© IPA, 2006 - 22nd Annual Convention Proceedings, 1993

IPA93-1.1-179

PROCEEDINGS INDONESIAN PETROLEUM ASSOCIATION

Twenty Second Annual Convention, October 1993

A STRUCTURAL AND TECTONIC MODEL OF THE COASTAL PLAINS BLOCK,

CENTRAL SUMATRA BASIN, INDONESIA

Tom L. Heidrick*
Karsani Aulia**

ABSTRACT An assortment of structural traps were formed during

The Pertamina Chevron and Texaco PSC Coastal Plains
Pekanbaru Block (CPP) is located in the eastern
portion of the Central Sumatra Basin adjoining the
Bengkalis-Panjang straits. Fifteen oil fields within the
concession are operated by PT Caltex Pacific
Indonesia. Our synthesis of CPI's extensive
exploration and development data helps delineate
structural elements fundamental to the Paleogene and
Neogene framework, the order in which they
developed, and their influence on localizing source
rocks and the migratiodtrapping of hydrocarbons.
Mapped structures are diverse, multiply reactivated, and
ordered. The various geometrical combinations involve
extensional rifting, transpressional and transtensional
wrenching, and compressional thrusting and reverse
faulting. Cenozoic structural development involved
three geometrically and kinematically distinct episodes
of faulting and folding. These include: I) Eo-Oligocene
rifting (F1) along old basement breaks of N-NNE strike
and reactivation of WNW-trending regional basement
arches; 2) +early Miocene (F2) crustal sagging,
regional dextral wrenching, local counter-clockwise
kinking (15-25") of older N-S faults, and development
of NO-20"E-striking transtensional fracture zones; and
3) Middle Miocene to Recent (F3) WSW-directed
thrusting and reverse faulting along older wrench faults
of NNW-strike, SSW-verging monoclinal flexuring
across older NW-WNW-trending basement breaks,
and transtensional rifting along elements of N-NNE-
strike. The recognition that fault type, fold style and
size of structural closure vary in a predictable manner
through time and space has important exploration and
development ramifications.
each of the three respective deformational episodes.
The oldest ( F l, 45-28 Ma) is related to the N-NNW-
directed collision of India with SE Asia commencing at
40-45 Ma. Resulting Eo-Oligocene fracture sets are
oriented parallel and perpendicular to the WNW-ESE-
trending Indochina-Australian transform plate boundary.
N-NNE-directed lateral compression is inferred from
the pronounced set of NW-WNW-trending anticlines
and pre-Cenozoic paleohighs (FO) that culminate
regularly at 35-40 km spacing. These FO-1 elements
often have thrusts and reverse faults along their flanks.
Coeval F1 extension is recognized in the transverse
direction by the shallow NNE-trending Kempas-
Sembilan-Padang half-graben system. The much larger
N-S-trending Bengkalis trough is primarily extensional
in nature with deep source rock depocenters situated
laterally to an E-ENE-trending moderate relief
accommodation zone. WNW-trending FO-1 nuclear
uplifts and NW-trending anticlinal culminations are the
most important hydrocarbon traps once overprinted by
younger compressional episodes of deformation and
produce between 150-750 MMBOIP.
F2 (28-13 Ma) deformation is characterized by sag
phase tectonism overprinted by fault and fold styles
dominated by right-lateral strike-slip along N-NNW-
striking faults and reactivated older F1 extensional
faults of N-NNE strike. Individual fault blocks typically
have transverse fault spacings of 10-12 km; right-
lateral offsets of 5-10 km; and have an accumulative
dextral strike-slip of up to 43 km across the block. The
right-lateral F2 shear couple accentuated older FO-1
highs. Where dextral motion is transferred to NNE-
striking F1-2 fractures, the resulting geometry is
releasing and a complex array of listric and planar
normal faults, grabens, and half-grabens develop. F2
structural closures are often small, equidimensional,
involve non-sealing fault arrays, and trap <50
MMBOIP.

* Chevron Petroleum Technology Co. The final F3 (13-0 Ma) episode of major compressional
** American Overseas Petroleum Ltd. deformation commenced concurrent with active sea-
286
floor spreading in the Andaman Sea; regional uplift,
major arc volcanism, and N35"W k 10"-striking right-
lateral strike-slip faulting along the Barisan Mountains;
and penetrative compressional upthrusting across the
North and Central Sumatra Basins. Geometric and
kinematic constraints suggest that the maximum
horizontal stress continued its progressive relative shift
toward more northeasterly trends and was NE-SW-
directed during F, deformation. Compressional F3
structural traps are favorable habitats for moderate-
size oil accumulations (50-350 MMBOIP) ; whereas,
transtensional structural traps are small, contain on
average 25 MMBOIP or less, and represent about 5%
of the hydrocarbons present in the block.
INTRODUCTION
The Pertamina Chevron and Texaco PSC Coastal Plains
Block (CPP) is located along the eastern margin of the
Central Sumatra Basin and the Bengkalis-Panjang
straits, 150 km WSW of Singapore. Fifteen oil fields
within the CPP are operated by PT Caltex Pacific
Indonesia. This study is based on the wealth of high
quality geophysical, geological, and well data
systematically gathered by CPI during the exploration
and development of the block. The synthesis presented
is an outgrowth of a 1985 CPI task force study charged
in part with critically reviewing and developing a
Cenozoic structural and tectonic model of the Coastal
Plains and assessing how this model might impact
future exploration in the area. Figure 1 outlines the
Central Sumatra Basin and the area studied and
discussed in this paper.
Several excellent reviews have been presented outlining
the structural evolution of the Central Sumatra Basin
(de Coster, 1974, Eubank and Makki, 1981; and
Pulunggono and Cameron, et al., 1984), and
Sundaland's position within the Eurasia and Indo-
Australian plate tectonic framework (Hamilton, 1979,
1989; and Daly, et al., 1991). Although there is general
agreement on the gross tectogenetic development of
the basin, many details remain unclear regarding
Cenozoic deformation and the relative importance of
lateral compression vs. regional wrench tectonics, and
regional lateral extension vs. local transtension. The
wodel developed for the CPP is an outgrowth of
reviewing a large quantity of good quality seismic and
borehole data acquired by PT Caltex Pacific Indonesia,
Chevron, and Texaco. We hope the data compiled and
the model developed will help advance our understanding
of east-central Sumatran petroleum geology and the
tectogenetic development of this portion of the basin
and adjoining Sundaland.
The combination of extensive good quality seismic data
(2.5 D), predominately thin Tertiary sedimentary cover,
and shallow oil fields, make the Central Sumatra Basin
ideal for studying the complexities of Eo-Oligocene
rifting and Neogene back-arc basinal tectonics. With
this in mind, we will attempt to describe the principal
Eo-Oligocene and Neogene structural elements of the
CPP; account for their tectogenetic development;
demonstrate their temporal and geometrical
predictabilty ; and lastly expand these relationships
underscoring potential regional tectonic implications.
REGIONAL TECTONIC SETTING
The Central Sumatra Basin is bound to the southwest
by the Barisan Mountains geanticlinal uplift and
volcanic arc, to the north by the Asahan arch, to the
southeast by the Tigapuluh high, and to the east by the
Sunda craton (Fig. 1). Numerous active structural
elements of mainland Sumatra trend NW parallel to
the Java trench and include: the outer-arc ridge, outer-
arc basin, the Barisan volcanic arc, and the Great
Sumatran fault zone. The N W structural and topographic
grain is largely a late Cenozoic phenomenon that is
superimposed upon the NNE-trending Asahan arch
and Lampung High and ENE-trending Tigapuluh arch
(Mertosono and Nayoan, 1974). These arches and high
combine to effectively subdivide the Sumatran foreland
into north, central, and south basins (Fig. 1).
The amount of offset along the Great Sumatran right-
lateral strike-slip fault is poorly constrained but most
likely measures in hundreds of kilometers. The fault
goes out to sea at the southeast end of Sumatra
intersecting with the trench south of Java. At the
opposite end of the island the fault trends to sea
sweeping northward connecting with the active
spreading center in the Andaman Sea at about 10"N.
PALEOZOIC AND MESOZOIC STRUCTURAL
FRAMEWORK
Eubank and Makki (1981) were the first to point out
that pre-Tertiary basement rocks of central Sumatra
involved three distinct lithologic terranes:
The Mutus assemblage which trends NNW-NW
diagonally across the southwestern portion of the
block.This assemblage consists of oceanic crust
(ophiolite) covered with a veneer of Triassic
abyssal sediments including brown radiolarian
chert, redmauve shale and meta-argillite, slate,
thinly bedded limestone, and a rhythmic turbidite
sequences containing intercalated tuff. K-Ar dating
of tuff cut at the Duri field gives a 222 Ma age
(late Triassic).
Northeast of the Mutus assemblage and underlying
most of the CPP is a "quartzite terrane" which

