TBD 3206 CONSTRUCTION AND ENGINEERING MATERIALS II

Course Purpose
The purpose of this course is to equip the learner with knowledge and skills required in use of
concrete, steel, walling units, composites, prefabs and paints as construction and engineering
materials.
Expected learning outcomes
At the end of this course the student should be able to:
a) Outline the process of manufacture and identify various tests carried out on cement.
b) State the sources, composition and uses of other materials such as stones, blocks, bricks etc.
(c) Describe various plasticizers and state their effects on concrete.
(d) Analyze the mechanical properties of various building/civil engineering materials.
Course Outline
1. Fresh and hardened concrete: - Sources, manufacture and tests for cement and aggregates,
water for hydration, corrosion of steel in concrete, effects of fire in concrete. Use of plasticizers
in concrete for improving workability, strength and cost reduction.
2. Building stones, blocks, bricks, steel and steel frames, steel sections.
3. Composites, EPS panels and other upcoming Technologies, prefabs, paint.
4. Grading of timber.
LAB WORK
Determination of moisture content in timber.
Course assessment
Continuous Assessment Tests (CATs) and regular assignments - 30%
Final Examination at end of the unit to be marked out of 70%.
Prerequisites: TBD 3101 Construction and engineering materials I
Prescribed Text Books
Roger G. &. Fred H. (2015). Building services Handbook. 8th Ed.
Arthur L. (2014) Materials for Architects and Builders. 5th Ed.
References:
Roy C. &, Roger G. (2014). Building Construction Handbook 10th Ed.
Mamlouk M. S. & Zaniewski J. P., (2010), Materials for civil and construction Engineers, 3rd Ed,
Pearson Education
TOPIC 1: CONCRETE

Definitions

1. Concrete

Concrete is a mixture of cement, fine aggregates, coarse aggregates, admixtures and water.
Portland cement, water, sand (fine aggregates), and ballast (coarse aggregate) are proportioned and
mixed to produce concrete suited to the particular job for which it is intended.

Cement - Powder

Cement + Water - Cement Paste

Cement + Water + Fine Aggregate - Mortar

Cement + Water + Fine Aggregate + Coarse Aggregate - Concrete

2. Cement

Cement is a pulverized material that develops binding forces due to a reaction with water. Cement
contains limestone, clay, cement rock and iron ore blended and heated to 1200 to 1500 C°. The
resulting product "clinker" is then ground to the consistency of powder. Gypsum is added to control
setting time.

3. Fine Aggregates

This component can be natural sand or crushed stone, and represents particles smaller than 3/8" or
Size: 75 mm (0.003 in.) (retained on No. 200 sieve) in sieve analysis. Generally, accounts for 30%-
35% of the mixture.

4. Coarse Aggregates

This component can either be gravel or crushed stone. They are comprised of particles greater than
1/4" Size: 4.75 mm (3/16 in.) to 50 mm (2 in.) (retained on No. 4 sieve). They constitute up 40%-
45% of the mixture.

5. Admixtures

A material other than water, aggregates and hydraulic cement that is used as an ingredient in
concrete or mortar and is added to the batch immediately before or during its mixing (ASTM
C125).
Admixtures are materials added to alter the properties of concrete such as:

• Air entrainment - add microscopic air bubbles to the concrete, enhancing its resistance to
freeze/thaw cycles and makes the concrete easier to finish.
• Set accelerators - speed the set-time of the mixture, enabling finishing operations to begin
sooner, useful during cold weather pours.
• Set retarders - slow the setting time and enabling delivery to distant sites and finishing
during hot weather.
• Water reducers - are used to reduce the amount of water required to produce a given slump.
They also provide a ball bearing effect, making the concrete easier to finish, and produce
better cement hydration. By reducing the amount of water required, cement amounts can
be reduced because concrete strength is directly related to the water/cement ratio.
6. Grout

Grout is a mixture of cement, water and (most generally) fine aggregate. It is mixed to a pourable
consistency and used to fill spaces within block walls, or other cavities. They generally contain
large amounts of cement.

