.
• Record the result carefully with details of the date, concrete batch etc.

Degree of compatibility:
Principle:
• The fresh concrete is placed carefully in the steel test
container. Compaction must be avoided. When the container
is full to overflowing, the concrete is smoothed flush with
the edge without vibration.
• The concrete is then compacted, e.g. with a poker vibrator
(max. bottle diameter 50 mm).
• After compaction the distance between the concrete surface
and the top of the container is measured at the center of all 4 sides.
• The mean figure (s) measured is used to calculate the degree of compact ability.
• Degree of compact ability: c= h1 / (h1 – s)

Compacting factor test:

 • The sample of concrete is placed in the upper
hopper up to the brim.
• The trap-door is opened so that the concrete falls
into the lower hopper.
• The trap-door of the lower hopper is opened and
the concrete is allowed to fall into the cylinder.
• The excess concrete remaining above the top level
of the cylinder is then cut off with the help of
plane blades.
• The concrete in the cylinder is weighed. This is known as weight of partially
compacted concrete.
• The cylinder is filled with a fresh sample of concrete and
vibrated to obtain full compaction. The concrete in the cylinder is
weighed again. This weight is known as the weight of fully
compacted concrete.

Compacting factor = (Weight of partially compacted

concrete)/(Weight of fully compacted concrete)
VB consist meter test:
• A conventional slump test is performed, placing the slump
cone inside the cylindrical part of the consistometer.
• The glass disc attached to the swivel arm is turned and
placed on the top of the concrete in the pot.
• The electrical vibrator is switched on and a stop-watch is started, simultaneously.
• Vibration is continued till the conical shape of the concrete disappears and the
concrete assumes a cylindrical shape.
• When the concrete fully assumes a cylindrical shape, the stop-watch is switched off
immediately. The time is noted.
• The consistency of the concrete should be expressed in VB-degrees, which is equal to
the time in seconds recorded above.
Flow table test:
 • The flow test is used for high workability concrete (with a slump of more that 175
mm).
• The 700 mm square flow table is hinged to a rigid base, proved with a stop that allows
the far end to be raised by 40 mm. A cone, similar to that used for slump testing but
truncated, is filled with concrete in two layers.
• Each layer is tamped 10 times with a special wooden bar and the concrete of the upper
layer finished off level with the top of the cone. Any excess is cleaned off the outside
of the cone.
• The cone is then raised allowing the concrete to flow out and spread out a little on the
flow table. The table top is then raised until it meets the stop and allowed to drop
freely 15 times.
• This causes the concrete to spread further, in a roughly circular shape.
• The flow diameter is the average of the maximum diameter of the pool of concrete and
the diameter at right angles.
• As well as getting an accurate measurement of the workability of the concrete, the
flow test gives an indication of the cohesion.
• A mix that is prone to segregation will produce a non-circular pool of concrete.
Cement paste may be seen separating from the aggregate.
• If the mix is prone to bleeding, a ring of clear water may form after a few minutes.

13. Write the materials used in R.C.C work. Explain in detail.

Materials used in RCC:
 • cement
• Aggregate
• Steel
• Water.
Cement:
• Before Portland cement lime was used as cementing material.
• Other varieties are rapid hardening cement and alumina cement.
Aggregate:
• They are inert and chemically inactive.
• These aggregates are bound together by means of cement.
• The material which is passed through BIS test sieve no 9 is termed as fine aggregate.
• The natural river sand is not available economically; finely crushed stone may be used
as a fine aggregate.
• The material that is retained on BIS test sieve no.480 is coarse aggregate.
• For thin slabs and walls, the maximum size of coarse aggregate should be limited to
one third the thickness of the concrete section.
• The aggregates to be used for cement concrete work should be hard, durable and
clean.
• Should be free from lumps of clay, organic and vegetable matter, line dust etc.
Steel:
• The steel reinforcement is generally in the form of round bars of mild steel.
• The diameter of bars varies from 5mm-40mm.
• Square, twisted, ribbed for steel are used as steel reinforcement.
• For slabs, the reinforcement may consist of sheets of rolled steel of suitable thickness.
Concrete works while wet concrete mix is required for thin sections of reinforcing
bars.
• The workability of concrete is also affected by the grading, shape, and texture and
maximum size of the coarse aggregates to be used in the mixture. To know the
workability of concrete the slump test is carried out.
Proportioning concrete:
 • Selection of relative proportions of cement, sand, coarse aggregate and water.
• Theory of formation of concrete is voids of coarse aggregate filled with sand, voids of
sand filled with cement and voids of cement filled with water. Thus forms a solid
substance known as concrete.
• The proportioned mixture should have easy workability, maximum density and cost of
material and labour should be minimum.
14. Workability and curing of concrete:
Workability of concrete:
• Workability describes the ease or difficulty with which the concrete is handled,
transported and placed.
• Mixture too wet – coarse aggregates settle at the bottom.
Solution: slightly changing the proportion of fine and coarse aggregates
• Mixture is dry – difficult to handle.
Solution: adding small quantity of cement paste.
• More water causes poor workability and strength.
Stiff concrete mix used in vibrated concrete work
• Wet concrete mix used in thin sections containing reinforced bars.
• Workability affected by water content, water
cement ratio, aggregate cement ratio, grading,
shape, texture and maximum size of coarse
aggregate.
Slump test:

• To determine the uniformity of a mix of nominal

proportion.
• Slump cone is placed on the ground and operator
holds the firmly by standing on the foot pieces.
• Cone is filled ¼th and rammed with the rod of
dia 16mm and length 60 mm.
• Slump cone is filled till the top similarly.
• The cone is raised and removed.
 • Concrete is allowed to subside and height of concrete is measured.
• Slump of concrete is determined by deducting the height of concrete after from 30cm.
Curing of concrete:
• Concrete surface is kept wet for a certain period after placing of concrete to promote
hardening of cement.
Purpose of curing:
1. Protects concrete surface from sun and wind.
2. Water has to be retained until the concrete is fully hardened.
3. Strength increases with age, if cured efficiently.
4. Durability and impermeability of concrete are increased and shrinkage is reduced.
5. Increase in resistance to abrasion.
Period of curing:
• For ordinary Portland cement- 7 to 14 days.
• Rapid hardening cement – curing period is reduced.
Effects of improper curing:
• Chances of ingress of chlorides and atmospheric chemicals are high.
• Compressive and flexural strength are lowered.
• Cracks formed due to plastic shrinkage, drying shrinkage and thermal effects.
• Durability decreases due to higher permeability.
• Frost and weathering resistances are decreased.
• Rate of carbonation increases.
• Surface are coated with sand and dust, and thus leads to lower resistance
15. Explain the following:
(i) Construction of formwork and fabrication.
 Formwork in concrete construction is used as a mould for a structure in which fresh
concrete is poured only to harden subsequently.
 Types of formwork for concrete construction depend on formwork material and type
of structural element.
  Formworks can also be named based on the construction such as slab formwork for
use in slab, beam formwork, column formwork for use in beams and columns
respectively etc.
 The construction of formwork takes time and involves expenditure upto 20 to 25% of
the cost of the structure or even more.
 Design of these temporary structures is made to economic expenditure. The operation
of removing the formwork is known as stripping. Stripped formwork can be reused.
 Reusable forms are known as panel forms and non-usable are called stationary forms.
 Timber is the most common material used for formwork. The disadvantage with
timber formwork is that it will warp, swell and shrink. Application of water
impermeable cost to the surface of wood mitigates these defects.
A good formwork should satisfy the following requirements:
1. It should be strong enough to withstand all types of dead and live loads.
2. It should be rigidly constructed and efficiently propped and braced both horizontally and
vertically, so as to retain its shape.
3. The joints in the formwork should be tight against leakage of cement grout.
4. Construction of formwork should permit removal of various parts in desired sequences
without damage to the concrete.
5. The material of the formwork should be cheap, easily available and should be suitable for
reuse.
6. The formwork should be set accurately to the desired line and levels should have plane
surface.
7. It should be as light as possible.
8. The material of the formwork should not warp or get distorted when exposed to the
elements.
9. It should rest on firm base.
Economy in Formwork:
The following points are to be kept in view to effect economy in the cost of formwork:
1. The plan of the building should imply minimum number of variations in the size of rooms,
floor area etc. so as to permit reuse of the formwork repeatedly.
2. Design should be perfect to use slender sections only in a most economical way.
3. Minimum sawing and cutting of wooden pieces should be made to enable reuse of the
material a number of times. The quantity of surface finish depends on the quality of the
formwork.
Types of Formwork (Shuttering) for Concrete Construction:
Timber Formwork:
Timber for formwork should satisfy the following requirement:
It should be
1. well-seasoned
2. light in weight
3. easily workable with nails without splitting
4. free from loose knots
Timber used for shuttering for exposed concrete work should have smooth and even surface
on all faces which come in contact with concrete.
Plywood Formwork
Resin bonded plywood sheets are attached to timber frames to make up panels of required
sizes. The cost of plywood formwork compares favorably with that of timber shuttering and
it may even prove cheaper in certain cases in view of the following considerations:
1. It is possible to have smooth finish in which case on cost in surface finishing is there.
2. By use of large size panels it is possible to effect saving in the labour cost of fixing and
dismantling.
3. Number of reuses is more as compared with timber shuttering. For estimation purpose,
number of reuses can be taken as 20 to 25.
Steel Formwork
This consists of panels fabricated out of thin steel plates stiffened along the edges by small
steel angles. The panel units can be held together through the use of suitable clamps or bolts
and nuts. The panels can be fabricated in large number in any desired modular shape or size.
Steel forms are largely used in large projects or in situation where large number reuses of the
 shuttering is possible. This type of shuttering is considered most suitable for circular or
curved structures.
Construction of Concrete formwork:
This normally involves the following operations:

1. Propping and centering

2. Shuttering
3. Provision of camber
4. Cleaning and surface treatment

Order and method of removing formwork:

The sequence of orders and method of removal of formwork are as follows:
1. Shuttering forming the vertical faces of walls beams and column sides should be removed
first as they bear no load but only retain the concrete.
2. Shuttering forming soffit of slabs should be removed next.
3. Shuttering forming soffit of beams, girders or other heavily loaded shuttering should be
removed in the end.
Fabrication -
Fabrication the act of making something (a product) from raw materials; "the synthesis and
fabrication of single crystals"; "an improvement in the manufacture of explosives";"manufac
turing is vital to Great Britain"
1. Creating from raw materials -
the act of creating something that is different from the materials that went intoit
2. Formation, shaping - the act of fabricating something in a particular shape
3. Newspeak -
deliberately ambiguous and contradictory language use to mislead and manipulate the publi
c; "thewelfare state brought its own newspeak"
4. Prefabrication -
the manufacture of sections of a building at the factory so they can be easily and rapidlyasse
mbled at the building site.
16. Explain with sketches the construction of formwork.
HIGH WALL FORMWORK:
There are two types of wall formwork. One type is for walls requiring only one face of
formwork, e.g. for basement walls. The other is double faced formwork for free standing
walls in a structure.

Timber Framed Formwork:

The wall formwork frame is constructed using either: Vertical studs and horizontal walers.
Horizontal walers and vertical soldiers with the sheathing (sheeting) fixed at right angles.
WALL TYING SYSTEMS The
function of formwork tying systems is
to connect the two faces of the double
faced forms together and effect the
balance of the forces between them. The
spacing of the ties and the forces they
have to resist is determined by the wall
to be built and the framing system
adopted. When considering ties for wall
forms, selection is made on the basis of:
• tie capacity, • grout loss at the tie
holes, • ease of installation, • final
appearance
17. Sketch and explain the formworks for columns
Columns
 The function of column formwork is to enable the construction of columns that have
the specified surface quality and are acceptably accurate in shape and position with
good alignment to other adjacent columns, walls and building facades.
 Columns are often constructed with the column reinforcement extending well above
the form.
 This is done so it can lap with the reinforcement of the next column or floor to be
constructed above.
 The accuracy requirements for columns vary according to their position in the
building.
 The tolerances, which are the maximum permitted deviations, are normally specified
in the project documentation.
Column Formwork
 Construction to avoid plywood joints, it is normal practice to cut the sheets length
wise in widths to match the column faces.
 Most column forming methods use plywood to form faces.
 The corner junctions of the plywood must be detailed to achieve the maximum
tightening action from the column clamps.
 The corners of the form are usually formed to have a 45 degree arris. Timber angle
fillets are used to form the arris. Care must be taken to align the fillet inside the
column form.