continues eastward to the Sunda craton. The
presuture successions consist of phyllite, argillite,
schist, quartzite and shale. Plutons of granodioritic
(295 Ma) and granitic (112-122, 150 Ma)
compositions locally intrude this basement
assemblage. The join between the Sunda quartzites
and the oceanic Mutus assemblage is interpreted as
representing "a significant Mesozoic crustal
feature" (Eubank and Makki, 198l), and is without
doubt the largest single structural element present
in the contract area.
3) West and southwest of the deep-water Mutus
assemblage lies an area dominated by greywacke,
pebbly mudstone, and quartzite.
TECTONO-STRATIGRAPHIC DEVELOPMENT
Tertiary sedimentary successions of the Sumatran
foreland rest nonconformably upon a basement of
Paleozoic and Triassic marine and continental strata
with associated intercalated volcanic and local
subduction-related melange. Pre-Tertiary potassium-
rich, tin-bearing leucogranites intrude this basement
terrain and are predominantly Cretaceous and Triassic
in age (Hamilton, 1979). Wellbore penetrations
encountering CPP basement often include low-grade
argillite, metagreywacke, meta-quartzite, or Mesozoic
leucogranite (Koning and Darmono, 1984). On
occasion CPP wells penetrate Middle Miocene (12-17
Ma) intrusive and extrusive rocks. The igneous suites
encountered are spatially restricted, have compositions
typical of back-arc basin setting, and include gabbros,
diabase, olivine trachyte tuff, basalt, and K-rich
shoshonites (Bass, 1980).
Mertosono and Nayoan (1974) proposed a five-fold
subdivision for the Cenozoic rock-stratigraphic units in
the Central Sumatra Basin. The five units include
(oldest to youngest), the Pematang formation, Sihapas
group, and Telisa, Petani, and Minas formations.
Figure 2 generalizes the time-rock stratigraphic
succession and indicates the temporal limits of the
three major episodes of structural development within
the CPP.
Nonmarine Paleogene strata across mainland Sumatra
suggest an environment dominated by stable
continental shelf conditions which persisted northward
onto a low lying stable Southeast Asian cratonic
landmass. Early Paleogene structural stability ceased
during middle Eocene concurrent with the collision of
India with Southeast Asia. At this time a linked system
of N+ 15"-trending extensional grabens, half-grabens,
and transtensional pull-apart basin were activated
across the Central Sumatra Basin (Williams et al.,
287
1985) and the adjoining Malaya peninsula. In areas
where these faults step right, significant basins form
with up to 15,000 ft of structural relief on basement.
These basins were subsequently filled during the late
Eocene-Oligocene with non-marine siliciclastic debris
shed from adjacent WNW-trending highs and arches.
The N-trending depocenters often contain thick
successions of continental clastics including alluvial,
fluvial, and deltaic sandstone, siltstone, and mudstone
with intercalated organic-rich lacustrine source rocks.
Other rifts with similar orientation formed across
Sundaland including North and South Sumatra Basins,
offshore SE Sumatra, offshore NW Java Basin,
adjoining Malaya peninsula, Gulf of Thailand, Natuna
Basin, and the South China Sea (White and Wing,
1978; Davies, 1984; Daines, 1985; Williams et al.,
1985; and Moulds, 1989).
The Pematang formation directly overlies basement in
the Central Sumatra Basin and consists of two
continental-dominated facies: 1) varicolored mottled
claystone and fine grained sandstone that are locally
interbedded with organic-rich lacustrine shale, and 2) a
sequence of conglomerate, coarse grained sandstone,
and variegated claystone. Sediments are synorogenic in
character having been deposited in deep transtensional
pull-apart grabens or shallow extensional rifts formed
during a phase of regional Eo-Oligocene (50-24 Ma)
extension (Williams et al, 1985). Local footwall uplifts,
intrabasinal highs, and coeval transpressional anticlinal
culminations strongly influenced the distribution of
synrift alluvial and braided stream sediments. The
Pematang is often separated from the overlying
Sihapas group by a distinct regional angular
unconformity at the onset of Menggala sedimentation
at 28-29 Ma (Eubank and Makki, 1981).
The filling of half-grabens, grabens and pull-apart rifts
was followed immediately by the Middle Tertiary
marine transgression, which eventually lead to the
deposition of clean fluvial-deltaic reservoir sandstone,
and subsequent regional subsidence and deposition of
shales and mudstones which provide the regional seal.
The transgressive phase of the Neogene is represented
by the Sihapas group and overlying partially
diachronous Telisa formation. The lower portion of the
Miocene Sihapas is represented by an upward fining
conglomeratic, coarse to fine grained sandstone
succession (Menggala formation) that is capped by
calcareous shale of the Bangko formation. A fluvio-
deltaic depo sitional environment is suggested for the
Menggala whereas the Bangko has a more intertidal to
marine influence. The Upper Sihapas records a
continuation of the early Miocene transgression with
medium to coarse grained micaceous sandstone of the
288
Bekasap representing marginal facies of the more
basinal shales of the Telisa formation (Lee, 1982).
The lower to middle Miocene Telisa formation consists
of a shale-dominated succession with interbeds of
limestone and fine grained glauconitic sandstone.
Depositional environments range from inner to outer
littoral conditions with a more marine influence
towards the top. The upper contact of the Telisa
formation is marked by a distinct lithologic and faunal
break corresponding to the middle Miocene regressive
phase of the Neogene cycle (Duri event). The
overlying sediments of the Petani formation constitute
a monotonous sequence of shalemudstone containing
minor sandstone and siltstone intercalations that show
a progressive upwards shallowing and general waning
of marine conditions.
Top Neogene is characterized by a pronounced
erosional unconformity overlain by a thin veneer of
Holocene Minas alluvial sandstone and gravel. The
regional nature of the unconformity and marked
increase in sediment coarseness suggest that
considerable uplift of the basin margins occurred at the
end of Pliocene time.
LATE MESOZOIC AND CENOZOIC STRUCTURAL
FRAMEWORK
The geology of central Sumatra is dominated by two
prominent fault sets. The more prevalent set strikes
NW-SE and the other N-S (Fig. 3). It is generally
accepted that the N-S set is older and Paleogene in age
(Mertosono and Nayoan, 1974; and de Coster, 1975).
Eubank and Makki (1981) emphasized that both sets
were: 1) repeatedly active during the Tertiary; 2)
required to account for the disposition of Pematang
grabens and half-grabens; and 3) represent fundamental
basement breaks in response to back-arc tension and
dextral wrenching throughout the Tertiary.
In an attempt to better understand the regional
distribution of Cenozoic structures, we compiled fold
and fault trends shown on the seven 1:250,000
quadrangle maps covering northern and central
Sumatra. Figure 4 displays the results of this analysis.
Only faults and folds that deform Cenozoic strata were
considered. Each individual structure was divided into
5 km long strike segments. An averaged fault strike or
fold trend was then recorded and compiled on strike
frequency diagrams. Strike rosettes are constructed
using 10" class intervals commencing at N-S, k5",
plotted as a percentage of total measured 5 km strike
internals (N), and displayed on corresponding equal-
area Schmidt stereograms.
Figure 4 shows the mapped distributions over 7000 km
of undifferentiated faults (A); over 2000 km of folds
(B); and 1000 km of strike segments constituting the
Great Sumatran fault (C). It is interesting to note that
there is not a discrete maximum for the "older" N-S
set. It is also significant that the near Gaussian
distribution of total mapped faults is duplicated by the
Great Sumatran fault (N35"W, st 10"). The frequency
distribution for mapped folds is also near Gaussian but
the mean is displaced westward by 10" yielding a mean
bearing of N4S"W.
These distributions suggest that the stress field
producing the N35"W "Sumatran" fault and fold trend
persists across the entire'island; and that folds and
faults are virtually parallel and do not show the classic
en echelon wrench style geometry (Wilcox, et al,
1973), Harding (1974), and Lowell (1980, 1985). The
absence of N-S structures in the quadrangle data but
their prevalence on our subsurface maps, suggests that
they are indeed somewhat older and often buried
beneath Cenozoic cover.
The top of basement structure contour map for the
Central Sumatra Basin is shown as Figure 3. Major
faults cutting basement are organized about two
principal directions and are N-S and NW-SE. These
same two fundamental directions are also reproduced
by our detailed analysis of fault and fold orientations in
the CPP. Regardless of the scale viewed, these two
trends effectively break up the basin into numerous
variable scale rhomboids with sides that strike N-S and
NW-SE and are nearly equilateral (Figs. 3, 5, and 6).
Repeated Paleogene and Neogene reactivation of this
fundamental conjugate fracture system, at different
structural levels and under variable convergent and
transform plate boundary conditions have guided the
structural development of the CPP. The recognition of
this fundamental penetrative rhombic fracture pattern
throughout the CPP is not surprising; however, two
additional statistical maxima including NNE-SSW and
WNW-ESE are recognized as well (Fig. 4).
STRUCTURAL AND TECTOGENETIC
DEVELOPMENT
The geology of the CPP was compiled on 1:40,000 base
maps. Macroscopic fabric analyses comparable to
those shown on Figure 4 A,B,C were constructed for
each of the principal structural domains outlined by
the study. Figure 5 highlights the major structural
elements delineated by this study and shows them in
relationship to the adjoining CPP contract area. These
data in conjunction with our detailed fabric analyses
(Fig. 4) show that the majority of macroscopic
structural elements are organized into three discrete

populations plus two lesser sub-groups. Structural
styles and resulting deformational geometries that are
diagnostic, statistically unique, and form temporally
distinct families include: N60"W,-t lO"(Beruk);
N40"W, f15"(Sumatran); N15"W, LlO"(Zamrud-
Pedada); and NlO"E,+ lO"(Bengka1is).
Large-to small-scale structural elements of each
respective population are grouped temporally into four
relatively distinct periods of deformation. All mapped
elements were assessed quantitatively utilizing Schmidt
equal-area projections to define diagnostic geometrical
attributes. Deformational phases do not represent a
continuum although older pulses tend to grade into one
another without discrete tectonic and sedimentological
breaks. The four major pulses of structuring recognized
include: FO (Mesozoic und.), F1 (Eo-Oligocene), F2
(kearly Miocene), and F3 (mid-Miocene to Recent).
Structural characteristics of each pulse and their
influence on resultant trap geometry is discussed
sequentially from oldest (FO) to youngest (F3).
Pre-Eocene Deformation (FO)
Elements of N60"E,k lo" trend have had a profound
influence on the structural development of the CPP.
This is clearly reflected by the numerous structural
rhomboids outlined by the regional top basement
structure contour map (Fig. 3) and on our detailed
1:40,000 scale mapping as generalized on Figure 6.
Similar trends are shown by our macroscopic analysis
of high-angle reverse faults and shear zones (Fig. 4D)
and by fold axes and basement high culminations (Fig.
4E). This phase of deformation is the oldest (FO) and
due to our poor understanding of the basement
succession remains the least understood and
appreciated. Significant FO breaks which share this
trend include the Otak fold-fault zone (N45-55"W),
Kempas arch (N60-70"W), fault and upright open fold
trends throughout the Mutus terrane (N45-55"W), axes
of the Paleogene Sakai trough (N40"W), Siak Kecil
syncline (N50-60"W), Sembilan anticline (N45-50"W),
and bearing of the Bimbi fold-fault zone (N50"W).
Without doubt, the largest mapped structure in the
Coastal Plains area is the Otak suture of probable late
Triassic to early Jurassic age (Pulunggono and
Cameron, 1984). Repeated Tertiary reactivation along
this and other FO basement breaks influenced the
Cenozoic structural development of the block as
discussed later. The FO family of structures is given the
informal name "Beruk" after the large positive
basement high of N60"W,k10° trend that continues
westward linking with the Kempas and Rokan uplifts
(Fig. 5).
Deformation along the Otak zone is continuous and
the disparity in geology and severity of deformation
289
sympathetic to it, suggests significant transform or
strike-slip movement during suturing. The mutual
alignment of these structures is viewed as a direct
response of penetrative simple shear that propagated
northeastward away from and sympathetic to the Otak
suture. Distributed shear adjacent to the suture was
severe as reflected by the "off-trend'' of the Kempas
arch (N65"W,+5"). Kempas arching occupies the
classic second order fold direction resulting from a
right-lateral shear couple acting along the NW-trending
suture (Wilcox et al., 1973). This geometry and
assumption imply that during FO folding the maximum
principal horizontal stress (Sl) was oriented NNW-SSE.
The absence of similar fold trends south of the Otak
zone may suggest that Mutus basement deforms more
ductility than the metamorphic and crystalline
basement making up the Kempas block to the north;
consequently, fold trends are long and graceful
throughout the Mutus terrane in marked contrast to the
broken, more angular, discontinuous fold trends of the
adjoining Kempas domain. Kempas-Beruk elements of
the Coastal Plains framework striking N60"W, k lo" are
viewed as a distinct family varying in style and origin
from the much younger Sumatran direction
(N4OoW,k10").
Significant Beruk structures include the Otak fold-fault
zone, Rokan-Kempas-Beruk uplift, Siak Kecil syncline,
Sembilan uplift, and numerous smaller order elements
(Fig. 5). Faults and fold-fault zones belonging to the FO
family of structures are demonstrably old having
formed in some instances in late Triassic-early Jurassic
time (Pulunggono and Cameron, 1984). Compressional
reactivation (Koning and Darmono, 1984) occurred
during the Eocene-Oligocene and again concurrent
with Barisan Mountain orogenesis during the late
Miocene-Pliocene. Beruk folds are of consistent size,
have contiguous axial lengths often measuring 150
kilometers, and often show the Pematang as absent and
Sihapas formations as onlapping and thinning over
their culminations.
FO fault and fold-fault zones are statistically restricted
to high-angle normal, high-angle reverse, or vertical
faults that are typically down to the southwest.
Compressional reactivation of these basement blocks
during the Miocene deforms overlying Eo-Oligocene
through Pliocene strata by simple flexural-slip folding.
Miocene and younger structural terraces are
commonplace on the southwestern asymmetric flank of
the Sembilan anticline and Beruk-Kempas arch. They
are often fault-bounded, run parallel to the N50-70"W
direction and step down monotonously to the southwest
toward the Siak Kecil syncline and Sakai trough
(Fig. 6).
290
Eo-Oligocene Rift Phase (F,, 45-28 Ma)
F,-deformation (45-28 Ma) corresponds to the
appearance of N-and NNE-trending normal faults
concentrated along two separate continuous rift zones
filled to varying depths with Eo-Oligocene nonmarine
clastic and lacustrine sediments. Developed fault
patterns are characterized by longitudinal growth faults
striking subparallel to graben axes in normal fashion;
however, in detail one notes various combinations of
left-stepping graben doglegs, graben terminations,
linking transfers, and accommodation geometries. Large-
scale extensional deformation was largely completed
during Pematang time but locally continued into
Menggala, Bekasap, and occasionally early Telisa
time. Geometric and kinematic considerations indicate
that the minimum horizontal principal stress (S3) was
predominately oriented E-W during F1-deformation.
Two somewhat structurally distinct and geographically
separated families of extensional structures trend NO-
20"E across the CPP (Fig. 6). Both are Pematang in age
(45-28 Ma) and include: 1) A complex set of relative
shallow NNE-trending grabens and half-grabens
mapped continuously from the southwest corner of the
CPP across the Kempas and Sembilan arches to the
Selat Bengkalis on the north - a distance of +lo0 km;
and 2) the northern extension of the regionally
significant N-S-trending composite Bengkalis trough.
The length to width ratio for both graben sets is large
and averages about 6: I .
Sembilan-Kempas Grabens and WNW-Trending Sag
Basins
Sembilan, Kempas, and Labah grabens, half-grabens,
and horsts are formed by classic planar and listric
normal growth faults which dip in conjugate fashion at
45-60" (Fig. 7A). Where graben axes cut orthogonally
across the Siak Kecil syncline, local deeps are produced
that contain over 4,000 ft of combined Pematang and
Bekasap strata (Figs. 3 and 9). Overlying Telisa shale
thickens only slightly across the grabens while Petani
strata are void of growth. At their southern extremity,
Kempas and Labah grabens merge in a left-lateral drag
manner with the NW-WNW-trending Sakai trough and
becomes inverted in "Sunda" fashion along the Otak
fault-fold zone (Figs. 6 and 7B).
It was somewhat of a surprise to map the Sembilan-
Kempas and Labah graben system continuously across
the block since they did not share the N-S Bengkalis
trough trend. Palinspastic restoration of the graben
system shows that their averaged trend is about N20"E;
however, a complex interference pattern develops
where the graben systems merge with the Sakai-Otak
Basin and Bimbi fold-fault zones. The termination of
the Labah and Kempas grabens at the Bimbi fold-fault
zone is particularly apparent (Fig. 6). This style of
termination is a variant of the dogleg offset and en
echelon termination model proposed for similar
appearing geometries in the Aman, Balam, and Rangau
rift basins to the west (Williams et al., 1985). In this
instance the old Bimbi basement break acts as a synrift
lateral relay gathering extension from the Labah and
Kempas grabens on the south and transferring this
extension N and ESE to the Sembilan graben and
Petodak sag basin respectively.
Similar older phases of F1-2 extension and transtension
along the Pasaka-Pedada-Bungsu shear zone are
suggested on many seismic profiles crossing this trend.
The nested Pematang half-grabens imaged along the
Bungsu fault (Fig. 7D) and the small Pematang
depocenter situated at the right-stepping relay between
the Gatam-Sabak and Beruk-Rambah faults suggest
right-lateral wrenching along these N-S-striking shears
beginning in the Eo-Oligocene and continuing into the
early Miocene.
It is significant that the NNE-trending F1 rifts are
oriented perpendicular to the WNW-trending FO folds
and shear zones. This indicates that F1 fractures
preferred the shortest route between deep-seated breaks
and that their orientation was possibly controlled by
basement anisotrophy rather than the regional stress
field. The direction of extension (S3) is fixed in our
case since bi-directional extension is experience upon
crossing both the Kempas-Sembilan and Bimbi fracture
systems. The fact that F1 subsidence is somewhat less
pronounced and more broadly distributed parallel to
the Siak Kecil structural sag basin (syncline) and more
pronounced and focused along the Kempas-Sembilan
rift system (Fig. 3), suggests a W to WNW direction of
extension.
Furthermore, the presence of bi-directional extension
and absence of marked differential growth within the
Kempas-Sembilan grabens, dismisses the likelihood of
significant F1 axis parallel wrenching along this graben
system. Similar subsidence ratios of FO/F1 hold for
intersections involving the Kempas-Sembilan rifts with
the Melibur-Padang and Sakai-Otak structural
depressions. These observations argue for a dominant
mode of formation that is largely extensional and
directed in an E-to ENE-direction. In certain aspects
this interpretation is quite reminiscent of the more
general Bengkalis graben model developed by Moulds
(1989).
The F1 NW-WNW-trending Otak and Siak Kecil
depocenters appear in dip sections as shallow synclinal