Advantages of Concrete

• Concrete has many environmental advantages, including durability, longevity, heat storage
capability, and chemical inertness.
• Flexibility to be cast in-situ or place hardened concrete
• Fire resistant
• On-site fabrication
• Aesthetic properties.
• The raw materials used in cement production are sources from natural resources and are widely
available in great quantities.
• Needs little or no finish or final treatments.
• Chemically inert concrete doesn't require paint to achieve a given color; natural -mineral
pigments and coloring agents can be added at the mixing to provide a rainbow of options.
• Low maintenance.
• Can be reused or recycled - Concrete can be reused with bituminous asphalt as road base
materials, can be recycled and reused by crushing into aggregates for new concrete or as fill
material for road beds or site works.

Limitation of Concrete

• Low tensile strength

• Low ductility
• Volume instability
• Low strength-to-weight ratio – Concrete is heavy
 BUILDING MATERIALS

Many types of stones are available such as basalt, marble, limestone, sandstone, quartzite,
travertine, slate, gneiss, laterite, and granite which can be used as construction materials. The
stones used for building construction should be hard, durable, tough, and should be free from
weathered soft patches of material, cracks, and other defects that are responsible for the
reduction of strength and durability. Stones for construction purposes are obtained by quarrying
from solid massive rocks.

Each type of stone lend itself to various construction applications based on its properties. For
instance, certain types like basalt and granite have superior characteristic like high compressive
strength and durability and hence employed in major construction works. However, there are
stones that their characteristics (such low compressive strength and presence of deleterious
materials in their constituents) makes them suitable for minor construction works for example
gneiss. So, stones are used as building material and also for decorative purposes.

10 Types of Stones Used for Building Constructions

1. Basalt
Basalt stone, which is also known as traps, is commonly used in road construction, as aggregate
in concrete production, rubble masonry works for bridge piers, river walls, and dams. The basalt
stone structure is medium to fine grained and compact.

Fig. 1: Basalt
The compression strength of this stone type ranges from 200MPa to 350Mpa, and its weight is
between 18KN/m3 and 29KN/m3. Basalt has good resistant to weather, impervious to moisture,
very hard, and very difficult to dress in fine shapes. The color of basalt changes from dark gray
to black.

Fig. 2: Basalt Stone Used in Building Construction

2. Granite
The application of granite in building construction involves bridge piers, retaining walls, dams,
curbs, stone columns, as coarse aggregate in concrete, ballast for railways, as damp-proof course
and external cladding of walls, and monumental utilizations. The structure of granite is
crystalline, fine to coarse grain.

Fig.: Granite Stone

It is considerably hard and durable, and its compression strength ranges from 100MPa to
250MPa. It also has low absorption value, least porosity, good resistance to frost and weathering
but it has poor resistance to fire. It takes polish well, and the color varies from light gray to pink.
The polished granite can be used as table tops, cladding for columns and walls.

Fig. 4: Granite Stone Used for the Construction of a Building

3. Sandstone
Sandstones in combination with silica cement are used in the construction of heavy structures. It
is also employed in masonry works, dams, bridge piers, and river walls. It is composed of quartz
and feldspar and found in different colors such as white, grey, red, buff, brown, yellow, and dark
gray. The compressive strength ranges between 20MPa and 170MPa, and specify gravity varies
from 1.85 to 2.7. It should be known that weathering sandstone makes it unsuitable for building
construction.

Fig. 5: Sandstone

4. Slate
Slate shows great variation in its building properties which depend on the thickness of the sheets
and the color of the rock. It is used as roofing tiles, slabs, and pavements. It consists of quartz,
mica, and clay minerals. The compression strength of slate changes from 100MPa to 200MPa,
and its color can be dark gray, greenish gray, purple gray to black. The structure of slate is fine
grained and its specific gravity is 2.6 to 2.7.

Fig. 7: Slate stone

5. Limestone
All Limestones are not useful for building construction. Undesirable types are rich in clay or are
considerably soft and practically not suitable for construction works. However, dense, compact,
and fine textured types which are free from cavities and cracks can be easily dressed and take a
very fine polish.

Fig. 8: Limestone
Limestone is used for flooring, roofing, pavements and as a base material for cement. The use of
limestones as facing stones should be avoided in areas where the air is polluted with industrial
gases and also in coastal regions where saltish winds can attack them.

