3.

CLIMB
3.1 Thrust and Power curves
Di: Induced Drag = Drag related to lift
Do = parasite drag, related to shape
Fd = Di + Do
PARASITE Drag
- It’s not function of lift production
- Increases with the square of IAS (speed)
- Increases with increasing parasite areas (flaps, land. gear, speed
brakes)
INDUCED Drag
- Produced by the pressure difference between lower and upper
surface of the wing, which produces wake turbulence.
- Depends on IAS and AOA
- Increases with increased AOB and Weight.
TOTAL Drag curve

- If no acc. or dec. Total drag = required thrust

- Required Thrust: force required to balance aerodynamic drag + the backward component
of the weight when AC is in a steady climb.
- Excess Thrust: accelerates de AC, makes it climb.
- Excess Drag: decelerates AC, Makes it descend.
Vmp < Vmd/Vy (ALWAYS) “Vmp: v min. pwr”
CLIMB: - Greater AOC, greater the weight component added to drag.
- To maintain steady speed in flight path excess thrust is required to compensate for
backward weight component.
- If excess thrust is not enough, we have to reduce AOC.
- Total T = D + W · sin a

3.2 AOC vs. ROC

AOC
- Vx : best angle of climb speed, is the greatest altitude gain
in shortest horizontal distance, providing obstacle clearance.
- Vx < Vmd Losing speed = loss in power available.
Gaining speed = increase in excess power.

Factors affecting AOC:

1. ↑ W, ↑ aerodynamic drag, ↑ component of W added to D, ↓ max. AOC, ↑ Vx (thrust
required curve moves UP and RIGHT)
2. Higher flap setting, ↑ aerodynamic drag, ↓ max. AOC.
3. Wind: AOC relative to ground is affected, tailwind less AOC, headwind higher AOC.
4. Altitude: higher altitude, higher TAs, higher Vx(AOC).
5. Density: ↑ density, ↑ T available, ↑ excess thrust, ↑ climb. To maintain climb angle
airspeed needs to be decreased.

ROC
- Greatest altitude gain in shortest time, Vy.
- Smaller angle, higher speed.
- Vx < Vy Vy = Vmd Pr = D · TAS
Factors affecting ROC
1. W: ↑ weight, ↑ induced drag for same speed
Thrust vs power curve moves up and right ↑ Vy, ↓excess pwr, ↓ ROC
2. Flaps: use of flaps, ↑ lift, ↑ drag, Pr curve up and left, ↓ excess pwr, ↓ v
3. Density: ↓ density,↓ Pa, ↑ Pr, ↓excess power, ↓ ROC

3.3 Ceiling
Absolute ceiling: max. theoretical altitude an AC can reach, ROC = 0 ft. / min can only be
flown at one speed.
Service ceiling: ROC = 100 ft. / min.
Cruise ceiling: ROC = 300 ft. / min.
 4. CRUISE
4.1 Forces
Lift balances Weight: 1. Lift acts in the CP 2. Weight acts in the CG
(effect: large nose down pitch moment)
Thrust balances drag (effect: nose up pitch moment)

!!!!
Saber imagen
entera!!!

↑Tailplane down force, negative effect on performance, ↑ effective W (acts on W direction),

↑Drag (produces lift as it’s a surface, Di + Dp).
↑↑ Negative effect on RANGE and ENDURANCE, meaning it decreases.
Conclusion: larger the distance between CP and CG, higher the pitch down moment, higher
tailplane down force, higher D and effective W.

4.2 Airplane speeds

IAS (indicated airspeed): given by static and total pressure, contains errors of measurement.
CAS (calibrated airspeed): IAS corrected for instrument and position errors.
EAS (equivalent airspeed): CAS corrected for compressibility error.
Compressibility effect: at speeds beyond 220 kt air ahed AC doesn’t move out of the
way, so it starts to build up and compress in front of the airplane.
TAS (true airspeed): EAS corrected from density errors, is the true speed respect the air
which ac is flying. TAS is proportional to EAS and inversely proportional to density.
GS (ground speed): speed respect the ground, corrected from wind component (headwind
+, tailwind -)

Mach Number: ratio of the speed of the AC to the

speed of sound, it determines the magnitude and
intensity of many of the effects of high speed flight.

MN = TAS / LSS

!!! imagen saber!!!

4.3 Endurance
Endurance: amount of time that AC can remain airborne with a given fuel quant., minimising
fuel flow will maximise endurance.