catchment basins separating the Beruk-Kempas and
Sembilan basement uplifts. E-W-directed extension
across the N60"E, klOO-striking Otak-Sakai and Siak
Kecil basement breaks promotes weak divergent
tangential stretching and rifting. A similar situation is
expected at the northern edge of the CPP where the
Kempas-Sembilan rift interacts with the NW-trending
Melibur graben. Protracted F1 extension resulted in
the development of subparallel sets of shallow synclinal
basins which have a low potential of containing
significant lacustrine source rocks. An exception to
this is where F, graben axes cut orthogonally across o r
merge with the Sakai/Otak, Siak KeciUBimbi, and
MelibudPadang downwarps. Local deeps are often
produced at these intersections and localize in excess of
4-6,000 ft of combined Pematang, Menggala and
Bekasap strata (Figs. 7A-B).
Protracted weak divergent tangential F1 stretching
across the Otak, Bimbi, and West Melibur basement
breaks account for the subparallel set of relatively
shallow symmetrical catchment basins. Exploration
adjoining and within these downwarps demonstrate a
low potential for containing significant lacustrine
source rocks. An exception to this is where the
Kempas-Sembilan rifts cross or merge with the Sakai/
Otak and Siak Kecil/Bimbi downwarps. E-W-
stretching is additive in these areas and local Fl deeps
containing significant thicknesses of potential
Pematang source rocks (Figs. 3 and 7A-B). These local
deeps may serve as excellent local kitchens, however,
this was not the case at the BimbdKempas-Sembilan
intersection since the intervening Airhitam horst was
high-standing during Pematang time and shed
considerable siliciclastic debris into the flanking Labah
and Kempas half-grabens (Figs. 3 and 9).
Bengkalis Trough
The Bengkalis trough lies sixty kilometers east of the
Kempas-Sembilan grabens. This rift system is regional
in extent, trends N-S for over 250 km, and enters the
CPP along its eastern margin. Sparse seismic and
gravity data from along the eastern border of the CPP
show this Eo-Oligocene trough as segmented into three
N-S-trending compartments including the Petodak
(south), Metas (central), and Butun (north). The
thickness of Eo-Oligocene fill appears to increase
northward reaching a depth in excess of -12,000 ft to
basement west of the Butun field.
In cross section, the Metas deep appears as a half-
graben localized in the hanging wall of the shallow W-
dipping Metas listric growth fault (Fig. 8). F1 uplift
along the Metas fault was adequate to eliminate
significant Eo-Oligocene deposition on the Kuantan
291
high (Praptono et al., 1991). In contrast, the western
margin of the Metas trough appears more passive
showing upper Pematang units onlapping across minor
antithetic down-to-E-bounding faults. This geometry is
reversed to the north in the Butun compartment where
tectonic transport and growth polarity is down-to-the-
east beneath the Lalang-Butun fault. By analogy with
Metas, the eastern margin has only moderate antithetic
normal faulting and Pematang units are shown
onlapping eastward with the zero edge lying beneath
and immediately east of the Kurau and D C fields
respectively (Longley, et al., 1990; and Putrohari,
1992).
As portrayed on deformed-state cross section A-A'
(Fig. SA), basement rises abruptly from depths of -
12,000 f t in the axial portion of the graben to about
-4,000 ft on the adjoining Kuantan high. Palinspastic
restorations to top Bekasap (Fig. 8B) removes the
post-Mengalla sag phase deformation by assuming the
vertical simple shear methodology (Verrall, 1981).
Figure 8C restores top middle Menggala as it would
have looked at about 28 Ma using inclined simple
antithetic shear at 72" At this time the Metas
detachment had experienced over 5 km of dip
separation on basement and over 2.5 km of throw.
Figures 8D and E show the sequentially restored
hanging wall to top middle Menggala and top basement
respectively assuming 72" antithetic simple shear. The
fault trajectory shown dashed in each restoration
emphasizes the depth-flattening listric character of the
Metas breakaway. The depth to detachment at middle
Menggala time is placed at 5 km. This depth is
anomalously shallow for intra-continental rifts but one
that we have documented repeatedly for other
Pematang troughs of central Sumatra and is viewed as
representative for F1 rifting.
As pointed out by Moulds (1989) most basins making
up the Bengkalis depression appear like oblong pearls
strung together along subparallel N-S lines. Individual
sub-grabens or basins being repeatedly offset from
adjoining depocenters in a left-stepping sense, and
terminating against old lines of basement weaknesses
or lineations of NW-SE trend. This structural pattern is
clearly replicated in the CPP; however, we interpret
the left-stepping doglegs and their tectogenetic
development somewhat differently.
The observed left-stepping "offset" of individual sub-
basins is a geometrical response of facing or opposed
tectonic transport from the east-directed (Butun) and
west-directed (Metas) growth normal structures. In this
instance, the conjugate facing Metas and Lalang-Butun
fault tips geometrically approach and appear to slightly
292
overlap one another (Fig. 6). Opposed bi-directional
extension with this arrangement of fault tips creates an
E-W-oriented right-lateral shear couple across the
intervening area of overlap. Each facing half-graben
effectively competes for the same intervening area of
overlap producing a relatively high-standing welt of
ENE-WSW trend. Bosworth (1985) coined the term
"accommodation zone" for such areas; whereas,
Rosendahl (1987) called them "hinged highs" or "low-
and high-relief accommodation zones" depending on
the degree of overlap.
The marked thinning of lower and middle Pematang
units against the Butun-Metas accommodation zone
suggests moderate structural relief during F1. This
effectively isolated the Butun and Metas depocenters.
The geophysical expression of the moderate-relief
Butun-Metas accommodation zone is appreciated by
combining the CPP geologic and regional Bouger
gravity maps (Fig. 10). The pronounced gravity high
cuts obliquely across the Bengkalis trough, produces a
gravity saddle that reaches from south of the MSN field
almost to Zamrud, and effects the apparent left-lateral
"offset" between the N-S-trending Metas and Butun
depocenters.
The deep Butun depocenter is shown to terminate
abruptly northward against the NW-SE-striking Padang
fault. This fault may represent an old FO basement line
of weakness and reflect significant right-lateral strike-
slip displacement along the Padang fault during
Bengkalis rifting. Eo-Oligocene compressional
reactivation of elements with similar trends from the
CPP was suggested earlier by Koning and Darmono
(1984); and noted in this study along the Otak fault-
fold zones and across the Kempas and Sembilan
basement highs bald of Pematang and Bekasap strata.
This relationship is seen on Seismic Line 2211 where
the up thrown Sembilan anticline shows Pematang and
Bekasap onlapping basement southward toward the
Bimbi fault zone (Fig. 7E).
Unfortunately, we were unable to document across fault
plains capable of establishing the amount and nature of
F1 strike-slip along the old WNW-NW basement
breaks. But indirect evidence assembled implies only
minor transpression or none at all. Evidence
considered include the net absence of Kempas-
Sembilan graben offset across the Bimbi trend, the
apparent left-lateral drag of Kempas-Sembilan grabens
as they merge with the Sakai Otak zone, and lack of
evidence for axis parallel dextral slip in either graben
systems. Other crustal variables need to be invoked to
account for the persistent Beruk-Kempas and Sembilan
basement highs. This approach seems more rational
than invoking large amounts of dextral slip and
transpression on NW- or WNW-trending structures
during the Eo-Oligocene. The Padang fault may
represent an exception to this generalization.
The true nature of the Padang fault during Bengkalis
rifting remains obscure although there is mention of
minor structural inversion along this margin near the
end of Pematang group deposition (Putrohari, 1992).
Without additional evidence for F1 transpressional
deformation, the Padang fault apparently acted as a
lateral transfer effectively distributing focused Butun
extension (south) to unfocused widespread extension
across the Melibur block (north). The broad area of
distributed crustal extension north of the Padang fault
is recognized by the several lesser disconnected
Pematang grabens scattered over much of the Melibur
uplift, an area extending 35 km N by 30 km E-ESE
(Praptono, et al., 1991).
We believe this was the situation during F1 and only
minor transpressional right-lateral strike-slip
displacement occurred along the Padang, Bimbi, and
Otak zones. Where the N-S-trending Bengkalis fracture
zone intersects the WNW-trending FO crustal breaks,
extension occurs across both trends focusing both
shallow and deep crustal distension. It is the deeper
perturbed zone at +.5 km that triggers the development
of a listric normal fault tip that propagates upward
toward the FO/F1 rhomboidal intersection. Continued
E-W-directed crustal stretching proceeds to pull the
crust apart along the two fundamental directions
resulting in the typical rhomb-shaped pull-apart
morphology shown by the Butun and Metas
depocenters. The ultimate depth of sediment fill within
a given rhombic compartment is restricted by the depth
to the underlying F1 detachment, in the northern
Bengkalis case about 5 km.
Intra-Pematang Inversion
Although the timing is not well constrained, available
seismic data show at least one period of intra-Pematang
structural inversion within the Bengkalis trough. F,
structural inversion involves the lower redbed and
brown shale successions and locally produces low-relief
dip-closed structures as high as the Menggala level.
Pop-up inversions of older Pematang units appear
concentrated along either the: 1) Butun-Metas A Z or
other structures of NE-ENE and NW-WNW trend; and
2) major growth normal faults that strike NW linking
laterally to N-S-striking margin-bounding faults. Major
inversion within this portion of the Bengkalis trough
ceased by 28 Ma. This is accepted as the end of
Pematang deposition and correlates with the major
eustatic lowstand at 28-29 Ma and the commencement
of the post-rifting thermal subsidence phase within
the CPP and the adjoining Malacca Straits PSC
(Putrohari,1992).