Fig. 9: Limestone Used for the Construction of Buildings

6. Laterite
Laterite is used as building stone, but its outer surface needs to be plastered. It contains a high
percentage of iron oxide and can be easily cut into blocks. Laterite occurs in soft and hard
varieties and the compressive strength of laterite is between 1.9MPa and 2.3 MPa, and its
strength is increased with seasoning. Laterite color may be brownish, red, yellow, brown and
grey.

Fig. 10: Laterite Cut to Blocks

7. Marble
It is used for facing and ornamental works in columns, flooring, and steps. The compressive
strength of marble varies from 70MPa to 75MPa. Marble stones are quite strong, uniform in
texture, least porous, and take an excellent polish. It can be easily cut and carved into different
shapes. Marble is available in different colors like white and pink.

Fig. 11: Marble Used for Flooring

Fig. 12: Aesthetically Appealing Structure Constructed from Marble Stone

8. Gneiss
This type of stone is used for minor construction since the presence of deleterious substances in
its constituents makes it undesirable for building construction. However, hard varieties of gneiss
stone may be employed in construction works. The compression strength varies from 50MPa to
200MPa. It has fine to coarse grains, and its color may be light grey, pink, purple, greenish gray
and dark grey.
 Fig. 13: Gneiss Stone

9. Quartzite
It is used as building blocks, slabs, and as aggregate for concrete. The structure of quartzite is
fine to coarse grain and mostly granular and branded, and mainly composed of feldspar and mica
in small quantities. The crushing strength is between 50MPa to 300MPa.They are available in
different colors like white, gray, yellowish.

Fig. 13: Quartzite Stone in Building Construction

10. Travertine
It is used for paving, garden paths, and courtyards. Its specific gravity is 1.68 and compressive
strength varies from 80-120 MPa. The stone is characterized by pitted holes and troughs in its
surface which means that it has a porous surface and concentric texture. It can be polished to a
smooth, shiny finish, and comes in a variety of colors from grey to coral-red.

What are the different techniques in Stone Masonry?

Check out these various techniques that are employed in stone masonry. These techniques have
evolved along with changes in the lifestyles of the people and the modernization in construction.
1. Traditional Dry-Stack Technique

In this technique, the walls are carefully layered up with stone without mortar joints. It is the
gravity that holds everything together. This technique involves little expense except for the labor.
Usually, in dry-stack, the standing stone wall is made large at the base and then it gets thinner as
the height increases.

Advantages of traditional dry-stack

• Attractive, strong, and can last hundreds of years

• Brags time-honored crafts

• Reveals traditional character

• Environment-friendly

• Can be reused multiple times

• Unlike the brick wall, the life of the stone structure is long-lasting

Disadvantages of traditional dry-stack

• The labor cost is high and the construction is slow and costly.

• An improper structure can lead to the collapse of the property.

• Not a good fit for high walls or buildings

2. Traditional Mortared Stone Technique

In this masonry technique, the foundation of the wall needs to be solid so that the joints do not
crack easily. To achieve this, using a paste made of lime and water helps bond the materials
together. Note: Building a mortar stone wall is more challenging in the winter and rainy seasons.

Advantages of traditional mortared stone:

• Concrete block is more resistant to weather, pest, molds, and fire

• Material for these concrete blocks is available locally

• Is easily available in various sizes, and colors

• Concrete blocks provide good insulation against heat, sound, and moisture.

Disadvantages of traditional mortared stone:

• Being heavy, concrete blocks are difficult to handle and involve more workforce.

• You need a large quantity of steel to reinforce cement concrete structures.

• You get varied prices of concrete blocks depending on the region, cement costs, and
availability.

• The issues of plumbing in concrete masonry structures are too difficult to solve.

3. Modern Veneered Stone Technique

Today most of the stonework consists of a non-structural veneer stone against a structural wall of
the concrete block. Concrete mortar comprises portland cement mixed with sand, gravel, and
water.

In this technique, masons ensure that those larger particles of gravel interlock like little fingers to
make the concrete long-lasting.

Advantages of modern veneered stone

• Less expensive and longer life when installed properly

• Offers natural beauty on the home exterior

• Ideal for walls that do not require additional support

• They are lightweight and come in larger panels which makes it easier to install in a shorter
time.
• Low maintenance is needed and can be used on various surfaces, including stone, metal, and
wood.

Disadvantages of modern veneered stone

• Allows moisture to seep through the joints causing mold issues.

• Wrong installation may lead to breaking and chipping.