(i)square column
CIRCULAR AND OCTAGONAL COLUMNS:
 Circular column formwork Fabricated steel, usually two piece, and often with a hinge.
Fibre cement pipes which are left in place as permanent formwork.
 Cardboard tube. “One off” formwork, available in a range of diameters, used with
timber strong backs.
 Cut to waste after concrete is poured. Plastic tube. Used in a similar way to
cardboard.
 Octagonal column formwork Timber sheathing tied with standard column clamps.
Corners need to have infill pieces. Alternatively, metal strap can be used without the
need for corner infills. Timber sheathing with alternating column clamps, for larger
columns.
18. Write short notes on (i) Light weight aggregates (ii) Fibre reinforced
concrete.
Light weight concrete:
• Density of light weight concrete is 300 to 1850 kg/m3, whereas normal conventional
concrete is 2200 to 2600 kg/m3.
• Reduction of dead load, increase the progress of building.
• Economy in design.
• Low thermal conductivity, thermal comforts and lower power consumption.
• Adoption of light weight concrete gives an outlet for industrial wastes such as clinker,
fly ash, slag etc.. Which otherwise creates problem for disposal.
• Method for making light weight concrete is inclusion of air,
- By using porous aggregates.
- By introducing gas or air bubble known as aerated concrete.
- By omitting sand, no fines concrete
• Natural light weight aggregates are pumice, diamite, scoria, volcanic cinders, saw
dust, rice husk.
• Light weight aggregates are classified as natural light weight and artificial light weight
aggregates.
Natural aggregates:
• Found in many places but not of uniform quality. So pumice is the only one that is
used.
Pumice:
• Rocks of volcanic region. They are light enough yet strong to be used.
• Lightness is due to escaping of gas from molten lava.
• Light in color or nearly white and has a even texture of interconnected cells.
• It is mined, washed and then used.
• Other light weight aggregates include,
Diatomite:
Hydrated amorphous silica derived from the remains of microscopic aquatic plants
called diatoms. It is also known as kieselguhr.
Scoria:
 Light weight aggregate of volcanic region, usually dark in colour and contains larger
irregularly shaped cells unconnected with each other.
Volcanic cinders:
Loose volcanic product resembling artificial cinder.
Saw dust:
Used as aggregate in flooring, precast products, wall panels for acoustic purposes.
Rice husk:
Used for special purposes.
Brick bats:
• Generally brick bats doesn't comes under light weight category, but when compared to
the weight of normal concrete, brick bat aggregate weight is less.
• Brick bat aggregate are generally made from slightly over burnt bricks, which is hard
absorb less water.
Cinder, clinker and breeze:
• These are used to cover the material partly fused or sintered particles arising from the
combustion of coal.
• Cinder aggregates is used for making building blocks for partition walls, for making
screening over flat roofs and for plastering purposes.
Foamed slag:
• It is formed by rapidly quenching
blast furnace slag with a large
excess of water, granulated slag is
formed.
• If cooling is done with limited
amount of water, it produces a
porous honeycombed structure
resembling pumice.
• Or molten slag is agitated with
limited amount of water; the
 steam and gas produced are entrapped in the mass called as foamed slag.
• The slag must be free from contamination of heavy impurities.
• Free from volatile impurities.
• Free from excess of sulphate.
Bloated clay:
• Certain glass or shales are heated to the point of incipient fusion; they expand what is
termed as bloat to many times their original volume on account of the formation of gas
within the mass at fusion temperature.
• The cellular structure so formed is retained on cooling and used as light weight
aggregate.
Sintered fly ash:
• Fly ash resulting from combustion of powdered coal.
• By heat treatment these small particles combine to form nodules of considerable
strength.
Exfoliated vermiculate:
• Raw vermiculate is a laminar structure when heated with water it expands by
delamination.
• This type of expansion is known as exfoliation.
• Used for insulating purpose, in situ roof and floor screeds used for sound insulation
and heat insulation.
• The prefabricated vermiculite concrete panels can be used for floor panels.
Expanded perlite:
• It is one of the natural volcanic glasses like pumice, when crushed and heated to the
point of incipient fusion at a temperature of about 900 to 1100 deg cel. It expands to
form a light cellular material.
Disadvantages of light weight aggregate concrete:
• Most of the light weight aggregate except bloated clay and sintered fly ash are angular
in shape and rough in texture.
• Has high absorption quality, but it can be water proofed with bitumen and silicon
compounds.
• Being porous reinforced concrete becomes prone to corrosion.
Fibre reinforced concrete:
• Fibre reinforced concrete can be defined as a
composite material consisting of mixtures of
cement, mortar or concrete and discontinuous,
discrete, uniformly dispersed suitable fibres.
• These fibres would act as a crack arrester and
would increase its static and dynamic properties.
Four types of fibres:
• Steel Fibers (SFRC)
• Glass Fibers (GFRC)
• Synthetic Fibers (SFRC)
• Natural Fibers (NFRC)
Steel fibre reinforced concrete – sfrc
:
• It’s a commonly used fibre.
• Improves flexural, impact and
fatigue strength of concrete.
• Applications include
overlays of road, air field pavements and bridge decks.
• Polypropylene and nylon fibres are used to increase the tensile strength.
Glass fibre reinforced concrete:
Glass Fiber Reinforced concrete is a high strength, lightweight concrete product
manufactured using sand, cement, alkali resistant fiber and an acrylic polymer curing agent.
Applications:
• Cladding of buildings
• Pressure pipes
• Doors and door frames
• Decorative grills
• Sun breakers
• Park benches.
Synthetic fibres:
• Synthetic fibres are man-made fibres resulting from research and development in the
petrochemical and textile industries.
• Fibre types that have been tried in cement concrete matrices include: acrylic, aramid,
carbon, nylon etc..
Acrylic:
• Acrylic fibres have been used to replace asbestos fibre in many fibre-reinforced
concrete products.
Aramid:
• Aramid fibres are two and a half times as strong as
glass fibres and five times as strong as steel fibres,
per unit mass.
Carbon:
• Carbon fibre is substantially more expensive than
other fibre types. Commercial use has been limited.
• Carbon fibre made from petroleum and coal pitch is less expensive than the
conventional carbon fibre made from fibrous materials.
• The carbon fibres produced by carbonizing suitable organic materials other than
petroleum-based materials are 20 to 40 times stronger and have a modulus of elasticity
up to 100 times greater than the pitch-based carbon fibre.
• Carbon fibre is available as continuous strands or as individual chopped fibres.
Nylon:
• Nylon is a generic name that identifies a family of polymers.
• Nylon is particularly effective in imparting impact resistance and flexural toughness
and sustaining and increasing the load carrying capacity of concrete following first
crack.
Natural fibres:
• Natural reinforcing materials can be obtained at low cost and low levels of energy
using local manpower and technology.
• Sisal-fibre reinforced concrete has been used for making roof tiles, corrugated
sheets, pipes, silos and tanks.
• Elephant-grass-reinforced mortar has been used for low-cost housing projects.
 • Wood-cellulose fibre reinforced cement has commercial applications in the
manufacture of flat and corrugated sheet and non-pressure pipes.
Unprocessed natural fibres:
• Products made with unprocessed natural fibres such as Coconut coir, sisal, sugarcane
bagasse, bamboo, jute, wood and vegetable fibres have been tested in a number of
countries. Problems with the long-term durability of some of the products.
• To improve the mechanical properties, the minimum fibre content is of the order of
3% by volume.
Processed natural fibres:
• Wood cellulose is the most frequently used natural fibre. It is most commonly
obtained using the Kraft process.
• This process involves cooking wood chips in a solution of sodium hydroxide, sodium
carbonate and sodium sulphide.
• Different grades of wood-cellulose fibre containing more or less of the three main
constituents, cellulose, hemicellulose and ligna can be obtained by bleaching.
• Wood-cellulose fibre has relatively good mechanical properties compared with many
man-made fibres such as polypropylene, polyethylene, polyester and acrylic.
Merits of FRC:
• Lower the permeability of concrete.Reduce bleeding of water.
• It controls plastic shrinkage cracking and drying shrinkage cracking.
• It increases the strength of concrete.
• It reduces the flexural creep.
• It resists structures from aggressive environment, e.g. high temperatures, ingress of
chlorides and electrical fields.
Demerits of frc
• Not as reliable as steel in high stress/ strain concrete members.
• Good in crack prevention, but if a crack does form fiber is not as efficient as
controlling the crack.
19. Explain the merits and demerits of no-fines concrete.
NO FINES CONCRETE
No fines concrete is one type of light weight concrete. As the name indicates, this a concrete
mix without fine aggregate or sand. This type of concrete consists of only water, cement and
coarse aggregate.
IMPORTANT NOTES ON NO FINES CONCRETE