Propeller AC endurance:
- 1st piston engines convert chemical energy into power output
- 2nd propeller convert pwr into thrust.
- Fuel is used to generate power, not thrust
- To minimise FF, fuel used per unit of pwr and the total number of pwr units, must be
kept to a minimum Specific Fuel Consumption.
FF = SFC · Total PWR
- To minimise FF: use minimum amount of power and fly at Vmp (gives max
endurance). In jet: Vmd
Factor affecting endurance:
1. Weight: ↑W, ↑ D, ↑ power required, ↑ FF, ↓ENDURANCE,
speed for best endurance is higher, ↑ Vmp ( curve moves up
and right).
2. Configuration (flaps or landing gear): ↑Dp, ↓Vmd/Vmp, more
power required, ↑ FF, ↓ ENDURANCE.
FF in LDG CONF. can increase up to 150% compared to clean
conf.
3. Altitude: piston engines are more efficient, max endurance,
at lower altitudes and lower RPM, higher MP, mixture lean
correctly DA: ↓density /↑ temp., ↑ power required, ↓
ENDURANCE.
4. Wind: FF and endurance NOT affected by wind.

4.4 Range

Range: distance covered over the ground with a certain amount of

fuel. To maximise it: reduce FF and increase speed (GS)
Range = GS · max. Flight time

Maximum range: max. Distance an aeroplane can fly with a certain amount of fuel. Achieved
at the tangent to the pwr required curve Vmd at low altitudes.
Specific range: ratio of TAS over fuel flow SR = TAS / SFC · Pr
Factors affecting range:
1. Weight: ↑ Di, ↑ Pr, ↑FF, ↓RANGE, ↑Vmax range (Vmd)
2. Configuration: Deploying flap, ↑Dp, ↑FF, ↓RANGE, ↓ Vmax range(Vmd)
3. Airframe contamination: ice ↑W and D, ↓ AC performance, ↓ RANGE
4. Wind: HW reduces range, TW increases range. As range is NM travelled per unit of
fuel.
5. DA-Altitude: higher altitudes, TAS increases for a given IAS, ↑ RANGE.
6. Full Throttle height: altitude where throttle needs to be fully advanced to maintain
speed, Max. specific Range will be obtained just after full throttle height.
4.5 Optimum altitude
Altitude at which specific range is greatest, flying higher or lower will decrease range.
 5. DESCENT

5.1 Balance of forces

Apparent thrust = W · sin(α)

In order to initiate a normal descent:

1. Thrust (usually) ↓
2. Drag > Thrust → Amount of D exceeding T = EXCESS DRAG
3. Excess drag ↑ → A/C speed ↓
4. To maintain speed → pitch down

Result: we will have forward component of W that balances excess D.

What shall we do to descend faster?

If we ↓ Thrust even more:

1. Excess Drag ↑↑
2. To maintain speed → A/C pitch angle lowered even more

Result: ↑ in descent angle

5.2 Angle of descent (AOD)

What can we do to maximise the AOD?

Maximise the excess of D by:

A. Reducing T to 0
B. Increasing D → by increasing speed (pitch down) or increasing Do with flaps or
landing gear.

What can we do to minimise the AOD?

Minimise excess of D by flying the airplane at Vmd

Minimising the AOD can be useful with an engine failure and when performing a power-off
glide.

The AOD angle corresponds to the maximum L/D ratio, with a pitch down of 4º and Vmd. In
the case the AoA changes from 4º: speed changes, L/D ratio ↓ and angle of glide ↑.

We must never try to raise the nose to ↓ AOD because this will make ↓ speed and ↑ glide
angle.

5.3 Rate of descent (ROD)

↑ Excess of power required = ↑ Rate of descent

What can we do to increase the ROD? Power idle + ↑ TAS

It can be useful when a depressurization happens.

What can we do to decrease the ROD? (descent slower)

Fly at Vmp

Other ways to refer to ROD: maximum descent endurance and maximum glide endurance

5.4 Factors affecting descent *(foto al final de los apuntes)

1. Weight: ↑ W → Vmd ↑, which implies ↑ ROD and = AOD

2. Configuration: Flaps / Gear deployed → Excess D ↑, nose has to
be lowered which implies:
a. ↑ W apparent T, and balance restored → ↑ AOD
b. ↓ Vmd → ↑ ROD
3. Wind: It only has effects the AOD;

5.5 Descent requirements

En-route and descent requirements:

The en-route part of the flight is considered to be from 1.500 ft above the airfield from which
the aeroplane has taken off to 1.000 ft above the destination airfield.

An operator must ensure in the event of engine failure, the A/C is capable of reaching a
place at which a safe forced landing can be made.