• Use of abrasive cleaning material can damage the surface.

• Fissures in the mortar can occur due to tremors and earthquakes.

4. Slipform Stone Technique

It is termed as a cross between the traditional mortar stone wall and a veneer stone wall. Natural
stones are used and placed inside the forms with the good or presentable side faces against the
formwork. Concrete is then poured behind the rocks.

Advantages of slipform stone technique

• Decreases the use of building cranes

• Lesser use of accessories like scaffoldings, support bars, platforms, etc

Disadvantages of slipform stone technique

• Involves high costs in the initial stage

• High skilled experts and sophisticated equipment are needed.

5. Framed-One Side Stone Technique

Framed-one side stonemasonry is evident on buildings with stone on the outside and the framed
wall on the inside. By building the interior frame first, half the formwork is done. Framed-one
side stone is a traditional way of masonry. Strong and beautiful walls are built with the strength
of stone, reinforcement of concrete and steel.

Advantages of framed-one side stone

• Strong and good looking wall are built using masonry stones

• Time taken in construction is much lesser than other techniques.

• Comparatively lesser costs involved in workforce and materials

Disadvantages of framed-one side stone

• Causes lateral deflections

• The span length is very less

6. Tilt-Up Stone Technique

Tilt-up masonry stones are done by pouring stone walls flat on the ground and setting them in
place with a crane. For this technique, the stone fabricator uses stone, sand, gravel, and rock
materials

Advantages of tilt-up stone

• More economic than cast-in walls mason stones

• Waste and environmental

• hazards are much lesser

• Installation is way faster and safer

• Masonry customization and architectural design is possible

Disadvantages of tilt-up stone

• Cannot be used for complex building wall

• Lack of versatility
 MODERN/UPCOMING BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES
1. Expanded Polystyrene (EPS)
Expanded polystyrene (EPS) is one of the building material capable of enhancing the design
and structural integrity of the building. Since its recognition as conventional insulating material
in 1950s, EPS has been experiencing swift progress in other new implementations. Currently,
EPS is utilized in many building structures owing to its sustainability benefit and improvement
in terms of energy efficiency, durability, and indoor environmental quality.
Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) is a lightweight closed cell rigid insulation formed by expansion
of polystyrene beads. EPS panels are manufactured in a controlled environment at
manufacturing plant of the company under the qualified technical team according to the
industrial standard. EPS panel has excellent long term thermal and moisture resistance.
2. Prefabricated Construction (Prefabs)
Prefabricated construction is trending all over world today because of various advantages like
faster completion, flexibility in designs, reusability, cost effectiveness, durability and strong in
strength. Prefab houses are now in demanding in developing countries due to increasing
popularity of prefab structure. In developed countries mostly houses are prefabricated and in
developing countries like India, even government planning for residential use are prefabricated
houses. In construction industry, for a prefab house there are many things which are used to
provide better and effective result. EPS panel is one of them which is used frequently for
provide highly energy efficiency in prefab house.

Use of EPS Panel in prefab house:

• EPS insulated panels are reliable, cost effective and compatible with major construction
materials.

• Sandwich panel can withstand extreme weather conditions without any damage and can
be maintained easily by wiping the surface but in traditional homes, need periodical
expensive maintenance in the form of painting.

• EPS panels are highly energy efficient; moisture resistance keeps them pest-free and fire
resistance makes them safe.

• Energy saving is the main advantage of EPS panel, it saves energy up to 30-40 % of the
year.
 • Insulated panels are manufactured to exact specifications and can be assembled quickly
on site. This keeps construction costs and labor costs low, resulting in major savings.

• Insulated panels are completely Eco-friendly.

• Use of EPS panel in prefab house are completely time & money saving

N/B: All advantages of EPS Insulated panel are the reason why EPS insulated panels are
ideal for prefab houses.

3. Composites

Composites are materials consisting of two or more chemically distinct constituents on a macro-
scale, having a distinct interface separating them, and with properties which cannot be obtained by
any constituent working individually.

There are two categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. The reinforcement
imparts its special mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix properties. Due to
the wide variety of matrix and reinforcement materials available, the design potentials are
incredible.