1. Normally coarse aggregates passing 20 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieveis used

for production of this type of concrete.
2. The aggregates to cement ratio of no fines concrete generally vary from 6:1 to 10:1.
3. The water cement ratio is kept within the range of 38 to 0.52. Water cement ratio should
be chosen very carefully considering the cohesiveness of the mixture.
4. Density of no fines concrete with normal aggregate vary from 1600 to 1900 kg/m3.
When light weight aggregates are used density can be as low as 300 kg/m3.
5. The compressive strength of no fines concrete varies between 4 MPa to 14 MPa.
The uses of this type of concrete are as follow:
 Construction of external load bearing wall
 Construction of small retaining wall

 As damp proof material

ADVANTAGES OF NO FINES CONCRETE

1. No fines concrete exhibits less drying shrinkage as compared to ordinary concrete
2. Movement of water due to capillary action is negligible in this type of concrete.
3. Due to its light weight nature it is used in light weight concrete construction work.
4. Thermal insulating characteristic of no fines concrete is better than conventional
concrete. This is why it is used in the construction of external wall.
5. Production of this type of concrete results in saving of material requirement. Due to
absence of fine aggregate or sand, less amount of cement is needed to produce 1 m3 of
no fines concrete.
6. The density of this type of concrete is about 25 to 30% less than the conventional
concrete. Therefore it exerts less pressure on formwork.
7. Segregation property of this type of concrete is very low. Therefore it can be dropped
from considerable height without the danger of segregation.
8. No special equipment is needed for compaction of this concrete. Full compaction can be
achieved by simple rodding operation.
LIMITATIONS OF NO FINES CONCRETE