Middle Miocene Sag (28-20 Ma) and Transtensional
(20-13 Ma) F2 Phases
The Pematang is blanketed by an overall upward fining
alluvial-fluvial-deltaic-marine transgressive succession
through early Miocene (F2) in age (28-13 Ma).
Regional post-F1 thermal subsidence augmented the
Miocene highstand transgression and where the
succession overlies F1 rifts the typical longhorn sag
basin morphology develops (Fig. 8). The early portion
of this deformational phase (F2E, 28-20 Ma) was
dominated by overall structural quiescence. Only
minor normal faulting related to the waning stages of
Pematang rifting continued and locally involved
Menggala, Bekasap, and occasionally Telisa strata.
This relationship is well-developed over the Butun,
Metas, and Petodak sub-basins (Figs. 8 and 9) and the
northern portion of the Sembilan half-graben (Fig. 7A).
In the Coastal Plains area, structural quiescence ended
with the deposition of the major reservoir sands of the
Sihapas. The ensuing phase of tectonism is
superimposed upon the larger thermal subsidence cycle
and persisted from 20-13 Ma (F2L). During this
interval, a temporally and geometrically distinct group
of structures developed across the CPP and particularly
throughout the Kempas, Zamrud, and Pusaka-Pedada
structural blocks (Fig. 6).
This pulse of intra-Telisa deformation (F2L) appears as
an important tectonic transition in the coastal plains
area. Early Miocene structural quiescence ceased with
the appearance of right-lateral wrenching localized
along existing N-S-oriented F1 extensional fractures
and older N-S-oriented F0 basement breaks. The
change from F 1 extension and F21 thermal sag-
dominated deformation was gradual and appears related
to a progressive shift from horizontally-directed lateral
extension to one dominated by horizontally-directed
lateral compression. The magnitude of tangential shear
acting across N-S-oriented fractures increased rapidly
with continued clockwise orienation of $1; and by mid-
Telisa time, distributed right-lateral failure occurred
across the block on elements striking N-S and NNE.
Under the F2 stress regime, Paleogene fractures of the
Sembilan-Kempas graben system occupied the synthetic
Reidel shear position and were reactivated by right-
lateral strike-slip. Measured right-lateral separations
are usually modest, typically being measured by a few
kilometers but offsets up to 13 km are indicated.
Mapped offsets for the six principal faults shown on
Figure 6 are summarized on Table 1. The cumulative
offset for this family of right-lateral strike-slips faults is
placed at 43 km and is considered a m i n i m u m for the
CPP. The offset of multiple piercing points provided
293
by the WNW-trending Sembilan anticline, Bimbi
fold-fault, Siak Kecil syncline, and Beruk-Kempas arch
constrains this interpretation. The 13 km separation
placed on the Zamrud fault is based solely on the
somewhat speculative correlation of the offset Sembilan
anticlinal axis and Bimbi (Ext)? at the South Zamrud
field. This amount of offset is reinforced by our
regional gravity map which shows a prominent gravity
high plunging SE from Zamrud. We interpret this to be
the continuation of the Sembilan anticline, offset
dextrally 13 km from Doral (Fig. 9). Similar magnitude
offsets are recorded along the Mandau-Labah and
Bungsu fault zones (Table 1). We have attempted to
check for internal structural integrity and assess the
geometrical consequence of this penetrative right-
lateral shearing by attempting a brut restoration of the
mapped area.
Figure 10A restores the offsets identified on Table 1
and generalizes the geometry of mapped faults,
disposition of Pematang depocenters, and distribution
of major kink domain boundaries. The absence of
large post-F1 pull-apart basins across this cratonal
basement terrain indicates that F1-2 faults with 10-15
km of displacement were not severely defracted or
kinked at the time of displacement. Figure 10B
attempts to reverse the kinked domain by 20° using the
two indicated kink planes. This simple restoration
produces an acceptable swarm of subparallel N-S-
striking F0-2 faults; a less angular more appealing set of
NNE-trending half-grabens; and a N-S-trending
Bengkalis trough consisting of two subparallel en
echelon depocenters.
The SG half-graben is restored northward by backing
out most of the 25 km of displacement along the
Gatam-Sabak (6-8 km), Bungsu-Pedada (12 km), and
Beruk-Rambah (5 km) respectively. The restored SG
segment extends the NNE trend of the Labah-Kempas-
Sembilan-SG (Ext) half-grabens while emphasizing its
potential geometrical affinity to the adjoining N.
Padang graben. Praptono et al. (1991) depict the N.
Padang graben as arcuate and trending N15-30°E, and
adjoining the Bengkalis trough (their Fig. 3). Little
question remains regarding the presence, trend, and
affinity of the N. Padang graben. It is locked into the
same regional stress field or follows the same
basement-controlling anisotropy as the Kempas-
Sembilan system. There is a question, however,
regarding its structural and sedimentological allegiance
to the adjoining Bengkalis Butun) vs. Kempas-
Sembilan rifts. If the later is the case, then one has a
piercing point across the Padang fault, its sense of post-
Paleogene net slip, and the approximate location of the
hypothetical faulted-off extension of the Bengkalis
trough.
294
The conceptual restoration shown on Figure 10B lends
geologic credence to our speculation regarding the 13
km Bouger gravity offset on the Lalang-Butun-Zamrud
fault. Additional indirect geological support for the 13
km offset comes from our compilation of mapped fault
tip and rift terminations, dogleg bends, local Pematang
depocenters, regional kink domain boundaries, and the
Butun-Metas accommodation zone. Figure 11 shows
their distribution as they appear on a partial restoration
similar to Figure ZOB. This schematic map shows the
restored position of the WNW-trending FO basement
breaks including the Sembilan anticline, Bimbi fold-
fault zone, Kempas arch, and Sakai-Otak zone. The
position of the Bengkalis trough and its two en echelon
depocenters is restored by the assumed 13 km of
displacement on the Zamrud fault.
What is not immediately apparent from our geologic
mapping (Fig. 6), is the frequency of geologic
phenomena concentrated along an E-W belt connecting
the Metas fault tip with the Labah rift termination. The
likelihood of the mapped and restored relationship
being a random geologic coincidence is considered
small. We view this E-W belt of focused deformation as
a fundamentally important regional-scale zone of
accommodation. Differential extension along the axis
of the Bengkalis trough during F1 is effectively linked
from south to north across the entire Coastal Plains via
the assorted combinations of fault and fold linkages
constituting the Metas-Labah zone. The correct
recognition of this fundamental zone has numerous
geological and geophysical ramifications:
1) The zone most likely tracks the direction of
tectonic transport and contains the minimum
principal stress direction (S3) for F1 hanging wall
rocks.
2) The Kempas-Sembilan left-stepping connector
dogleg graben provides a qualitative measure of
the amount of differential F1 extension along the
Bengkalis trough north and south of Butun-Metas
accommodation zone. Restored cross section A-A'
(Fig. S), fixes the dip-slip component across the
Metas depocenter at about 5 km, the left-stepping
Kempas-Sembilan dogleg suggest that north of the
Butun-Metas A Z there is at least twice this
amount, a fact support by available seismic and
somewhat by the gravity data (Figs. 3 and 9). The
Metas-Labah AZ is a direct near surface expression
of this differential expansion across the zone.
3) The E-W direction of tectonic transport and
shallow depth to the underlying basal detachment,
give the impression of a very thin hanging wall
slab that is being extcnded along the Bengkalis
trough by at least twice its thickness. This hanging
wall geometry and the E-W transport direction
provides an explanation for the enigmatic left-
lateral drag of the Labah and Kempas grabens as
they merge into the Otak fold-fault zone. The
geometry formed by the intersection of the Otak
zone with E-W tectonic transport is highly
restraining. The observed left-lateral drag is a
qualitative measure of this interaction and accounts
for a large portion of the Cenozoic deformation
along this zone (Fig. 7B).
4) The restraining geometry along the Otak zone,
places the hanging wall block in relative N-S
compression. This lateral compression augmented
the formation and subsequent F1 inversion of the
connector dogleg (Figs. 6 and 7E). It also appears
to have encouraged the development of the
northern kink domain and subsequent F2
development of the right-stepping transtensional
linkage extending north from Zamrud to Butun.
This lateral resistance in conjunction with the
change to NE-SW directed compression placed the
Doral-Nilam and similar trends into the
characteristic F2 releasing bend position.
Where right-lateral strike-slip motion is transferred on
to new or pre-existing lines of weakness striking N or
NNE, transtension results. Diagnostic structures which
develop along F2 releasing fault bends include a variety
of subparallel structures involving combinations of
pull-apart grabens, half-grabens, small positive and
negative flowers, listric- and planar domino-style
normal faults, and allied growth structures. Resultant
folds along the N- and NNE-trends are short,
discontinuous, and passively draped into local flanking
negative sag troughs.
Detailed mapping of macroscopic structures in the
Kempas, Beruk, and Zamrud areas were measured and
plotted on Schmidt stereograms and strike rosettes
(Fig. 4). A total of 557 high-and low-angle planar
normal and 176 listric normal faults were measured in
5 km long strike segments. These are plotted
respectively on Figures 4G (planar), and 4H (listric).
Both conjugate shear members are well represented
and show a near perfect Gaussian distribution centered
on maxima of N15-20"E strike. This trend is likewise
apparent on Figure 4F, the strike frequency distribution
of wrench faults interpreted as having formed under
transpressional or transtensional conditions.
Seismic Line 2077 is representative of seismic profiles
crossing right-lateral strike-slip faults that are
transtensional in nature (Fig. 7D). This profile crosses
the Bungsu fault north of the Bungsu and Idris fields