Miracle and Donaldson (2001) stated that the composites are categorized at two different levels.
The first level of classification is based on the matrix constituent such as polymer matrix
composite (PMCs), metal matrix composite (MMCs), and ceramic matrix composite (CMCs)
whereas the second level of classification is derived from matrix constituent forms like
particulate reinforced composite, flake composite, fiber-reinforced composite, and laminated
composite.

Types of Composites in Construction

Composites are classified into two distinct levels; based on matrix constituents and their forms.

Composite Types Based on Matrix Constituents

There are three major types of composites based on matrix constituents. In each of these systems,
the matrix is typically a continuous phase throughout the component.

1. Polymer Matrix Composite (PMCs)

It consists of various short or continuous fibers which are bound together by an organic polymer
matrix. Polymer matrix composite's main function is to transfer the loads between fibers through
the matrix.

Lightweight, high stiffness, high strength along the direction of their reinforcements, abrasion
resistance, and corrosion resistance are some properties of polymer matrix composite.

Fig. 1: Polymer Matrix Composite

2. Metal Matrix Composite (MMCs)

Metal matrix composites are usually made up of aluminum to give it enough strength as it is less
dense than iron, and hence is preferred in the aerospace industry. It is a material in which
continuous carbon, silicon carbide, or ceramic fibers are embedded in a metallic matrix material.

Most common metal matrix composites are aluminum matrix composites. Major advantages of
aluminum matrix composites are increased specific strength, specific stiffness, and elevated
temperature strength in addition to improved wear resistance, lower density, and good corrosion
resistance.

Fig. 2: Metal Matrix Composite

3. Ceramic Matrix Composite (CMCs)

These are materials consisting of a ceramic or carbon fiber surrounded by a ceramic matrix such
as silicon carbide.

Composite Types Based on Matrix Constituents Forms

1. Particulate Reinforced Composites

Particulate reinforced composites are composed of hard particle constituents which are scattered
in a softer matrix in an arbitrary manner. Metallic particle dispersed in metallic, polymeric or
ceramic matrices is an example of particulate composite. A widely used particulate composite is
concrete in which gravel is embedded in the cement paste.

Fig. 3: Particulate Composite

2. Flake composites

This type of composite is produced by blending matrix material and thin flakes. Despite the fact
that flakes dispersion in the matrix is random, the flakes can be made to align with one another
forming a more orderly structure compared to particulate composites.

Fig. 4: Flake Composite

3. Fiber Reinforced Composites (Fibrous Composites)

It is composed of strong and stiff fibers which are held together by a matrix. Fibers act as
primary load-carrying constituent due to their strong characteristics. The matrix serves as an
agent to redistribute the loads from a broken fiber to the adjacent fibers in the material when
fibers start failing under excessive loads.

This property of the matrix constituent contributes to one of the most important characteristics of
fibrous composites, namely improved strength compared to the individual constituents.

Reinforcement composites are usually glass fibers, carbon fibers and aramid fibers. Fibers are
usually high strength, low-density materials that possess good resistance to heat and corrosion
and are easy to handle.

Fig. 5: Fiber Reinforced Composite

4. Laminated Composites

Laminated composites are made from completely bonded thin elementary layers. These layers
can be composites themselves; for instance, fibrous composite layer. This type of composite is
the most commonly encountered laminated composite material used in high-performance
structures.

Fig. 6: Laminated Composite

Applications

1. Composites are widely used in the aerospace industry for the construction of military and
commercial aircraft and spacecraft structures.

2. Composites provide significant improvements in structural response and corrosion

response.

3. Construction of structures such as Kodak exhibition pavilion, bridges, lighthouses,

hydraulic construction, storage tanks, and door and window components

4. Strengthening of deteriorated structures.

5. Manufacturing of yacht, lifeboat, cruise ship, fishing boat.

GLASS AS A CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL

Glass is a hard substance which may be transparent or translucent and brittle. The fusion process
used to manufacture glasses. In this process, sand is fused with lime, soda, and some other
admixtures and then cooled rapidly. Glasses used in construction purposes and architectural
purposes in engineering. There are various types of glasses used in construction and the use of
these glasses depends on the purpose. Various purposes of glass can be for use in natural
lighting, doors, windows, balconies etc.