1. Due to absence of fine aggregate, this type of concrete lacks cohesiveness while in
plastic state. Therefore it requires long time for formwork removal.
2. It is more permeable than conventional concrete. Therefore walls constructed with no
fines concrete needs an extra coat of mortar from durability point.
3. Generally reinforcement is not recommended in this type of concrete. However, if it is
required to used reinforcement, then apply a thin layer of cement paste on the
reinforcement before using it. This will improve the bonding of steel with concrete and
also resistance to corrosion.
4. There exist no standard test method (such as slump or compaction factor) test to measure
the consistency or workability of no fines concrete. Only by proper visual inspection and
trial & error method on can judge its workability.
20. What are the precautions to be taken during the placing of concrete?
1. The formwork or the surface which is to receive the fresh concrete should be properly
cleaned, prepared and well watered.
2. It is desirable to deposit concrete as near as practicable to its final position.
3. The large quantities of concrete should not be deposited at a time. Otherwise the
concrete will start to flow along the formwork and consequently the resulting concrete
will not have uniform composition.
4. The concrete should be dropped vertically from a reasonable height. For vertical laying
of concrete, care should be taken to use stiff mix. Otherwise the bleeding of concrete
through cracks in forms will take place. The term bleeding is used to mean the diffusion
or running of concrete through formwork.
5. The concrete should be deposited in horizontal layers of about 150 mm height. For mass
concrete, the layers may be of 400 mm to 500 mm height. The accumulation of excess
water in upper layers is known as the laitance and it should be prevented by using
shallow layers with stiff mix or by putting dry batches of concrete to absorb the excess
water.
6. As far as possible, the concrete should be placed in single thickness. In case of deep
sections, the concrete should be placed in successive horizontal layers and proper care
should be taken to develop enough bonds between successive layers.
7. The concrete should be thoroughly worked around the reinforcement and tapped in such
a way that no honeycombed surface appears on removal of the formwork. The term
honeycomb is used to mean comb or mass of waxy cells formed by bees in which they
 store their honey. Hence, if this precaution is not taken, the concrete surface so formed
would have a honeycomb like surface.
8. The concrete should be placed on the formwork as soon as possible. But in no case, it
should be placed after 30 minutes of its preparation.
9. During placing, it should be seen that all edges and corners of concrete surface remain
unbroken, sharp and straight in line.
10. The placing of concrete should be carries out uninterrupted between predetermined
construction joints.
21. Explain the concept of pre-stressing along with the types.
 The terms commonly used in prestressed concrete are explained.
 The terms are placed in groups as per usage.
 Forms of Prestressing
 Steel Wires Prestressing wire is a single unit made of steel.
 Strands Two, three or seven wires are wound to form a prestressing strand.
 Tendon: A group of strands or wires are wound to form a prestressing tendon.
 Cable: A group of tendons form a prestressing cable.
 Bars: A tendon can be made up of a single steel bar. The diameter of a bar is much
larger than that of a wire.
Types of Prestressing
Prestressing of concrete can be classified in several ways.
The following classifications are discussed. Source of prestressing force this classification is
based on the method by which the prestressing force is generated. There are four sources of
prestressing force: Mechanical, hydraulic, electrical and chemical.
External or internal prestressing
This classification is based on the location of the prestressing tendon with respect to the
concrete section.
Pre-tensioning or post-tensioning
This is the most important classification and is based on the sequence of casting the concrete
and applying tension to the tendons.
Linear or circular prestressing
This classification is based on the shape of the member prestressed. Full, limited or partial
prestressing Based on the amount of prestressing force, three types of prestressing are
defined.
Uniaxial, biaxial or multi-axial prestressing
As the names suggest, the classification is based on the directions of prestressing a member.
23. Mention the importance of aerated concrete and list out its applications.
• Introducing air or gas into a slurry composed of
Portland cement or lime so that it forms uniformly
cellular structure.
• It’s a mixture of water, cement and finely crushed
sand.
• Ways in which aerated concrete can be formed are,
• By formation of gas by chemical reaction.
• By mixing preformed stable foam with the slurry.
• By using finely powdered metal (usually aluminium powder), react with calcium
hydroxide during hydration process forms cellular structure.
Properties:
• Gained popularity due to thermal insulation property and lower density.
• Aerated concrete is made in the density range from 300 kg/m3 to about 800 kg/m3.
• Lower density grades are used for insulation purpose
• Medium density grades are used for the manufacture of building blocks or load
bearing walls and
• Comparatively higher grades are used in the manufacture of prefabricated structural
member in conjunction with steel reinforcements.
Uses:
 AAC is a highly thermally insulating concrete-based material used for both internal
and external construction.
 Besides AAC's insulating capability, one of its advantages in construction is its quick
and easy installation, because the material can be routed, sanded, or cut to size on site
using standard carbon steel power tools.
 AAC is well suited for urban areas with high rise buildings and those with high
temperature variations.
 Due to its lower density, high rise buildings constructed using AAC require less steel
and concrete for structural members.
  The requirement of mortar for laying of AAC blocks is reduced due to the lower
number of joints.
 Similarly, the material required for rendering is also lower due to the dimensional
accuracy of AAC.
 The increased thermal efficiency of AAC makes it suitable for use in areas with
extreme temperatures, as it eliminates the need for separate materials for construction
and insulation, leading to faster construction and cost savings.
 Even though regular cement mortar can be used, most of the buildings erected with
AAC materials use thin bed mortar in thicknesses around ⅛ inch, depending on the
national building codes.
 AAC materials can be coated with stucco or plaster compound to guard against the
elements, or covered with siding materials such as brick or vinyl.
24. Explain the characteristics of an ideal paint.
Paints are coatings of fluid materials and they are applied over the surface of timbers and
metals.
Why painting required?
 It protects the surface from weathering effects.
 Prevents decay of wood.
 Good appearance to the surface.
 Smooth surface and hence easy to clean.
Characteristics of ideal paint:
• Should possess good spreading power.
• Paint should be fairly cheap and economical.
• It should be freely and easily applied to the surface
• Dries in reasonable time.
• Colour is maintained for a long time.
• It should form hard and durable surface.
• It should not affect the health of workers.
• Surface should not show any cracks.
• The paint should form a thin layer when applied.
Defects in paints:
• Blistering: Caused by water vapour which is trapped behind painted surface. It is due
to imperfect seasoning of timber or excess oil in final coat.
• Bloom: Formation of dull patches on finished polished surface. It is due to defect in
paint or bad ventilation.
• Fading: Gradual loss of colour is known as fading and it is due to effect of sunlight on
pigments of paint.
• Flaking: Small portion of the painted surface is sometimes seen loose known as
flaking and is due to poor adhesion.
• Flashing: Glossy patches are seen on the painted surface known as flashing and are
due to poor workmanship, cheap paint or weather actions.
• Grinning: The final coat of paint has no sufficient opacity and the background is
clearly seen known as grinning.
• Running: The paint runs back and leaves small areas of surface uncovered. This
defect occurs when surface to be painted is too smooth.
• Sagging: When a vertical or inclined surface is too thickly painted sagging occurs.
• Saponification: The formation of soap patches on the painted surface is termed as
saponification and is due to chemical action of alkalies.
• Wrinkling: When a horizontal surface is painted too thick wrinkling occurs.
25. Write the guidelines for the use of plastic emulsion paint in detail.
Emulsion paint:
• It contains binding materials such as polyvinyl acetate, synthetic resins, etc..
• Paint is easy to apply and dries quickly in about 1 ½ to 2 hrs.
• Colour is retained for a long time and can be cleaned by washing.
• Application can be by brush or spray gun.
• Generally two coats are applied for long life.
Plastic emulsion:
• An emulsion is a liquid having fine suspended particles of a substance.
 • In plastic emulsion, the emulsion is composed of vinyl acetate and acrylate which are
held in water.
Guide lines for the use of plastic emulsion:
1. Application: widely used for interior jobs.
2. Base surface: Quality depends on the paint quality and base surface. The surface to be
painted is cleaned and rubbed with sand paper and leveling putty is applied.
3. Brushes: Brushes should be clean or rollers can be used.
4. Colour of paint: For light colour paints, a white emulsion with certain other colours
known as tinters may be added to the paints.
5. Diluting the paint: Half a litre extra water can be added during first coat and quarter
litre extra for the second coat.
6. Metallic surface: The paints are water based and not suitable for metallic surface.
7. Moisture resistant: Paint allow moisture to evaporate through minute pores.
8. Nature of surface: Plastic binders need not require a rough surface for adhesion and
they can stick to smooth surface.
9. Thickness of coat: It should neither be too thin nor be too thick.
10. Washing: Wash the painted surface with wet cloth at least once in a month.
Bituminous paint:
• Paint is prepared by dissolving asphalt or mineral pitches or vegetable bitumen in any
type of oil.
• The paint presents a black appearance and it is used for painting ironwork under
water.
Luminous paint:
• It contains calcium sulphide with varnish.
• The surface on which luminous paint is applied shines like radium dials of watches
after the source of light has been cut off.
• The paint should be applied on surface which is free from corrosion or any other lead
paint.
26. Detail about different surface finishing used in general.
Rough-Floated Finish
 Rough concrete provides good traction, so it is particularly suited for pool decks and
other areas frequently exposed to water. It is also more durable than smooth concrete.
 Work the concrete with a wooden hand float; if the surface is
very large, use a darby or bull float. Move the float in various
patterns until the desired effect is achieved. Smooth Finish A
smooth finish is practical, easy to clean and ideal for making
decorative inscriptions and impressions. Use a steel trowel,
moving it in sweeping arcs; overlap the arcs to make sure the
entire slab is smooth. For very smooth surfaces, additional
troweling is necessary. On the second troweling, hold the
leading edge up slightly and press down a bit harder. Repeat
the process used in the first troweling. The third troweling
should produce an almost glossy finish. Hold the leading edge
up further, press down harder, and repeat the troweling
process.
Broomed Finishes:
Brooming can achieve a wide range of
effects, depending on how soon you
apply to broom, whether the bristles are
soft or hard, and whether you sue it wet
or dry. Simply pull the boom across the
concrete while it is still soft. Be sure to
rinse the bristles frequently to keep the
tips clean.
A damp, stiff bristled broom produces a course texture, which is ideal for slopes and heavy
traffic areas. Medium to fine textures are created with a dry, soft-bristled broom. Always
pull the broom toward you in parallel, slightly overlapping strokes; never push it back and
forth. Sidewalks and driveways should be broomed at right angles to the direction of traffic.
Use the broom to create curves, waves, even herringbone patterns.
Grooved and Stamped Finishes
Grooved and stamped finishes are produced by pressing masonry stamping tools and other
objects into slightly stiff concrete. Stamping tools available at most large rental centers can
be used to imprint simulated paving brick, stone, tile and other patterns. Small coarse
aggregate such as pea gravel should be placed in the concrete prior to the stamping. After the
surface has been floated and troweled, simply step on the pad to stamp the design to a depth
of about 1" (25mm). A piece of bent pipe works particularly well for making deep, clean
grooves and a jointer can be used to groove the concrete to look like flagstone. Scoring must
be done when the concrete has partially set. For a unique finish, create your own homemade
stamp using typical household items such as cookie cutters.
Rubbed and Hammered Aggregate Finishes
A sandy effect can be produced by applying a thin layer of onto
a concrete surface that has partially set. Shake the sand over the
entire surface, and then rub it in using a piece of clean burlap.
Medium-sized aggregate (including pebbles, small gravel, and
seashell fragments) can be hammered into fresh concrete. Use a
screed to evenly distribute the force of each blow.
Exposed-Stone and Coarse Aggregate Finishes
Stones of various shapes and sizes can be individually hand-set or sown like seeds into a
surface of slightly stiff concrete. Coarse aggregate, such as large gravel, may be applied in
the same way. Be sure to use clean, damp stones; after the application, press them into the
mix (or slightly under the surface) with a heavy screed. Next, use a stiff bristled broom to
remove any excess mortar. Finally, clean the surface with a fine spray of water until there is
not noticeable cement fill left on the aggregate. Larger cobblestone and rive stone can also
be set in the surface of concrete slabs and step treads. This technique is very similar to
settling pavers in a mortar bed. The fresh concrete must not be allowed to set up too stiffly
before placing the stone. Press the stones into the concrete so that more than half of each one
is embedded. Cover the stones with a piece of wood to protect them from being damaged if
you find it necessary to hammer them into place. Brush between stones with a small hand
broom for clean, even joints.
 27. Write the composition of cement based paints and mention the precautions
to be taken to avoid defects.
Cement paints are covered under Powder Paints which are used for exterior cemented walls,
all types of masonry surfaces like Bungalows, Multistoried buildings, Bridges, Dams,
Houses, Buildings of General Public, etc. and can also be used for Interior as well as exterior
masonry cemented surfaces. A wide range of colours and shades in cement paints have been
developed and manufactured to meet various choices, moods, service conditions, and
methods of application, performance and economic requirements. Cement paints are widely
used by general public and Government Departments, and establishments. Cement paints
give following excellent properties to any masonry surface
 Cement paint gives very good protection to all kinds of masonry surfaces from Ultraviolet

rays present in sunrays.