where it strikes N05"E and is near vertical. The
disparity in Pematang and Telisa thickness across the
fault is indicative of significant transcurrent movement
(12 km, Table 1); however, there is little evidence of
transpression along this and adjoining profiles. It is
also apparent that listric fault geometries outweigh
planar arrays by about 4:1, and most of the listric faults
sole out at top Bekasap. The timing of F2 deformation
along this profile is fixed by the differential thickening
of middle and upper Telisa strata (+25%) into the
relatively down-thrown pull-apart grabens east of the
fault. The upward termination of normal and strike-slip
fault tips demonstrate that F2 transtension along the
Bungsu was largely completed by end Telisa time,
although elsewhere along the shear zone transtension
continued through Petani A time (Fig. 2).
F2 folding along N-NNE-striking faults is less
organized and predictable than folds of other
deformational episodes. Folds are characterized by
having short discontinuous axial lengths, moderate to
small structural relief (<150 ft), and small areal
closures. They are repeatedly flanked to the west by en
echelon sets of narrow linear pull-apart rifts
characterized by a variety of intermeshing negative
flower structures. Traps are provided by passively
draping and locally faulting the Telisa against Bekasap
sands as they roll into the adjoining down thrown
negative transtensional sags. Small low-relief structural
closures are also formed as hanging wall rollovers
above listric normal faults that sole out in the Telisa,
Pematang or basement. Local pop-up closures are also
produced within transtensional deformation belts. This
occurs where right-lateral transcurrent motion is
relayed onto faults of NNW-NW strike. This geometry
within the dextral shear couple produces local
transpression and results in positive flower
development. The first line of structures west of the
Bengkalis trough characterizes this setting and include
fields at Nilam and Dora1 (Fig. 6).
Late Miocene-Recent Compressional Phase (F3, 13Ma -
Present)
Quiescent early F2E sag and active late F2L wrenching
across the CPP stopped by the end of Telisa or earliest
Petani time (13-12 Ma). The change to regional
"Barisan" tectonism as expressed in local deformation
styles was abrupt and dramatic. It was also coincident
with 1) initiation of NNE-directed subduction along the
NW-trending Sunda trench, 2) appearance of Andean-
type arc volcanism along the entire SW margin of
Sundaland, 3) commencement of sea-floor spreading in
the Andaman sea, 4) activation of significant right-
lateral strike-slip (transform) movement along the axis
of volcanism (Great Sumatra fault zone), 5 ) back-arc
295
styles of deformation and alkalic igneous activity (Fig.
7C) across the North, Central and South Sumatra
Basins, and 6) regression of marine lower Petani seas
NW and SE coeval with the inflation of the emerging
Barisan Mountains to the west (Mertosono and
Nayoan, 1974; and Hamilton, 1979, 1988).
During early Petani time (13-10 Ma) N-S-striking FO-2
fractures were reactivated as dextral wrench faults and
locally kinked from N-S strikes to N15-25"W-striking
fault segments. Changes in strike are abrupt and quite
angular with strike differentials between 15-25" and
averaging 20". Linked fault systems that display this
kinked fault-bend geometry include the Bukitbatd
Mandau, Pedada-Pusaka/Bungsu, and Lalang-Butun/
Doral-Nilam/Zamrud (Fig. 6). The consequence of this
angularity is reflected in the synoptic frequency
diagram of total mapped wrench faults shown on
Figure 4F. This kinked fault-bend geometry was
alternatively interpreted by Moulds (1989) as due to
"refraction" or deflection of the wrench fault as it
passes through competent/incompenent junctions.
Figure 10 is a partial paleotectonic sketch map of the
CPP as it would have appeared near the end of the
early sag phase (circa 20 Ma) after unkinking the 20" of
F2L-3 rotation along the Sembilan-Bimbi kink zone.
The kinked F2 fault-bend geometry appears to have
evolved coincident with reorienting S1 into a more NE-
SW orientation during the inception of Barisan
tectonism (F3). As discussed previously, statistical
analyses of fold trends throughout central and northern
Sumatra demonstrate that F3 folds and faults including
the Great Sumatra fault strike N25-45"W (Figs. 4A-C).
Allied fold and fault trains from the Coast Plains area
are statistically parallel with the Barisan trends and are
interpreted as cotectonic. The strike frequency
distribution of all CPP folds are included as Figure 4E.
This distribution of fold trends is necessarily broad due
to the inclusion of WNW-trending FO folds; however,
the overall maximum centered on N40"W is quite
apparent and identical to Barisan fold trends (Fig. 4B).
A comparison of strike histograms for Sumatran fault
(Figs. 4A and C) and fold trends fail to reveal the
classic en echelon wrench tectonic arrangement of
coeval F3 folds as proposed by Harding (1984). This
suggests to us that they are predominantly
compressional, not wrench in origin. An identical
geometrical relationship holds for the Coastal Plains
area, although fault strikes and fold trends are a bit
more scattered due to the incorporation of older non-
Barisan trends (Figs. 4D-F).
These geometrical relationships appear compatible
with the present-day central Sumatra stress field
determined by Mount and Suppe (1992). Their
296
examination of 258 breakout directions in 18 wells in
central Sumatra fixes the present-day maximum
horizontal principal stress (Sl) as 039",*3.5". The
small dihedral angle (5-25") subtended by normals to
F3 folds and faults and S1 produces a preponderance of
compressional deformation, while maintaining a
smaller component of right-lateral oblique-slip.
In the Coastal Plains area, all pronounced
compressional folds are arranged subparallel to fault
zones striking N15-25"W. This represents a more
pronounced restraining bend position than adjoining
non-kinked N-S-striking segments with respect to the
NE-SW-directed S1. Figure 7F shows dip line 1257
across the north end of the Pedada structure. The
imaged fold form has classic fault-bend character and is
forced into closure by SW-directed vergence above
an ENE-dipping depth-flattening ramp system. This
style of deformation is characteristic of fault-fold pairs
housing some of the largest oil fields in the block
including: Pedada-Benua (N15-25"W), Lalang-
Mengkapan-Butun and (N15"W). All of these folds are
viewed as having been actively forced upward and
westward into closure. Resultant folds are typically
long, continuous, and curvilinear being linked laterally
along strike with other similar folds to form fold trains
running the length of the bend. These high-relief
structures have closures measured in 100's of
milliseconds, and represent some of the youngest and
largest structures recognized in the CPP. From an
exploration and development perspective, compressional
F3 structures are the most significant elements of the
Coastal Plains framework and easiest to recognize and
interpret.
Most N45-55"W-strikingFO basement breaks were also
reactivated during F3. Figure 4D shows the strike
frequency distribution of high-angle FO faults that were
compressionally reactivated. These structures are on
average less than 10" removed from being
perpendicular to the suggested maximum principal
stress direction. Seismic Line 4013 (Fig. 7B) shows a
classic Sunda-style inversion of the Sakai-Sembilan-
Kempas troughs in the SW corner of the CPP (Eubank
and Makki, 1981). Late Miocene and Pliocene Petani
strata are gently flexed across the underlying composite
Pematang troughs. Seismic Line 2211 shows similar
graceful flexing of Petani and older strata across the
SSW-facing Sembilan front and the Bimbi fold-fault
zone (Fig. 7E).
Additional evidence for F3 crustal flexing and
compressional reactivation along WNW-trending
basement trends is afforded by the Buatan and Merak
intrusions (Fig. 6). Both intrusive centers are located
along the crestal culmination of the Kempas-Beruk
basement arch, are laccolithic in shape (Fig. 7C),
floored near top Bekasap, and actively arch overlying
carapaces of Telisa and lowermost Petani strata (12-13
Ma). The olivine trachyte intrusion at Buatan has a
distinct alkalic affinity common to many back-arc
tectonic settings (Bass, 1980). It is no coincident that
both centers are localized at points of maximum
curvature along the flexed and stretched Kempas-
Beruk culmination. Similar intrusions from the Central
Sumatra Basin yield WAr relative ages between 12-17
Ma and include alkali olivine basalt, diabase, and
mugearite with high K/Na ratios. There is little
question that these back-arc intrusions herald the
establishment of conventional Andean subduction
along the S-SW margin of Sumatra and initiation of
Barisan (F3) compressional shortening extending from
the proto-Sunda trench to mainland Malaysia (Fig. 1).
Total F3 shortening across the CPP is small and
concentric flexing appears as gentle drape folds over
vertical to steeply NNE-NE-dipping reverse faults.
Similar fold forms are noted almost continuously along
the Otak and Bimbi basement breaks. A comparable
phase of deformation is mentioned for the Padang fault
and Melibur uplift although the resulting style of
deformation in the Malacca Strait Contract area is
somewhat different (Praptono et al., 1991). FO
structures were clearly oriented in a favorable
orientation for reactivation and inversion; however,
in the CPP these huge low-relief structures have proven
somewhat unfavorable for trapping significant
quantities of hydrocarbons.
As summarized on Figure 7 (B, E , and F),
representative seismic profiles across F3 compressional
structures show total shortening as variable, in general
small, and focused along older F1-3 elements of NO-
35"W strike. The proportion of dextral strike-slip
attributable to F3 deformation is difficult to assess. As
summarized on Table 1 , 6 different fault zones have an
accumulative post-F1 dextral-slip of 43 km across the
block. With the exception of deformation associated
with high relief F3 structures, it is the exception to have
significant transpressional or transtensional
deformation involving upper Petani or Minas strata.
This indicates that post-F2 dextral-slip is minimal and
the existence of a penetrative dextral shear couple
acting on the entire CPP after 10 Ma seems unlikely.
Focused compressional tectonism along restraining
bends did, however, continue locally well into Petani
time (Figs. 7B, E, F)
This data synthesis suggests that most elements
comprising the Cenozoic framework have had a long
and protracted history. The 13 Ma to present family of
NO-25"W faults ("F3") serve as an excellent example of

