PORTLAND CEMENT,

MIXING
WATER, AND
ADMIXTURES
• Portland cement concrete is the most widely used manufactured
construction material in the world.
• The importance of concrete in our daily lives cannot be overstated.
• It is used in structures such as buildings, bridges, tunnels, dams,
factories, pavements, and playgrounds. Portland cement concrete
consists of Portland cement, aggregates, water, air voids, and, in many
cases, admixtures
Portland Cement Production
• Production of portland cement starts with two basic raw ingredients:
a calcareous material and an argillaceous material. The calcareous
material is a calcium oxide, such as limestone, chalk, or oyster shells.
• The argillaceous material is a combination of silica and alumina that
can be obtained from clay, shale, and blast furnace slag.
• These materials are crushed and then stored in silos. The raw
materials, in the desired proportions, are passed through a grinding
mill, using either a wet or dry process. The ground material is stored
until it can be sent to the kiln.
 Chemical Composition of Portland Cement
The raw materials used to manufacture portland cement are lime, silica,
alumina, and iron oxide These raw materials interact in the kiln, forming
complex chemical compounds. Calcination in the kiln restructures the
molecular composition, producing four main compounds, as shown in
Table

C3S and C2S, when

hydrated, provide the
desired characteristics
of the concrete.
Fineness of Portland Cement
• Fineness of cement particles is an important property that must be
carefully controlled. Since hydration starts at the surface of cement
particles, the finer the cement particles, the larger the surface area and
the faster the hydration.
• Therefore, finer material results in faster strength development and a
greater initial heat of hydration.
• The maximum size of the cement particles is 0.09 mm; 85% to 95% of the
particles are smaller than 0.045 mm, and the average diameter is 0.01
mm. A kilogram of Portland cement has approximately 7 trillion particles
with a total surface area of about 300 to 400 m2.
Hydration of Portland Cement
• Hydration is the chemical reaction between the cement particles and
water.
• The features of this reaction are the change in matter, the change in
energy level, and the rate of reaction.
• The hydration process occurs through two mechanisms: through-
solution and topochemical.
• The through-solution process involves the following steps (Mehta and
Monteiro, 2013):
1. dissolution of anhydrous compounds into constituents
2. formation of hydrates in solution
3. precipitation of hydrates from the supersaturated solution
• The through-solution mechanism dominates the early stages of
hydration.
• Topochemical hydration is a solid-state chemical reaction occurring at
the surface of the cement particles.
Properties of Hydrated Cement
• Setting
Setting refers to the stiffening of the cement paste or the change from a
plastic state to a solid state. Although with setting comes some
strength, it should be distinguished from hardening, which refers to the
strength gain in a set cement paste.
Setting is usually described by two levels: initial set and final set.
The definitions of the initial and final sets are arbitrary, based on
measurements by either the Vicat apparatus (ASTM C191) or the
Gilmore needles (ASTM C266).
Properties of Hydrated Cement
• Soundness
Soundness of the cement paste refers to its ability to retain its volume
after setting. Expansion after setting, caused by delayed or slow
hydration or other reactions, could result if the cement is unsound.