 It gives very good protection from severe climatic conditions like rain, heat, water,

humidity, salt atmosphere near sea-shores, to all types of cemented walls, surfaces.
 It prevents growth of fungus and bacteria on masonry surfaces.

 It gives very good colour and pleasing appearance to all types of masonry surfaces.

 Cements paint hides out various surface irregularities, hair lining, and roughness etc.

thereby giving smooth and pleasing appearance to all cemented masonry surfaces where it is
applied. Cement paints normally give smooth and matt finish. The machines and
equipment’s for the manufacture of cement paints are indigenously available and are not
very expensive also. The process and technology being simple, this item is suitable for
development in rural and backward areas. Cement paint produces a smooth, matt finish, is
strongly water repellent and weather proof. It is hygienic and an excellent light reflector,
requires minimum curing with water, without peelings, flaking or rubbing offs.
Defects in paints:
 Blistering: Caused by water vapour which is trapped behind painted surface. It is due to

imperfect seasoning of timber or excess oil in final coat.

 Bloom: Formation of dull patches on finished polished surface. It is due to defect in paint

or bad ventilation.
 Fading: Gradual loss of colour is known as fading and it is due to effect of sunlight on

pigments of paint.
 Flaking: Small portion of the painted surface is sometimes seen loose known as flaking and

is due to poor adhesion.