Silica is the main constituent of glass. But it is to be added with sodium potassium carbonate to
bring down melting point. To make it durable lime or lead oxide is also added. Manganese oxide
is added to nullify the adverse effects of unwanted iron present in the impure silica. The raw
materials are ground and sieved. They are mixed in specific proportion and melted in furnace.
Then glass items are manufactured by blowing, flat drawing, rolling and pressing.
 Fig 1: Glass building

Important Properties of Glass

1. It absorbs, refracts or transmits light. It can be made transparent or translucent.

2. It can take excellent polish.
3. It is an excellent electrical insulator.
4. It is strong and brittle.
5. It can be blown, drawn or pressed.
6. It is not affected by atmosphere.
7. It has excellent resistance to chemicals.
8. It is available in various beautiful colours.
9. With the advancement in technology, it is possible to make glass lighter than cork or
stronger than steel.
10. Glass panes can be cleaned easily.

Types of Glass in Construction

The glass may be broadly classified as:

1. Soda-lime glass
2. Potash lime glass
3. Potash lead glass
4. Common glass and
5. Special glasses.
1. Soda Lime Glass
It is mainly a mixture of sodium silicate and calcium silicate. It is fusible at low temperature. In
the fusion condition it can be blown or welded easily. It is colourless. It is used as window panes
and for the laboratory tubes and apparatus.
2. Potash Lime Glass
It is mainly a mixture of potassium silicate and calcium silicate. It is also known as hard glass. It
fuses at high temperature. It is used in the manufacture of glass articles which have to withstand
high temperatures.

3. Potash Lead Glass

It is mainly a mixture of potassium silicate and lead silicate. It possesses bright lustre and great
refractive power. It is used in the manufacture of artificial gems, electric bulbs, lenses, prisms
etc.

4. Common Glass
It is mainly a mixture of sodium silicate, calcium silicate and iron silicate. It is brown, green or
yellow in colour. It is mainly used in the manufacture of medicine bottles.

5. Special Glasses
Properties of glasses can be suitably altered by changing basic ingredients and adding few more
ingredients. It has now emerged as versatile material to meet many special requirement in
engineering. The following is the list of some of the special glasses:

• Fiberglass
• Foam glass
• Bullet proof glass
• Structural glass
• Glass black
• Wired glass
• Ultraviolet ray glass
• Perforated glass.

Engineering Properties of Glass

1. Transparency
2. Strength
3. Workability
 4. Transmittance
5. U value
6. Recycling property
1. Transparency of Glass
Transparency is the main property of glass which allows the vision of the outside world through
it. The transparency of glass can be from both sides or from one side only. In one side
transparency, glass behaves like a mirror from the other side.

2. Strength of Glass
The strength of glass depends on the modulus of rupture value of glass. In general glass is a
brittle material but by adding admixtures and laminates we can make it as more strong.

3. Workability of Glass
A glass can be molded into any shape, or it can be blown during melting. So, workability of glass
is a superior property.

4. Transmittance
The visible fraction of light that passing through glass is the property of visible transmittance.

5. U value of Glass
U value represents the amount of heat transferred through glass. If a glass is said to be insulated
unit then it should have lower u value.

6. Recycle Property of Glass

Any glass can be 100% recyclable. It can also be used as raw material in construction industry.

Types of Glass and their Uses

The types of glass used in construction are:

1. Float glass
2. Shatterproof glass
3. Laminated glass
 4. Extra clean glass
5. Chromatic glass
6. Tinted glass
7. Toughened glass
8. Glass blocks
9. Glass wool
10. Insulated glazed units
1. Float Glass
Float glass manufactured from sodium silicate and calcium silicate so, it is also called as soda-
lime glass. It is clear and flat, so it causes glare. Thickness of the float glass is available from
2mm to 20mm, and its weight range from 6 to 36 kg/m2. The application of float glass includes
shop fronts, public places, etc.

Fig. 2 Laminated Glass

2. Shatterproof Glass
Shatterproof glass is used for windows, skylights, floors, etc. Some type of plastic polyvinyl
butyral is added in its making process. So, it cannot form sharp-edged pieces when it breaks.

Fig. 3: Shatterproof Glass

3. Laminated Glass
Laminated glass is the combination of layers of ordinary glass. So, it has more weight than a
normal glass. It has more thickness and is UV proof and soundproof. These are used for
aquariums, bridges, etc.