why it is important to carefully decipher their complex
tectogenesis (Figs. 6 and 10). N-S-striking FO and Eo-
Oligocene F1 fractures were predominately extensional
during Pematang rifting. They became right-lateral
transpressional/ transtensional strike-slip faults during
Telisa time (F2L), and once kinked or refracted into
the NNW position acted as compressional right-lateral
oblique-slip thrust and reverse faults during F3. An
understanding of h& this family of fractures evolved
and were linked through time and space is crucial. This
is particularly true when addressing issues concerning
the basic structural architecture of the deep anoxic
Pematang depocenters, when and how this architecture
was modified, where were the probable and preferred
hydrocarbon migration routes outward from these
centers, which traps existed during migration, and how
we improve our ability to successfully predict the
sealing and leaking capacity of a particular fault within
this evolving framework.
FAULT-BEND HABITAT AND OIL FIELDS
Three different types of structural closures trap
significant quantities of hydrocarbons within the CPP
including: 1) high- to moderate-relief double-plunging
F3 anticlinal culminations bearing N10-25"W parallel
to compressional oblique-slip faults (Pedada, Sabak,
and Butun trends); 2) high-relief FO anticlinal folds
juxtaposed along F3 restraining fault bends (Pusaka-
Zamrud-Beruk); and 3) low-relief F2/F3 pop-up
structures and minor footwall uplift closures within or
flanking N-NNE-trending belts of transtensional
deformation (Doral, Nilam, and Bungsu). The NE
Beruk field represents a fourth type of moderate-relief
trap where hydrocarbons are localized within naturally
fractured pre-Tertiary basement rocks.
The seismic line montage included as Figure 12
characterizes the three basic types of structural
closures. Inset A shows the location of seismic sections
C, D , and E as well as depicts the typical spatial and
geometrical relationship between fault strike,
deformational style, and fault-bend habitat of respective
fields. A comparison of reflection time sections 1, 2,
and 3 underscores the marked difference in
deformational style as a function of variable fault strike
- N25"W (Pedada-Pusaka trend), N1O"W (Zamrud), and
N1O"E (Doral-Nilam trend) respectively. Figure 12B
depicts the relative structural position of time sections
1-3 as a function of the ambient maximum principal
horizontal stress (SH) and the typical F3 right-stepping
lazy Z fault bend depicting only two periods of right-
lateral oblique-slip displacement. The resulting NNW-
trending compressional fold along the restraining fault
segment is shown along with a N-NNE-trending
rhombic pull-apart sympathetic to the releasing fault
297
bend segment. In the following section, we cast
high-, moderate-, and low-relief trap geometry in the
F3 restraining-releasing fault bend framework;
characterize resulting fracture patterns and their
relative sealing capacity; and comment on the
relevance of this FO-3 architecture on the migration,
trapping, and sealing of hydrocarbons.
High-to Moderate-Relief Structural Traps Along F3
Restraining Fault Bends
F3 reverse oblique-slip faults of N10-25"W strike
provide the most common structural habitat for
hydrocarbons in the CPP. This group of structural traps
contain between 50-350 MMBOIP and represent
about 35% of total inplace oil. Structural traps are
typically oriented parallel to F3 reverse oblique-slip
fault strike, are doubly plunging, and produce from 3-7
reservoirs with 400 +200' ft of structural relief(Tab1e
2). Multiple subparallel pools define three productive
trends including: 1) Pedada-Benua-Dusun-Pusaka; 2)
Gatam-Sabak; and 3) Lalang-Mengkapan-Butun (Figs.
5 and 6). Each trend shows common fold styles, similar
modes of internal deformation, and are youthful
having formed in the mid-late Miocene and Pliocene
(F2L-3). The Pusaka-Pedada trend is by far the best
documented, productive, and representative of the
other lesser developed and productive trends.
Figures 7F and 12C portray typical fold and fault styles
observed along the prolific Pusaka-Pedada trend. Folds
of this trend are WSW-vergent and forced upward and
westward along steep ENE-dipping reverse faults. In
some instances the high-angle reverse faults appear to
flatten with depth soling out as shallow ENE-dipping
thrusts (Fig. 7F). Such structures display fault-bend
fold characteristics, have fold axes which parallel fault
strike, and are interpreted as having a significant
compressional aspect. Deformation along the zone is
quite youthful (F3) as demonstrated by the tightly
folded Petani in Figures 7F and 12C. The F3 age and
compressional character are consistent with the NE-
SW-oriented maximum horizontal stress suggested by
Mount and Suppe (1992). The obtuse angle between
S1 and the N25"W-striking Pedada-Pusaka fault zone
is moderately large (+65") and adequate to induce the
observed compressional fault-bend fold geometry. A
smaller component of right-lateral tangential shear is
also involved since S1 is not exactly perpendicular to
the N10-25"W kinked fault zones.
Evidence of coeval oblique-slip wrenching is noted by
tracking the Pedada-Pusaka fault zone SSE. Where it
crosses the Sembilan-Bimbi fold-fault zone and Metas-
Labah compartmental boundary (Figs. 6 and lOA), it
steps right, continues south as the N-S-trending Bungsu
298
shear zone and immediately shows a marked change in
deformational character. The net change in structural
style is from one dominated by compression to one
characterized by transtensional releasing geometries
like those seen on Figure 7D and shown schematically
on the tectogenetic synopsis sketch (Fig. 12B, #3 and
12E).
Detailed field maps of Pedada, Benua and Dusun show
the Pedada-Pusaka fault as somewhat anastomosing
and consisting of several right- and left-stepping en
echelon breaks that most likely merge at depth into a
single zone of through-going shear striking N20"W. As
indicated by Figures 7F and 12C, fields along this trend
possess excellent structural relief and consistently
maintain large throws along strike. Vergence is SW-
directed with marine shales, mudstones and siltstones
of the Telisa and lower Petani making up the
overridden footwall. The combination of pronounced
compression, good structural relief and juxtaposition
of reservoir sands against a thick sealing shale-siltstone
footwall, produce an excellent habitat for impeding
further westward (up-dip) migration of hydrocarbons.
With the regional F3 framework in place, the
subparallel first line of structures including Lalang,
Mengkapan, and Butun were filled to spill point.
Migratlqn then proceeded westward up regional dip,
S-SE along the Doral-Nilam dilatant zone and WNW
up-plunge along the Sembilan culmination charging the
second line of structures. The final result was the
trapping of large reserves along the +30 km long
Pedada to Pusaka restraining trend with individual
fields often containing 150-350 MMBOIP.
High-Relief FO Anticlines Juxtaposed Against F3
Restraining Fault Bends
Over three quarters of the inplace oil in the CPP is
contained within three large fields. Each field occupies
the same somewhat unique structural setting involving
juxtaposing an old FO arch (Beruk) and FO-1
anticline (Sembilan) along highly compressional and
transpressional down-to-the-west reverse oblique-slip
F3 fault segments. Fields occupying this prolific
hydrocarbon habitat often have q500 ft of structural
relief, q350 ft of individual reservoir relief, produce
from 5 reservoirs, and will yield between 150 to 750
MMBOIP. The large Pusaka, Zamrud, and Beruk
fields characterize this group of high-relief structural
trap (Figs. 5 and 6 ).
Although Pusaka shares the Pedada-Dusun second line
of producing structures, in actuality it is comprised of
two separate and distinct structural entities. The N-
NNW-striking Pusaka-Pedada fault constitutes the up-
dip seal for the northern flank; whereas, the southern
flank is sealed by the N-S-striking Bungsu fault (Fig.
6). Secondly, the field's anticlinal axis is not fault
parallel as is the case for other Pedada-Dusun fields.
Rather the fields crestal line is interpreted here as the
faulted-off extension of the regional S45-50"E plunging
Sembilan anticline. This would imply that the Bungsu-
Pusaka-Pedada fault system has a minimum of 8 km of
right-lateral separation (Table 1); however, the complex
right-stepping lateral relay of F1-2 displacement from
the Gatam-Sabak(6-8 km) to the Beruk-Rabah (5 km)
produces an excess of 12 km of dextral separation
along the Pusaka-Bungsu strand as determined
palinspastically by restoring the Pematang sag basin
shown on Figure 11.
The complex interplay of FO folding, F1 relaying, F2
dextral wrenching, and F3 transtensional (south) and
compressional (north) faulting resulted in the
composite F0+3 Pusaka structure. Pusaka was filled by
westward-migrating F2-3 hydrocarbons spilling from
Zamrud-Butun and leaking along the dilatant
transtensional Doral-Nilam lateral transfer. These
migrant fluids were efficiently focused up-plunge along
the NW-trending Sembilan crestal culmination.
Maintenance of the Pusaka structural habitat
throughout F2 and F3 support ed the progressive
spilling and filling of hydrocarbons into down-trend
fields along the compressional portion of the Pedada-
Pusaka-Bungsu fault-fold zone. Continued right-lateral
movement along the Pedada-Bungsu zone will
compromise the structural integrity of Pusaka; and
eventually reduce the field to a multitude of low-relief,
equidimensional closures strung out along the N-S-
trending dilatant Bungsu transtensional fracture zone.
In contrast, the Zamrud field does not possess the
compressionally forced fold character noted along the
Pedada-Pusaka trend (compare Figs. 12C and D). The
western Zamrud bounding fault zone strikes N05-15"W,
makes an overall left-handed lazy S bend, and links
northward to Butun via the NNE-striking Doral-Nilam
belt of transtensional deformation (Fig. 6 ) . The angle
between fault strike and the maximum horizontal
principal stress during F3 deformation is only 45-55';
consequently, the tangential shear component acting
across the Zamrud fault is much larger than along the
Pedada-Pusaka trend. Figure 12D is a representative
seismic line across the fault where it strikes NlWW. On
this line weak W-vergent transpressional deformation
is seen involving beds as young as upper Petani with
Telisa shales down thrown to the west.
Although less restraining than fields of the Pedada-
Pusaka trend, the Zamrud fault is transpressive to the
point that reservoir sandsand fault contacts seal where
net oblique-slip fails to down thrown Telisa to the

west. In this respect Zamrud is different from the
Pedada-Pusaka fields. Zamrud is also unique in
possessing less total structural relief than fields of the
Pedada-Pusaka trend, while being the largest field in
the CPP. We account for the latter relationship by
placing the Zamrud field on the offset down-plunge
continuation of the Sembilan anticline. As indicated on
Table 2, this would require a minimum of 13 km of
right-lateral offset along the Zamrud-Doral-Butun
fault system. The Pematang thin beneath Zamrud (Fig.
12D) along with the SE-plunging positive gravity nose
and offset Bouger gravity anomalies (Fig. 9) suppoit
this hypothesis. The palinspastic sketches shown on
Figure 10 also lend additional geometrical and
temporal credence to this fault correlation.
The preferred restoration brings elements of the Butun-
Metas accommodation zone inline with other collinear
elements making up the Metas-Labah accommodation
zone (Fig. 11); moreover, the S55"E fold axis of the
Sembilan anticline would plunge directly into the deep
est portion of the Metas depocenter (Figs. 3).
Hydrocarbons driven outward from the Metas source
kitchen during F2-3 would be focused WNW up-plunge
along the broad axial Sembilan culmination. The sim
plistic restoration shown as Figure 10B, however, re
stores the Zamrud-Lalang shear zone as N-S-trending.
In this orientation there would be little reason to
believe that the fault would necessarily seal. A
comparison of the deformed fault-kink model (Fig.
10A) and the actual present day deformed state (Fig. 6)
provides an alternative answer as to why the Zamrud
sealed early in its history.
The hypothetical fault-kink model shows the Zamrud
fault as kinked in a left-stepping manner upon entering
the Metas-Labah accommodation zone. This places the
entire Lalang-Butun segment in a transpressive
restrained position that would tend to seal. The first
line of positive transpressional structures lying along
the kinked N15"W-striking Lalang-Mengkapan-Butun
fault segment were probably filled to spill point at this
time. Subsequent F2 right-lateral displacement along
the SSE-converging Gatam-Sabak (6-8 km, offset
Pakning batholith) and Pedada-Pusaka (8-12 km,
Pematang sag basin offset) shear zones act as wedges
that eventually reverses the initial transpressive Butun-
Zamrud geometry to one that is right-stepping and
releasing as noted today along the Nilam-Dora1 trend.
The Beruk field clearly exemplifies the structural effect
of superimposing a F1-3 restraining shear zone across
an otherwise broad low-relief basement culmination
with regional centripetal dips of 2-3". Figure 6 shows
the somewhat equant field lying across the N60"W,
299
klo" Kempas-Beruk (FO) basement arch and cradled
along a N20-35"E restraining bend in the N-S-striking
Beruk fault. Detailed studies demonstrate that this
paleohigh was emergent throughout F1-2 and shows
signs of positive compressional reactivation during F3.
The trapping mechanism is predominately tectonic
although the structure is modified somewhat by drape
and compaction across the pre-existing Beruk-Kempas
arch. The N-S-striking Beruk fault appears to refract
left as it crosses the trace of the Kempas-Beruk arch
and strikes N3S"W where it delimits the southwestern
portion of the Ben.& field. This 35" refraction in the
Beruk fault places it in a highly restrained
transpressional orientation, upthrusts Bekasap to the
west over Telisa, promotes the development of shale
smear and fault rock, and results in f250 feet of
structural relief on top oil.
Our partial paleotectonic restoration identifies the
dominant N60"Wf 10"-trending Kempas arch and
suggests an explanation for the apparent lack of
voluminous migrant hydrocarbons into and westward along
this huge regional structure. The detailed geologic and
re-stored sketch maps show this attractive basement uplift
as considerably south of potential W-WNW-trending
migration routes up and out of the Bengkalis trough
(Figs. 6 and 10). This apparent lack of hydrocarbons,
stratigraphically thin Bekasap reservoir sands, and
somewhat poorer Telisa-lower Petani top seal, combine
to down-grade this otherwise promising mega-trend.
Low-Relief Structural Traps Within F2-3 Neutral and
Releasing Fault Zones
Unlike the adjoining Malacca Strait PSC, low-relief
CPP structures typically contain on average 25-30
MMBOIP and have failed to yield large hydrocarbon
reserves. This group of subtle structural traps represent
about 5% of the inplace hydrocarbons and includes two
diverse field types: 1) relatively small incoherent
structural closures localized within neutral N-S- and
releasing NNE-trending transtensional fracture zones
involving passively draped F2L-3 footwall uplifts
(Nilam and Bungsu) or local left-stepping positive
flowers (Doral); and 2) F2L-3 fractured basement
reservoirs adjoining the Xempas-Beruk arch (Beruk
NE). Fields sharing this general structural habitat
typically have <200 f t of structural relief, produce from
3 reservoirs and individual reservoirs show <lo0 ft of
relief. The largest field in the group is Bungsu while
Doral and Nilam are the smallest. The Beruk NE field
is included with the low-relief structural traps even
though it is unconventional in the sense that production
is from fracture networks in pre-Tertiary basement
rocks. (Figs. 5 and 6 ).
300
Low-relief structural traps are difficult to identify,
properly map, and assess. By definition the traps are
associated with N-NNE-striking F2-3 structures
occupying releasing or neutral bend fault habitats
(Figs. 12B,#3 and 12E). The type example for F2L-3
transtensional belts of deformation striking NNE is the
first line of structures linking Butun and Zamrud and
housing the Doral and Nilam fields. The more N-S-
striking Bungsu fault linking the Pedada-Pusaka trend
with the Otak zone is more representative of neutral
bend deformational geometries and includes the
productive Bungsu field.
Folding along each of these coeval strike-slip faults are
organized in an orderly fashion. Resulting folds have
short discontinuous axial lengths, moderate to small
structural relief (<I50 ft), and small areal closures.
Folds of this type are repeatedly flanked to the west by
en echelon sets of narrow linear pull-apart rifts
characterized by negative flowers, sag basins, listric-
and planar domino-style normal fault arrays, and allied
collapse elements showing minor F2L-3 growth. Traps
are provided by the passive draping and normal faulting
of the Telisa against Bekasap sands as they roll into the
adjoining dowthrown negative sag. These intra-F2L-3
growth relations and coeval fracture geometries are
portrayed by Seismic Line 1545 across Doral and its
adjoining transtensional rift system. The noted double
rollover character of Doral without appreciable listric
normal faulting is largely due to the transfer of right-
lateral transtension via the two en echelon left-stepping
normal fauIts that delimit this low-relief closure (Fig
12E). An identical structural habitat is indicated for the
southern portion of the Butun field were the structure
building faults commence to step right linking with the
SSE-trending Doral-Nilam belt of transtensional
rifting.
Similar deformational fracture geometries and growth
structures are noted along the N-S-trending Bungsu
shear zone. Seismic Line 2077 was shot immediately
north of Bungsu and Idris and reflects typical
deformational geometries and intra-F1-3 growth
successions (Fig. 7D). Bungsu is the largest of the
low-relief fields and sets on the up thrown block
immediately east of the N-S-striking Bungsu fault (Fig.
6). The overall structural closure is elongate N-S
subparallel to a swarm of high-angle transtensional
normal and dextral separation faults of low
displacement. Production is from three reservoirs
possessing <75 ft of structural relief.
The Bungsu structural trap is a geometrical
consequence of distributed right-lateral shear along the
left-stepping en echelon swarm of N-S-striking faults.
This geometrical arrangement of structural building
faults under right-lateral oblique-slip displacement
places the intervening Bungsu structure blocks in local
transpression and modestly upthrusted wedges
constitute the low-relief N-S-elongate Bungsu positive
flower. As noted previously, we estimated 12 km of
dextral slip along the Bungsu shear zone with
activation during all three episodes of Cenozoic
deformation and trap formation occurring during F2L-
3 dextral wrenching (Tables 1 and 2). Filling of this
low-relief trap was virtually coincident with the
indicated filling and spilling from Zamrud to the NE
and E during F2E (Fig. 10) and F2L-3 (Fig. 6)
respectively. In this context, filling of the Bungsu trap
was somewhat incidental to the pervasive westward-
directed overflow from Zamrud updip toward the giant
Beruk paleohigh. The dilatant N-S-striking Bungsu
shear zone apparently helped focus and channel these
migrant fluids southward; first, filling the Bungsu
structure to leak point; and second, continuing south
ultimately reaching the up-plunge culmination of the
Kempas-Beruk paleohigh and access to this high-relief
F0+3 structure.
A variant of the basement arch structural setting is
provided by the Beruk N E field (Fig. 6). Oil in this
structural setting is obtained from fractured pre-Tertiary
metaquartzite, weathered argillite, and weathered
granite (Koning and Darmono, 1984). Beruk NE is the
only field within CCP operations in the Central
Sumatra Basin which produces from basement rocks.
The geologic record from the Beruk high shows the
area as a persistent positive feature prior to and
throughout the Pematang and Bekasap F1-2 depositional
cycles. Detailed mapping indicates that the Beruk
N E field is broken into a series of N-NNE-oriented
transtensional fault blocks with production supported
by naturally-occurring fracture networks in basement
host rocks with negligible matrix porosity.
Figure 41 plots mapped fractures peripheral to the field
and provides considerable insight as to the macroscopic
nature of the fracture porosity. This stereogram
identifies coaxial conjugate double maxima of NO-1S"E
strike. Both conjugate low-angle planar and listric
normal faults and subvertical fracture arrays possess
near Gaussian dip and strike distributions. Detailed
mapping across the Kempas arch, shows the Beruk NE
as localized within a 4-6 km wide belt of intense N-
NNE-striking fractures that splays off the fault
intersection formed by the N-S- and NNW-striking
Bungsu and Idris faults respectively. As indicated on
Figure 41, this SSW-striking fracture zone consists of:
1) abundant subparallel conjugate planar and listric
normal faults that sole out within the Telisa, and 2)
subparallel swarms of subvertical Reidel shears (R")
striking NO-1O"E. The vertical fracture set penetrate