• Compressive strength of mortar

Compressive strength of mortar is measured by preparing 50-mm cubes
and subjecting them to compression according to ASTM C109. The
mortar is prepared with cement, water, and standard sand (ASTM C778).
Water–Cement ratio
• In 1918, Abrams found that the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of
cement, water–cement ratio, influences all the desirable qualities of
concrete.
• The amount of water added to concrete must be sufficient for hydration,
water absorbed by the aggregate, water lost through evaporation and
absorption into the forms, and additional water needed for the workability
of the plastic concrete.
• Hydration is the chemical reaction between cement and water.
• There are two components to hydration: chemical and physical. Chemical
bonding requires approximately 0.22 to 0.25 kg of water per 1 kg of cement.
 Mixing Water
• Any potable water is suitable for making concrete. However, some
nonpotable water may also be suitable. Sometimes, concrete suppliers
will use unprocessed surface or well water if it can be obtained at a
lower cost than processed water. However, impurities in the mixing
water can affect concrete set time, strength, and long-term durability.
In addition, chloride ions in the mixing water can accelerate corrosion
of reinforcing steel
 PORTLAND CEMENT
CONCRETE
• Proportioning of Concrete Mixes
The properties of concrete depend on the
mix proportions and the placing and curing
methods. Designers generally specify or
assume a certain strength or modulus of
elasticity of the concrete when determining
structural dimensions. The materials engineer
is responsible for assuring that the concrete is
properly proportioned, mixed, placed, and
cured so as to have the properties specified
by the designer.
Figure: Order of operations for concrete.
 PORTLAND CEMENT
CONCRETE
• The mix design process for the weight and absolute volume methods
differs only in how the amount of fine aggregates is determined.
• Basic Steps for Weight and absolute Volume Methods
1. Evaluate strength requirements.
2. Determine the water–cement (water–cementitious
materials) ratio required.
3. Evaluate coarse aggregate requirements.
■ maximum aggregate size of the coarse aggregate
■ quantity of the coarse aggregate
4. Determine air entrainment requirements.
5. Evaluate workability requirements of the plastic concrete.
6. Estimate the water content requirements of the mix.
7. Determine cementing materials content and type needed.
8. Evaluate the need and application rate of admixtures.
9. Evaluate fine aggregate requirements.
10. Determine moisture corrections.
11. Make and test trial mixes.
MASONRY
• A masonry structure is formed by combining masonry units, such as
stone, blocks, or brick, with mortar. Masonry is one of the oldest
construction materials. Examples of ancient masonry structures
include the pyramids of Egypt, the Great Wall of China, and Greek and
Roman ruins.

Examples of masonry units: (a) concrete

masonry units, (b) clay
bricks, and (c) structural clay tiles.
MASONRY
• The amount of water absorption of concrete masonry units is
controlled by ASTM standards to reduce the effect of weathering and
limit the amount of shrinkage due to moisture loss after construction
(ASTM C90). The absorption of concrete masonry units is determined
by immersing the unit in water for 24 hours (ASTM C140). The
absorption and moisture content are calculated as follows
MASONRY
• Mortar
Mortar is a mixture of cementitious material, aggregate, and water.
Mortar can be classified as cement-lime mortar, cement mortar, or
masonry cement mortar.
Mortar is used for the following functions:
■ bonding masonry units together, either non-reinforced or
reinforced
■■ serving as a seating material for the units
■■ leveling and seating the units
■■ providing aesthetic quality of the structure
MASONRY
• Grout
Grout is a high-slump concrete consisting of portland cement, sand,
fine gravel, water, and sometimes lime. Grout is used to fill the cores or
voids in hollow masonry units for the purpose of

(1)bonding the masonry units,

(2)bonding the reinforcing steel to the masonry,
(3)increasing the bearing area,
(4)increasing fire resistance, and
(5)improving the overturning resistance by increasing the weight.
MASONRY
• Plaster
Plaster is a fluid mixture of portland cement, lime, sand, and water,
which is used for finishing either masonry walls or framed (wood) walls.
Plaster is used for either exterior or interior walls. Stucco is plaster used
to cover exterior walls. The average compressive strength of plaster is
about 13.8 MPa at 28 day
ASPHALT BINDERS AND ASPHALT
MIXTURES
• Asphalt is one of the oldest materials used in construction.
• Bituminous materials are classified as asphalts and tars.

Classification of
bituminous
materials. (Goetz
and Wood, 1960)
Asphalt Concrete
• Asphalt concrete consists of asphalt binder and aggregates mixed
together at a high temperature and placed and compacted on the
road while still hot.
• Historically, asphalt concrete was called hot mix asphalt, HMA, as it
was mixed at temperatures of 135 to 160°C.
• With energy costs and environmental concerns, technology has been
developed to produce warm mix asphalt, WMA, at temperatures of
110 to 130°C.
Density and Void Analysis of Asphalt
• It is important to understand the density and voids analysis of
compacted asphalt mixtures for both mix design and construction
control.
• Three important parameters commonly used are percent of air voids
(voids in total mix) (VTM), voids in the mineral aggregate (VMA), and
voids filled with asphalt (VFA). These are defined as