 Flashing: Glossy patches are seen on the painted surface known as flashing and are due to
poor workmanship, cheap paint or weather actions.
 Grinning: The final coat of paint has no sufficient opacity and the background is clearly
seen known as grinning.
 Running: The paint runs back and leaves small areas of surface uncovered. This defect
occurs when surface to be painted is too smooth.
 Sagging: When a vertical or inclined surface is too thickly painted sagging occurs.
 Saponification: The formation of soap patches on the painted surface is termed as
saponification and is due to chemical action of alkalies.
 Wrinkling: When a horizontal surface is painted too thick wrinkling occurs.
28. Explain the manufacturing process and properties of glass.
The manufacture of glass may be broadly divided into five stages:
1. Collection of raw materials.
2. Preparation of batch
3. Melting in furnace
4. Fabrication
5. Annealing
1. Collection of raw materials:
• Soda lime glass- chalk, soda ash and clean sand
• Potash lime glass- chalk, potassium carbonate and clean sand
• Potash lead glass- litharge or lead sesquioxide, potassium carbonate and pure sand
• Common glass – chalk, salt cake, coke, ordinary sand, etc.
• In addition to raw materials, the cullet and decolorizes are also added.
The cullet indicates waste glass or pieces of broken glass. They increases the
Fusibility of glass and prevent loss of alkali. They also reduce the cost.
2. Preparation of batch:
• The raw materials, cullet and decolouriser are finely powdered in grinding Machines.
• These materials are accurately weighed in correct proportions before they are mixed
together.
• The mixing is carried out in mixing machines. The uniform mixture is known as batch
or frit.
3. Melting in furnace:
• The batch is melted either in pot furnace or in tank furnace.
• The heating is continued until the evolution of carbon dioxide, oxygen, sulphur
dioxide and other gases stops.
Pot furnace:
• A pot is a vessel made of fire clay.
• Pots are placed in specially prepared holes
in the furnace.
• The charging and collecting doors are kept
projecting outside so that raw materials may
be added and molten glass can be taken out
easily.
• The pots are filled with raw materials.
• The furnace is heated by means of producer
gas.
• When the mass melt down, it is removed from the pot.
• The melting of glass by pot furnace is an intermittent process.
• It is used to melt small quantities of glass at a time or to prepare special types of glass.
Tank furnace:
• It is constructed with reinforced masonry.
• The roof is given special shape to deflect the flames of heated gas.
• The ports are provided for the entry of preheated producer gas.
• The doors are provided for charging and for taking out the molten glass.
• A bridge separates the tank into two unequal compartments.
• The batch is heated in large compartment and it contains
somewhat impure glass.
• It flows through opening of bridge into small compartment.
• The gall or floating impurities are collected at the top of large
compartment.
• The refractory lining is provided to the interior surface of tank.
Process:
 • The tank is filled with raw materials.
• The furnace is heated by allowing producer gas
through ports.
• The charging of raw materials and taking out of
molten mass are simultaneous.
• This is a continuous process and it is adopted to melt
large quantities of glass at a time.
Fabrication:
• The molten glass is given suitable shape. It can either be done by hand or by machine.
• The hand fabrication adopted for small scale production and machine fabrication is
adopted for lar scale production .
Following are the different ways of fabrication :
(i) Blowing (iii)Drawing (v)Rolling
(ii) Casting (iv) Pressing (vi) Spinning.
Blowing:
 A blow pipe of dia 12mm and length 1.80 m is used.
 One end of the blow pipe is dipped in the molten mass of glass of 50 n weights.
 The lump of glass will lengthen to some extent by its own weight.
 The operator then blows vigorously from other end or air compressor is used.
 The blowing causes the molten mass to assume the shape of a cylinder.
 It is then heated for few seconds and is blown again.
 The heating and blowing continues till the desired size is obtained. It is then placed on
iron plate and disconnected.
CASTING :
• The molten glass is poured in moulds and it is allowed to cool down slowly.
• The large pieces of glass of simple design can be prepared by this method .
• It is also adopted to prepare mirrors, lenses, etc.
DRAWING:
• This process consists in simply pulling the molten glass either by hand or by
Mechanical equipment.
• An iron bar is dipped sideways in the molten mass of glass .
 • It is lifted up horizontally and in doing so, it catches up a sheet of molten glass.
• This sheet is then allowed to over a large rotating roller .
• The roller helps the molten glass to spread in the form of a thin sheet
PRESSING
 :In this process, the molten glass is pressed into moulds.
• The pressure may either be applied by hand or by mechanical means.
• This process is adopted for ornamental articles ,hollow glass article, etc.
• ROLLING :
• There are two methods of rolling .
• In one method, the mass of glass is passed between heavy iron rollers and flat glass
plate uniform thickness is obtained.
• In another method, the molten mass of glass is poured on a flat iron casting table and it
is then turned flat with the aid of a heavy iron roller.
• SPINNING:
• In this process, the molten glass is spun at high speed by a machine to form very fine
glass fibres.
• This glass has tensile strength equal to that of mild steel.
29. Write the special varieties of glass in detail.
• As present, it is possible to alter the chemical, electrical, mechanical and optical
properties of glass by suitably changing the basic composition of the glass.
• As a matter of fact, the glass has emerged as a versatile engineering material
which can be tailor-made to meet with the requirements of different industries
in the most effective and economic way.
• The brief descriptions of some of the following important special varieties of glass are
given:
(1)Alkali-barium silicate glass
(2) Alumino silicate glass
(3)Bullet-proof glass
(4) Fibre glass
 (5) Float glass or Plate glass
(6) Foam glass
(7) Glass blocks
(8) Glass ceramics
Other varieties
• Heat-excluding glass
• Lead crystal glass
• Obscured glass or Patterned
• Optical glass glass .
• Perforated glass
• Photo chromic glass
• Pyrax glass or borosilicate glass
• Safety glass
• Sealing glass
• Shielding glass
• Silica glass
• Soluble glass
• Structural glass
• Technical glass
• Ultra-violet ray glass
• Wired glass.
(1) ALKALI-BARIUM SILICATE GLASS:
• Without this type of glass watching TV would be very dangerous.
• A television produces X-rays that must be absorbed; otherwise they could in the long
run cause health problems. The X-rays are absorbed by glass with minimum amounts
of heavy oxides (lead, barium or strontium).
• Lead glass is commonly used for the funnel and neck of the TV tube, while glass
containing barium is used for the screen.
(2) ALUMINO SILICATE GLASS:
 • This type of glass contains 20% aluminium oxide (alumina - A1203) often including
calcium oxide, magnesium oxide and boric oxide in relatively small amount, but with
only very small amount of soda or potash.
• It is able to withstand high temperatures and thermal shocks and is typically
used in combustion tubes, gauge glasses for high-pressure steam boilers, and in
halogen-tungsten lamps capable of operating at temperature as high as 750·C.
(3) BULLET-PROOF GLASS:
• This glass is made of several layers of plate glass and alternate layers consist of vinyl-
resin plastic.
• The outer layers of plate glass are made thinner than the inner layers. The special care
is to be taken for heating and cooling of layers during manufacture.
• The thickness of this type of glass may vary from 15 mm to 75 mm or more. It will not
allow bullet to pierce through it.
(4) FIBRE GLASS:
• The fibre glass is composed of minute glass rods and each glass rod resembles the
parent material in all respects.
• It is soft to the touch and it is flexible in nature.
• It does not absorb water and it is proof against fire, vermins, water and acids. It can be
prepared either in the form of continuous strands just like silk or in the staple form just
like wool.
• For making this type of glass, the molten glass is spun at a very high speed
to produce continuous fine glass fibres.
• This is a special type of glass and it is used for thermal insulations, sheets, fibre glass
reinforced plastics, etc. In recent years, great progress has been made in making
optical fibres which can guide light and thus transmit images round corners.
• These fibres are used in endoscopes for examination of internal human organs,
changeable traffic message signs now on motorways for speed restriction warnings
and communications technology without which telephones and the internet would not
be possible.
• Glass fibre has many uses from roof insulation to medical equipment and its
composition varies depending on its application.
5) FLOAT GLASS OR PLATE GLASS:
• The molten glass coming out of the furnace is allowed to float on the molten tin.
• The glass thus formed is known as the float glass and it is then further annealed to
remove all the stresses.
• It is widely used for residential buildings, commercial complexes, furniture articles,
etc.
• It is superior to ordinary sheet glass and grants the following advantages:
(i) It consumes 30% to 40% less energy and is thus environment friendly.
(ii) It is aesthetic in appearance and its use has opened unlimited possibilities
of innovation in architectural design.
(iii) It is available in larger sizes and various thicknesses.
(iv) It is cost-effective as compared to the corresponding cost of brick wall,
finishing material, paint, maintenance, etc.
(v) It is ideally suitable for solar applications due to high light transmission
and it results in higher efficiency
(vi) It is tougher and more scratch-resistant.
(vii) It makes the windows that transmit more natural light and the mirrors
that give true images.
(viii) It possesses high optical clarity and superior safety properties.
(ix) There is no refraction defect due to uniform thickness and superior
optical clarity and thus there is less eye strain.
• Some manufacturers produce float glass with a special thin coating on one side
which allows the sun's energy to pass through in one direction while reducing the
thermal transfer the other way. It is known as energy efficient glass.
• The principle behind this is the difference in thermal wavelength of energy transmitted
from the sun and that transmitted from the heat within a room.
• Some manufacturers produce float glass with a special thin photo catalytic coating on
one side.
• This coating uses the ultraviolet rays from the sun to steadily break
down any organic dirt on the surface using the photo catalytic effect and thus loosen
the dirt from the glass.
• This type of float glass is known as self-cleaning glass Self-cleaning glass also has
hydrophilic properties which means that when ram
runs down the pane of glass, it will wash away the dirt previously loosened.
 • Both, the photo catalytic and hydrophilic effects allow the glass to stay cleaner for a
longer period than untreated glass.
• Small particles of dirt will loosen and (providing there is rain) be washed off
fairly quickly, however, bird droppings and other large bits of dirt, will take
longer to be cleaned off.
• Self-cleaning glass may, from time to time, need additional cleaning and great care
needs to be taken with such cleaning to avoid damaging the surface coating.
• Abrasive cleaning is not permitted.
• If additional cleaning is carried out, the self-cleaning properties may take a period of
time to become active again.
(6) FOAM GLASS:
• The foam glass is prepared in the form of rectangular blocks. The finely ground glass
and carbon are thoroughly mixed and the mixture is then
melted in a furnace.
• At the time of melting, the mixture expands and assumes the form of black foam.
• The resulting glass material contains more than 350 million inert air cells per m3.
• The foam glass floats in water and it can be cut like wood.
• It is fire-proof, rigid and an excellent heat insulator.
• It can be used as a substitute for cork for use in air-conditioning and refrigeration
industries.
7) GLASS BLOCKS:
• These are partially evacuated and completely sealed hollow units which are formed by
fusing together two-halves of pressed glass.
• The edges are coated with a grit bearing plastic material so that permanent and
effective bond with the mortar is ensured.
• The glass blocks are available in square sizes with dimensions as 150 mm,
200 mm and 300 mm with the approximate thickness of 100 mm.
• One or both the faces of the blocks are suitably treated to obscure the glass and to
diffuse light.
• These blocks possess high insulating value and they are set in cement mortar.
• The glass blocks possess the following advantages:
 • (i) They are easy to clean and hence they can be well maintained.
(ii) They are excellent in light transmission.
• (iii) They provide very good insulation against cold, heat and noise.
• The glass blocks are not intended to carry superimposed loads. But they possess
adequate strength to carry their own weight up to a maximum height of 6 m .
they are also able to resist the effect of lateral wind pressure for individual
panels not exceeding 11 m2 in area .
(8) Glass ceramics :
• Some of the glass ceramics, formed typically from lithium alumino silicate glass, are
extremely resistant to thermal shock and have found several applications where this
property is important, including cooker hobs, cooking ware ,windows for gas or coal
fires ,mirror substrates for astronomical telescopes and missile nose cones .
• An essential feature of glass is that it does not contain crystals .
• However ,by deliberately stimulating crystal growth in glass it is possible to produce a
type of glass with a controlled amount of crystallization that can combine many of the
best features of ceramics and glass
(9) HEAT-EXCLUDING GLASS :
• This glass allows light to pass through it, but it eliminates heat .
• It is used for windows of coaches of higher class in railways, in window panels of
important buildings, etc .
(10) LEAD CRYSTAL GLASS:
• It is made from potassium carbonate, lead oxide and sand .
• Due to high refractive index, lead crystal glass sparkles .
• It is used for making expensive glass ware .
• The surface of lead glass objects is often cut into decorative patterns to reflect light.
(11) OBSCURED GLASS OR PATTERNED GLASS :
• This glass is used at places where light is to be transmitted but vision is to be
obscured .
• It has one surface either ground or made opaque by melting powdered glass upon the
surface .
• It can also be prepared by the abrading or rubbing action of the sand blast .
• Thus this type of glass will be useful for public toilets, office doors, partitions, etc .
 • The types of obscured glass include figured glass, ground glass, chipped glass and
corrugated glass.
(12)OPTICAL GLASS :
• Optical glass will be found in scientific instruments, microscopes, and fighter aircraft
and most commonly in spectacles .
• The most important properties are the refractive index and the dispersion .
• The index is a measure of how much the glass bends light .
• The dispersion is a measure of the way the glass splits white light into the colours of
the rainbow
30. Give reasons that turpentine should be taken in minimum quantity for
exterior works.
Turpentine is a yellowish fluid obtained from the sap of pine and coniferous trees. The oily
fluid is also referred to as turpentine oil or turps. It primarily consists of oil and a type of
resin known as rosin. Turpentine oil is obtained when the rosin is distilled with steam. It
works well when used as a solvent in paints and varnishes. It also has medicinal value and is
widely used in cosmetology. Advantages of turpentine usage are given below.