Fig. 4: Laminated Glass Used in Building Construction

4. Extra Clean Glass

Extra clean glass has two unique properties, photocatalytic and hydrophilic. Because of these
properties, it acts as stain proof and gives a beautiful appearance. Maintenance is also easy.

Fig. 5: Extra Clean Glass

5. Chromatic Glass
Chromatic glass is used in ICU’s, meeting rooms etc. it can control the transparent efficiency of
glass and protects the interior from daylight. The chromatic glass may be photochromic which
has light sensitive lamination, thermos-chromatic which has heat sensitive lamination and
electrochromic which has electric lamination over it.

Fig. 6: Chromatic Glass

6. Tinted Glass
Tinted glass is nothing but colored glass. A color producing ingredients is mixed to the normal
glass mix to produce colored glass which does not affect other properties of glass. Different
color-producing ingredients are tabulated below:

Table 1: Different Types of Ions Used to Produce Various Colors in Glasses

Coloring ion Color

Iron oxide Green

Sulphur Blue

Manganese dioxide Black

Cobalt Blue

Chromium Dark green

Titanium Yellowish brown

Uranium Yellow
 Fig. 7: Tinted Glass

7. Toughened Glass
Toughened glass is a durable glass that has low visibility. It is available in all thicknesses, and
when it is broken it forms small granular chunks that are dangerous. This is also called as
tempered glass. This type of glass is used for fire-resistant doors, mobile screen protectors, etc.

Fig. 8: Toughened Glass

8. Glass Blocks
Glass block or glass bricks are manufactured from two different halves and they are pressed and
annealed together while melting process of glass. These are used as architectural purpose in the
construction of walls, skylights etc. They provide aesthetic appearance when light is passed
through it.
 Fig. 9: Glass Block

9. Glass Wool
Glass wool is made of fibers of glass and acts as an insulating filler. It is fire-resistant glass.

Fig. 10: Glass Wool

10. Insulated Glazed Units

Insulated glazed glass units contains a glass is separated into two or three layers by air or
vacuum. They cannot allow heat through it because of air between the layers and acts as good
insulators. These are also called as double glazed units.
 Fig. 11: Insulated Glazed Glass Unit

FAQs on Types of Glasses: properties and applications

What is a glass?

Glass is a hard substance which may be transparent or translucent and brittle. It is manufactured
by the fusion process.

What are the properties of glasses?

The fundamental properties of the glass that make it suitable for building construction
applications are transparency, strength, workability, transmittance, U value, and recycling.

What are the types of glasses?

Float glass, shatterproof glass, laminated glass, extra-clean glass, chromatic glass, tinted glass,
toughened glass, glass blocks, glass wool, and insulated glazed units.

What are the applications of glasses in building constructions?

shop fronts, public places, windows, skylights, floors, aquariums, bridges, stain proof, aesthetics,
ICU’s, meeting rooms, insulations, wall constructions, fire-resistant doors, and mobile screen
protectors.

What is U value of a glass?

U value represents the amount of heat transferred through glass. If a glass is said to be insulated
unit then it should have lower u value.

What is laminated and tempered/ toughened glass?

Laminated glass is the combination of layers of ordinary glass. It has superior weight, thickness,
UV proof, and soundproof than a regular glass. Toughened or tempered glass is a durable glass
that has low visibility.
STEEL SECTIONS

Steel is one of the important building materials in construction industry. It can be used in many
ways for many purposes. Steel sections are available in various forms for use in Steel
Construction. Shapes, sizes and properties of these rolled steel sections are discussed.

Different steel members are manufactured in the factories based their usage. Rolled steel sections
are casted in continuous casting molds without any joints. Different shapes or forms of rolled
steel sections are explained below.

Fig 1: Steel processing

Different Forms of Rolled Steel Sections

Various forms of rolled steel sections are as follows:

1. Angle sections

2. Channel sections

3. T- sections
 4. I-sections

5. Round bars

6. Square bars

7. Flat bars

8. Corrugated sheets

9. Expanded metal

10. Plates

11. Ribbed bars (HYSD)

12. Ribbed bars (mild steel)

13. Thermo-mechanically treated bars

14. Welded wire fabrics

1. Rolled Angle Sections

Angle sections are manufactured in “L” shape. It contains two legs. Some angle sections contains
legs with similar dimensions are called as equal angle sections and some contains different legs
are called as unequal angle sections.