and offset basement, map out as releasing right-
stepping horsetail splays off the N-S-striking Bungsu
dextral wrench zone, and serve as effective dilatant
pathways for migrant hydrocarbons focused along the
neutral to mildly releasing Bungsu fault. A series of
these structurally high intensely fractured basement
blocks constitute the Beruk NE reservoir with the top
seal provided by the transgressive F2L Telisa shale and
siltstone.
The Beruk NE field is a unique structural trap for the
Central Sumatra Basin (Koning and Darmono, 1984).
We interpret this play type as a composite product of
active F2L-3 right-lateral wrenching along the Bungsu
shear zone with multiply divergent horsetail splays
being refracted perpendicular to the WNW-trending FO
Kempas-Beruk arch. Our CPP mapping identifies
several additional subparallel belts of F2L-F3 planar
and listric normal faults involving the Telisa and lower
Petani (Figs. 4G and H). These belts are likewise
viewed as rooting into underlying dilatant subvertical
fracture zones that ultimately link to larger migration
channelways involving neutral to slightly releasing
dextral strike-slip systems. The Beruk N E trap type is
unconventional, but with the advent of routine
horizontal drilling other exploration and development
opportunities almost certainly exist elsewhere in the
Central Sumatra Basin as well as within the CPP and
adjoining Malacca Strait PSC.
CONCLUSIONS
Our synthesis of abundant good 2-D seismic, regional
gravity, and wellbore data provide considerable insight
regarding the Cenozoic structural and tectonic evolution
of the Coastal Plains Block. It proved helpful to
identify the fundamental elements of the regional
framework early in the study, to continuously refine
the three dimensionality of transfers, relays, and
accommodation zones linking this fracture and fold
network, and to substantiate when each respective
element was activated or subsequently reactivated.
Once this three dimensional architecture is defined
through time (4-D) , it allows seismic interpreters to
accurately map fault attitude with confidence where
2-D data are sparse; facilitates the identification of
FO-3 structural families in complex situations involving
multiple periods of superposition; recognizes which
faults are compressional, neutral, or transpressional;
and helps one assess a fault's behavior as a reservoir
seal or migration channelway through tectono-
stratigraphic space and time.
An understanding of linked extensional and
transtensional systems is crucial when deciphering the
appropriate methodologies to use in restoring geologic
301
cross sections and maps to their pre-deformed state.
Restored-state cross section A-A' and our 1:40,000
scale Coastal Plains geologic map demonstrate the
utility of such constructions (Figs. 8 and 10). It is
concluded that the fundamental Tertiary building block
in the Coastal Plains is a thin horizontal slab or
platelet. Balanced and restored cross sections show that
bounding breakaway faults are listric, form ramp and
flat geometries, and sole out at a very shallow depth
( f 5 km depth). This episode of F1 deformation is Eo-
Oligocene in age and produced E-W crustal extension
amounting to at least 25%. Protracted E-W extension
of this thin slab produced the local deep anoxic
Pematang source rock depocenters partitioned by local
and regional E-W-trending zones of accommodation
(Fig. 11, Butun-Metas and Metas-Labah). These zones
of accommodation are aligned subparallel to tectonic
transport and the Metas-Labah represents an E-W-
trending crustal-scale compartmental boundary.
The Metas-Labah accommodation zone (AZ) also
represents a regional Fl-2 kink domain boundary. An
increase in the amount of extension north of the Metas-
Labah AZ, resulted in the larger and deeper Butun
depocenter and affected a regional left-lateral shear
couple dividing the Coastal Plains block into two
principal structural domains. The northern domain was
rotated 15-25' counterclockwise placing the N-S-
trending FO, F1, and F2 (FO-2) elements in a highly
compressional posture during Barisan deformation
when SH was oriented NE-SW (Mount and Suppe,
1992). At this time (F3) all moderate- to high-relief
fault propagation folds formed along the first and
second line of structures including the Pedada-Benua
and Lalang-Butun trends. Fields with the highest
structural relief and largest reserves are also found
north of the Metas-Labah A Z but at intersections where
N60"W, f10"-striking FO elements are overprinted by
kinked, rotated, and compressionally activated F3
upthrusts. Structural traps occupying this setting
include Zamrud (750 MMBOIP recoverable) and
Pusaka. The compressional F3 and FQ+3 structures of
the northern domain contain nearly 80% of total
primary recoverable reserves and underscore their
relevance as key trapping elements in the Coastal
Plains framework.
In the southern domain, FO-2 structures were not
kinked and they retained their N-S strike. During F2L
and Barisan deformation, contiguous N-S-striking shear
zones linked the weakly transpressional right-lateral
strike-slip motion in the northern domain southward
along the south Zamrud, Bungsu, Beruk, and Rambah
faults to the Otak fold-fault front. This right-stepping
fault-kink geometry under NE-SW-directed lateral
horizontal compression (F3), placed the cotectonic
302
N-S-striking FO-2 shear zones in a more neutral to
moderately releasing bend posture. This dynamic and
kinematic condition, rendered the N-S- and NNE-
trending FO-3 elements into efficient channelways for
westward (up-dip and up-plunge) migrant hydrocarbon-
bearing fluids. Structural traps produced within
resultant neutral and releasing (transtensional) fault
settings are small. equant to N-S elongated, have low
pop-up structural relief (Bungsu and Doral), and
contain small recoverable reserves. Where Reidel
shear zones (R) of N-NNE-strike become focused into
narrow fairways, fracture porosity is locally adequate to
support production from basement rocks (Beruk NE).
Protracted spilling of hydrocarbons westward from
Zamrud and migrating up-dip from the Metas kitchen
were channeled along the dilatant Bungsu shear zone.
The low-relief Bungsu field was filled to leak point by
these entrained fluids which eventually gained up-
plunge access to Beruk, the only known high-relief
F0+3 structural trap in the southern domain.
The fundamental essence of the Central Sumatra
framework was documented over a decade ago by
Eubank and Makki (1981). They stressed that the
conjugate N-S and NW-SE system of faults reflected
old basement breaks and both showed multiple periods
of dextral and vertical movement as well as strongly
influenced resulting fold type. And nearly two decades
ago, Mertosono (1975) provided us with the type
example showing the interdependence between neutral
(N05°W) and restraining (N25"W) fault trends, resulting
fold axes, and the Pungut and Tandun fields lying along
the restraining segment of the Pungut-Tandun fault.
We have attempted to build on these benchmark
contributions from the Central Sumatra Basin stressing
the importance of determining the four dimensionality
of the Cenozoic structural and tectonic development of
the Coastal Plains area. High quality three-dimensional
seismic surveys will become commonplace during the
next decade, and development and exploration earth
scientists will quickly develop a much keener and
comprehensive understanding of linked transpressional
and transtensional systems, how shortening and
concomitant extension is relayed across the
framework, and how this interplay of evolving fault
and fold geometry influences the migration and
ultimate trapping of hydrocarbons. Hopefully this case
study will provide an interim glimpse of this ordered
complexity and stimulate other more controlled
investigations in the Central Sumatra Basin and
adjoining Indonesian Archipelago.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors want to thank Pertamina, P. T. Caltex
Pacific Indonesia, Chevron Corp., and Texaco Inc. for
permitting us to publish these results and for providing
a stimulating work environment in their Rumbai office.
Special thanks are due Mssrs. Ted Jones and
Suwahjuhadi Mertosono for setting the course of our
synthesis, Roger Eubank for keeping us on course.
And finally, we wish to heartily acknowledge the
innumerable CPI and Amoseas colleagues who over
the past fifty years gathered, processed, and
interpreted the abundant good data synthesized here.
Without their painstaking day to day efforts, this report
would not have been possible.
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4
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304