1. Increases Efficacy of Paints and Varnish

Turps is a useful solvent for oil paints. The paints have a thick consistency and cannot be
used in this form. Turps is used to thin the paint before application. Due to its high
evaporation rate, it is one of the most effective solvents for use in oil paints. When mixed
with the paint, it facilitates faster drying of paint. This makes the paint easier to use and
enables more effective application.

2. Excellent Cleaning Agent

Turpentine is an excellent cleaner for paint brushes. If you’ve wondered how to clean your
brushes effectively, this oil-based solvent will do the job for you. Most cleaning spirits can
only dissolve fresh paint. However, turps goes a step further as it is able to clear slightly
hardened paint from brushes. You must first clean off as much of the paint as you can from
the brushes with rags or paper towels. Then dip the brushes into turpentine and swirl a few
times for a thorough clean. Wash with soap and water and allow to dry well before storage.
Turps is also used together with alcohol to clean and restore antique paintings.

3. Useful as a Stain Remover

Turpentine oil is one of the most effective products for stain removal. Ceramic bathtubs,
sinks, toilets and fixtures in the home typically develop stains with usage. Mix turpentine
and table salt in equal parts to make a highly effective cleaning aid. Apply small amounts
onto the strained areas and allow about 20 minutes for it to work. You may want to scrub
with a brush for increased efficacy then rinse off with water. Re-apply if need be. The
turpentine based stain remover will clear the yellowish areas and other stubborn stains.

4. Healthier Choice of a Solvent

Turps isn’t as toxic as petroleum based solvents. This makes it a more comfortable solvent to
use, especially if you suffer allergic reactions. If you frequently undertake painting work,
this is an important consideration. Your choice of solvent can help make a safer work
environment.

5. Works Well as a Furniture Polish

When mixed with beeswax, lavender and soap flakes, turpentine oil makes a highly effective
furniture polish. The turpentine helps to sustain the furniture in good condition for longer. It
also improves the appearance of furniture due to the luster it gives. When used as part of a
regular maintenance program, this polish can add to the longevity of your furniture.

6. Eco-Friendly
Many solvents are available on the market for various household purposes. However, some
of them contain petroleum distillates as part of the ingredients. Such compounds add to
environmental pollution and degradation. Fortunately, turpentine is free of such ingredients.

31. Explain in detail types of flooring materials used and mention the merits
and demerits of the same.
MUD FLOORING
Mud has been the easiest form of material available
for building construction. It has been adopted for
various elements in the house in different forms.
Floorings in mud have mostly been adopted in village
housing as besides being economical, mud is readily
available and the flooring is easy to construct and
maintain.
BRICK FLOORING
Bricks have been the mainstay of building construction in
India since time of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. It has
been successfully used for foundations, walls, roof, floors
etc. Brick flooring is advantageous in areas where bricks
are available locally. Such floorings are easy to construct
with the help of local mason and are also economical.
STONE FLOORING
Stone are available in plenty across the entire stretch of
the country. Many of these are suitable for providing
floors in residential construction. Stones suited for the
purpose should be strong and able to resist abrasion and
impact besides giving a pleasing appearance. Some of
the stones which are used for floor construction are
given below.
 Kota stone
 Granite

 Sand stone

CEMENT CONCRETE FLOORING

Cement concrete flooring is one of the most
common types of flooring provided in
houses. This type of flooring is quite durable,
easy to construct and maintain besides being
economical as compared to tile, marble and
other such type of floorings
TERRAZZO FLOORING OR MOSAIC
FLOORING
Terrazzo flooring is yet another type of
flooring that has been commonly used in
India. As this type of flooring gives a
pleasing look, it has been extensively provided in living rooms, bed rooms etc.
MARBLE FLOORING
Marble flooring has traditionally been provided in religious places, palaces, havelis etc, as it
enhances the look of the structure. Lately such flooring has been used extensively in
residential buildings also. Marble floorings are costly and can be used preferable for living
rooms and bed rooms.
TILE FLOORING
Flooring tiles in India have over the years
gained popularity over the cement and concrete
flooring. Tiles are available in different
patterns, designs and utility options. Usually
they are costlier than the cement concrete
flooring and its cost depends upon the type of
tile being used. Various types of flooring tiles
are as follows.
 Chequered tile
 Glazed tile
 Vitrified tile
 PVC tiles
WOODEN FLOORING
Wooden flooring is most commonly used in hilly regions of the country where the
temperature are quite low. At present they are also being provided in floors of high end
housing to give a good appearance.
BAMBOO FLOORING
Bamboo flooring is very commonly used in areas where bamboo is available locally.
However such floorings have recently become quite popular due to its aesthetics, being
uniquely attractive, strong and resilient, dimensionally stable, moisture and stain resistant
and being environmentally friendly. It is also said to have better properties than hard wood
LINOLEUM FLOORING
Linoleum flooring is usually provided on a floor base which is already smooth and plain. It
is suitable for interior locations in a building. Linoleum is a combustible material and should
not be used in areas prone to fire etc. It should also not be used in areas which are likely to
become damp over a period of time.