Angle sections are widely used for roof truss constructions and for filler joist floors.

Equal angle sections are available from 20 mm x 20 mm x 3 mm to 200 mm x 200mm x 25 mm

with their corresponding weights as 9 N and 736 N per meter length respectively.

Unequal angle sections are available from 30 mm x 20 mm x 3 mm to 200mm x 150mm x 18mm

with 11 and 469 N per meter length weight respectively.
2. Rolled Channel Sections

The channel section or C- section consists two equal flanges connected to web at both ends.
Channel sections are extensively used in steel framed structures.

They are available in various sizes ranging from 100 mm x 45 mm to 400mm x 100 mm.
Corresponding unit weights are 58 N and 494 N per meter length respectively.

3. Rolled T- Sections

T section consists of flange and web arranged in “T” shape. They are used in steel roof trusses to
form built up sections. Two angle sections can also be joined to get T section.

Rolled T sections size varies from 20 mm x 20 mm x 3 mm to 150 mm x 150mm x 10 mm with

9 N and 228 N as their corresponding weights per meter length.

4. Rolled I - Sections

I sections which are also called as steel beams or rolled steel joist are extensively used as beams,
lintels, columns etc. It consists two flanges and a web connected as shown in figure.
These are available in various sizes ranges from 75 mm x 50 mm at 61 N per meter length to 600
mm x 210 mm at 995 N per meter length.

5. Rolled Round Bars

Round bars contain circular cross sections and these are used as reinforcement in concrete and
steel grill work etc. Round bars are available in various diameters varies from 5 mm to 250 mm.

6. Rolled Square Bars

Square bars contain square cross sections and these are widely used for gates, windows, grill
works etc. the sides of square cross section ranges from 5 mm to 250 mm.
7. Rolled Flat Bars

Flat bars are also used for gates, windows, grill works etc. Flat bars are designated with width of
the bar which varies from 10 mm to 400 mm. thickness of flat bars will be from 3 mm to 40 mm.

8. Corrugated Sheets

Plain steel sheets are passed through machines which produce bends by pressing them called
corrugations. These sheets are used for roof coverings.

9. Expanded Metal
Expanded metal sheets are made from mild steel sheets. Which are cut through machine and
expanded. Generally, Diamond shaped mesh is appeared in this type of sheets.

10. Rolled Steel Plates

Steel plates are well used items in steel structures. They are used for connecting steel beams,
tensional member in roof truss etc. They are designated with their thickness which is varying
from 5 mm to 50 mm.

11. Ribbed Bars (HYSD)

Ribbed HYSD bars are made of high yield strength steel. Ribs are nothing but projections
produced on bars by cold twisting of bar in hot rolled condition. The twist is made according the
standard requirements.

HYSD bars are important innovation of steel and they are extensively used as main
reinforcement materials in all concrete works like bridges, buildings, precast concrete works,
foundations, roads etc..
They are available in many sizes varying from 6 mm to 50 mm diameter. The reason why these
are more famous than any other bars is because of following advantages:

• HYSD bars can be bend up to 180o without any cracks.

• High strength and durable.

• 30 to 40% of cost reduced when compared to other round bars.

• Suitable for any type of concrete work.

• Excellent bonding properties with concrete.

• HYSD bars can be welded using electronic flash butt welding or arc welding.

12. Ribbed Bars (Mild Steel)

Ribbed bars can also be produced from mild steel. These are look-alike HYSD ribbed bars but
these bars are not recommended by any code and they also have very less strength compared to
HYSD bars.

13. Rolled Thermo-Mechanically Treated (TMT) Bars

Thermo-mechanically treated bars or TMT bars are manufactured by a special technique in
which the red-hot steel bars are suddenly quenched by spraying water on it. So, surface of bar
gets cooled down and inner side or core of the bar still in hot condition.

The core helps the outer surface to be tempered. By this combination of different temperature,
the bar gains more yield strength and exhibits good elongation at ultimate failure.

Copper, phosphorus and chromium etc. are added in manufacturing process of TMT bars which
improves its corrosion resistance.

14. Welded Wire Fabrics

Welded wire fabrics are nothing but a series of mild steel bars which are arranged perpendicular
to each other and welded at all intersection.

These are used as reinforcement for floor slabs, small canal linings, pavement’s etc.