TABLE 1
OBSERVED DEXTRAL STRIKE-SLIP DISPLACEMENTS FOR NNW-TO
NNE-TRENDING FAULTS, COASTAL PLAINS BLOCK, EAST-CENTRAL SUMATRA

Fault Name Offset Structure Strike-Slip (Km) (% Total )

Labah (West) Kempas Arch 1.5 3.5

Labah (East) Kempas Arch 2.5 6.0

Mandau Set Kempas Arch 9.0 21.0

Mandau-Labah Siak Kecil Anticline (13.0)* (30.5)
Bukitbatu Sembilan Anticline (3.0) (7.0)

Beruk-Rambah Kempas Arch 5.O 11.5

Beruk-Rambah Siak Kecil Syncline (5.0)

Bungsu Pematang Sag Basin 12.0 28.0

Bungsu Sembilan Anticline (8.0)
Gatam - Sabak Pakning Granite (6-8.0)
Pedada + Sabak SG (Sembilan Offset) (22-26.0) (+51)

Zamrud Sembilan Anticline 13.0 30.0

Seismic Character (4.0)

43.0 km 100.0%

MINMUh4 TOTALDEXTRAL STRIKE-SLIP ------------ 43.0 Km

*( ) Component of another major fault or duplicated offset

 305

TABLE 2
RIGHT-LATERALWRENCH FAULT CLASSIFICATIONAND DIAGNOSTIC
CHARACTERISTICS, COASTAL PLAINS BLOCK, EAST-CENTRAL SUMATRA

FAULT-BEND CLASSES
NEUTRAL BEND (N-S, f5")
RELEASING BEND (NIS" E, f10")
RESTRAINING BEND (N15"W, *loo)

NEUTRAL BEND
- N-S, f5" and &
D - 90", f15"
Habit - Minor F1-3 transpressional and transtensional structures, with down to the west displacement.
Neutral to passive drape folds, random axial traces, and small low- to moderate-relief structural
closures.
Type Structures - Bungsu-Delima, Zamrud (south) to Mirah, and Rambah faults; Bungsu field
& - FO-1, repeated activation throughout Tertiary.
Tectogenesis - Inherited FO-1 fabric, principal direction of simple shear during FI-3 deformation.
Reservoir Potential - Minor, fractured basement reservoirs (Beruk NE), partial updip sealing fault (Pusaka),
significant potential as localizer for truncation traps in the Bengkalis trough domain. Faults rarely seal.

RELEASING BEND
Strike - N15"E, f10" and & - Variable depending on stratigraphic position, vertical to 45-60" conjugate-
dipping planar and listric faults with 4:1 abundance ratio. Swarms of subparallel near vertical
fractures.
Habit - Transtension-dominated deformation, combinations of negative and positive flower structures,
normal and half-grabens, narrow sag troughs, and abundant rootless planar domino and listric normal
faults in the Telisa. Basement offsets show displacement down to the west. Cotectonic folds and axes
of sag troughs, en echelon pull-apart rifts, and rootless normal faults are oriented subparallel about the
NNE-striking divergent right-lateral wrench zones. Low-relief structural closures (<100 ft).
Type Structures - Belt of transtension extending from Butun via Doral-Nilam to Zamrud. Portions of the
Bungsu fault continuing south from Pusaka; Zamrud south to Mirah; west flank Petodak sag basin; and
Beruk-Rambah faults south of Pusaka.
& - Characteristic of F2E deformation but also prevalent during F2L and FI along eastern margin of the
Bengkalis trough (Metas and Kutup faults).
Tectogenesis - Right-stepping second order synthetic Riedel shear to principal N-S wrench system; or
unkinked restraining and neutral bends to releasing position, eg. Doral-Nilam.
Reservoir Potential - Allied deformation tends to destroy folds formed along restraining bends and produces
small equidimensional traps at Doral (pop-up) and Nilam (footwall drag and drape trap). Faults have
little tendency to seal and represent major pathways for hydrocarbon migration. Intense fracturing
produces secondary porosity adequate to support basement rock reservoirs (i.e., Beruk NE).

RESTRAINING BEND
Strike - N1S"W, f10" and & - Vertical to steep, ENE dips dominant
Habit - Forced F3 upthrusts to vertical faults with normal and reverse separation, WSW-directed vergence
along fault-fold trends showing compressional fault-propagation folds, marginal thrust fault
fragmentation and drag folds. Folds are long, continuous, curvilinear, with fold axes trending parallel
to cogenetic upthrusted wrench zone. Large high-relief structural closures with long wave lengths.
Type Structures - Pedada; Butun-Lalang-Mengkapan-Guntung, and Sabak-Gatam. Overprinted FO arch
-
(Beruk) and anticline (Sembilan) at Pusaka, Zamrud, and Beruk represent largest fields in CPB.
& - Kinked or defracted NNW-trending FO-1 basement breaks and cotectonic F2-3 P-shears; and non-
kinked FO-1 NNE- strike. Very active F2 and F3 faulting with minor deformation during Fl(?).
Tectogenesis - Left-stepping and sinistrally kinked FO-1 shears or second order synthetic P ("thrust") shears
with respect to principal N-S wrench system and NE-SW-oriented SH during F3.
Reservoir Potential - Structural setting and timing conducive to the localization of the largest oil fields in
the Coastal Plains including Zamrud, Pusaka-Benua-Pedada, and lesser magnitude fields at
Butun-Lalang-Mengkapan. Faults have a high tendency to seal if void of local F3 releasing fractures.
306

FIGURE 1 - Map of southwest Sundaland showing the principal Tertiary basins of

Sumatra and Java. Location of the Coastal Plains Block is hachured.
 307

I Faunal
-
NY-
BP
Age
nifera
BS Local
Nanno- ;tages
blankton-
itructural
Episode
I sw
Units

NE
Lithology

Gravel, Sand and Clay

Recent
2.8

z:: Messinian
Tortonian
10.3
NN9
NN8
Serraval- NN7
lian
NN6
Brownish Gray, Calcareous
15.5 - Q
C NN5 Shale and Siltstone,
Langhian
16.5 8
0
Occasional Limestones
f
Fine to Medium Grained
Sandstones and Shale
Burdiga-
, Interbeds
lian Medium to Coarse Grained
Sandstone and Minor Shale
Gray, Calcareous Shale With
Sandstone lnterbeds and
22.5 Minor Limestone
Aqui- Menggala Fm Fine to Coarse Grained

"kd
tanian 6 Sandstone, Conglomeratic
24
~

8W1"

45
Higocene
Eo- I ?
. .,. Pematang Grp .'. Claystone and Carbonaceous
. ._ -- --- -
. ._ - - -
- - - Shale, and Fine to Medium
GrainedSandstone
65
E L
tertiary Fo + + Basement + , +
Greywacke, Quartzite,
Granite, Araillite

Modified After: White (1975) and Wongso Santiko (1976); Time Scale From VaiVMitchum (1979)
Eubank and Makki (1981), Suryanto and Wycherley (1984)

FIGURE 2 - Cenozoic time-stratigraphic chart of the Central Sumatra basin showing major formations,
coeval deformational episodes recognized in the Coastal Plains area, and brief lithologic
description of respective formations.
308

IO

OO

100 ° 101 ° 102 ° 103 °

FIGURE 3 - Generalized structural framework map of the Central Sumatra basin with structure
contours on top basement.
 309

N N

V E N E

s N=200 C
N N N

E N E N E

S N=154 D s N=624 E s N=175 F

N N N

V- E N E N E

S N = 557 ’ G

FIGURE 4 - Synoptic lower hemisphere Schmidt equal-area diagrams and corresponding strike rosettes.
Data contoured using a 1% counting circle of N poles to planes or bearings of fold axes.
Strike rosettes constructed using 100 class intervals beginning at N+5’. All data represent
averaged bearing using a 5 km segment lenght of mapped faults and folds. Data compiled
from the 1:250,000 scale quadrangle maps covering central and northern Sumatra (A-C), and
our 1:40,000 scale geologic map of the Coastal Plains Block (D-1). See text for explanation.
310

Strait of Malacca

FIGURE 5 - Regional structural setting of the Coastal Plains Block and adjoining Central Sumatra Basin.
 311

FIGURE 6 - Regional geologic map summarizing principal structural elements delineated by 1:40,000
scale mapping, Coastal Plains Block.
312

ILl

1° u.

0
~J

"0

0 ~. o. u! o ~. o.
o T- ~-

(oas) a~Ui.L XeM OM.L (oes) ainu. ~eM OMJ. (0es) eu~u. ~eM OML

I ~O
LU
OrJ
u
Q.

m
(3

LU
1°
m

~B

C
Q
J~
L2
~3 .u
c z
.Q ~0
E
o |
U)

0
c
-I

0 m. o. u! o m o m. q u!
o I- ~-

(oes) ew!j. ,~eM OMJ. (Des) ew!j. ,~eM OMJ. (~es) ew!j. AeM OMJ.
 3 13
wsw ENE

A
km

+ i t + +
+ + + i t
+ + + i t + +
, + + + + + i t

B
0.6 Km

+ + + + + + + + + + + + i t + + + +

r t + + + + + + + + + + + + i + + +

+ * + * + + + + + + + + + + + C

a + + + +
+ + + t i +
i t + + + +
+ + + + + + + +

1 I
Km + + + + + + + + + + + +

E
VIH = 1
Explanation
Stratigraphy Structure
Petani U. Pematang / Imaged Fault

FIGURE 8
Telisa

Bekasap

Menggala

-
r-1
I+ + + 4
M. Pematang

L. Pematang

Basement

Regional ENE-WSW depth section A-A' across the Bengkalis trough

---
-//'

0
- Modeled Fault

10 km

(Metas depocenter). Deformed-state cross section A-A' is sequentially

restored using vertical (B and C) and 72' antithetic simple shear
methodologies (D, E). See Figure 6 for section location.
FIGUKe 9 - Regional Bouger gravity map of Coastal Plains area overlying the geology shown on Figure 6,
 u)
d .a m in
r:

\
\
\
\
\
\
\
Gatam-Sabah F.
.-i 2
. \ Pedada-Pusaka F.

Beruk F.

Bukitbatu F.
\

4
316

FIGURE 11 - Conceptual restored sketch of the Coastal Plains geologic map (Fig. 6) constructed as in
Figure 10. Areas and lenghts are only approximations and no attempt is made to restore
the dismembered extensions of the Sembilan, SG, N. Padang, and N. Bengkalis grabens to
their proper pre-Fi-2 positions. The trace of a crustal-scale compartmental boundary
(Metas-Labah AZ) extends between the Metas and Labah fault tips. The inscribed
E-W-oblate area is characterized by a high frequency of fault tip and rift terminations,
dogleg bends, a Pematang sag basin, and a collinear regional kink domain boundary.
 317

sw
;ketch Map
0
Fault Bend Classes
.I. Restraining

0.5

1.o

Fault Strikes N25"W - C

.."
i G

2km

N600E Zamrud NO. 1

0
sw Line2076 NE
0
h
0

-E
a,
u)
0.5 0.5

i=
* 1.0 1.o
s
1.5 1.5
+
Fault Strikes N1O"W - D2 k m
A

Tectonic Synopsis N88030'E Dora1 No. 1

O r
sw Line 1545 7
_, L I .v - NE

5
L.U
Fault Zone Strikes N1O"E - 2 km
E
L.U

FIGURE 12 - Montage shows the location (A) of three seismic sections (C, D, E) depicting the
dependency between fault and fold style and the strike of F 1-2 rigth-lateral oblique-slip
faults. Figure 12B is a schematic representation of a typical F3 fault that steps right
producing releasing bend geometry and local transtensional deformation. The
hypothetical location of seismic lines C, D, and E are shown in their respective
geometrical and dynamic positions with respect to the proposed regional maximum
horizontal principal stress (SH) and the right-lateral lazy Z releasing bend and local
reoriented minimum horizontal principal stress (unlabelled arrows).