EU-OPS states that in order to comply with a safe forced landing, the en-route gradient shall
be the gross gradient of descent, increased by a gradient of 0.5%.
 6. LANDING
6.1 Landing distances

Landing starts when the A/C reaches the screen height above the landing threshold and
finishes with the complete stop of the A/C.

At the screen height the speed used is the Vref (for Class B A/C it should be at least 1.3 of
its Vs0).

It is important to maintain Vref because this speed is the one used to construct the landing
graphs or tables.

When performing the landing there are two moments:

1. Airborne section → we should ↓ T to 0 and ↑ Nose-up attitude

a. Flare: it allows to touch with the main wheels first
2. Ground roll (ground run) →once the wheels touch the runway we must:
1) Reverse T and L spoilers
2) ↓ Speed and apply braking force
3) Have a safe speed to taxi

TO FULL STOP

Other important concepts are:

Landing distance available (LDA): distance from threshold to another. It

starts at 50ft above the THR.

Landing on the threshold is not the aim of the landing.

Landing distance required (LDR): The Mass of the A/C allows a full stop
landing from 50ft above the threshold within 70% of the LDA at any
aerodrome (class B).

To obtain the minimum length of runway required, multiply the gross

landing distance by 1.43.

1.43 LDR ≥ LDA

Gross performance: when calculating it we need to take into account:

1. Pressure at the aerodrome
2. Standart temperature
 3. Conditions and type of RWY
4. RWY slope
5. Not more than 50% of HW component and not less than 150% TW component

1.43 GROSS ≤ NET

6.1.1 Landing distances CORRECTION FACTORS

1. Grass: up to 20cm high. LD multiplied by 1.15

2. Wet: LD multiplied by 1.15
3. Slope:
a. Upslope: No correction needed since it reduces LD
b. Downslope: 5% for each 1% of downslope

6.2 Forces

1. Lift
In the air: balances W
In the ground: it is detrimental (perjudicial) for LD since L reduces load on the wheels and so
braking action
2. Weight: acts vertically from the CG to the centre of the Earth.
In the air: it is balanced by the lift
In the ground: balanced by the GND (ground control) acting up through wheels.

LW < TOW fuel has been consumed

MLW = maximum landing weight (structural mass)
3. Drag: required force to stop the airplane
1. Aerodynamic drag → high during the early part of the landing
a. Di: depends on lift and is proportional to AoA
i. Airborne section: Di is high because AoA is high
ii. Ground run: Di = 0, since the AoA is almost nul
b. Do: Cross sectional areas (areas
transversales) form D
i. ↓ speed → ↓ Do reduced too until the
A/C stops
2. Wheel and brake drag
a. Wheel drag: Friction between tires and
RWY.
↓ L → ↑ Wheel drag. Wheel D is maximum
when the A/C stops. At the ,,,,,,,,,,,touchdown
wheel D is low since there is lift force yet.
b. Brake drag: Friction between brake discs
and brake pads.
It is the most important retarding force during landing. The presence of wheel
D is also important for it to be effective.
↑ Wheel drag → ↑ effectiveness. Brake D is maximum when the A/C stops.

6.3 Effect of variable factors on landing distance

1. Weight: Mass of the A/C affects. An ↑ mass will:

- ↑ Vs → ↑ Vref → ↑ LDR
- ↓ deceleration → ↑ LDR
- ↑ Wheel D → ↑ D → ↓ LDR
2. Density: Low density (high Ta, low P and high humidity) will:
↑ TAS for a given IAS; ↑TAS → ↑ speed we need to reduce to stop the A/C, ↑ LD
 3. Wind:
a. HW: ↓ GS → ↓ LD
b. TW: ↑ GS → ↑ LD
In calculations we need to asume 50% HW and 150% TW. There is no correction for
crosswind.
4. Flaps: used to ↑ camber of the wing. They ↑ L but ↓ landing speed and ↑ D because
they ↑ the decelerating force
More flaps reduce LD.
Note: in a go-around flaps should be retracted to improve climb performance
5. RWY slope: produces a component to the W either added to the D or to the T
a. Upslope: + component added to D → ↓ LD
b. Downslope: + component added to T → ↑ LD
6. RWY surface: if the RWY is not hard and paved mathematical corrections must be
applied.
a. Grass: ↑ Wheel D → impingement drag, which helps to decelerate
↓ Grass → severely wheel friction compared with paved runway. Wheel is not
retarded by the brake in an efficient way → ↑ LD (by a 15%)
b. Contaminants: ice, standing water, slush (fango) will:
i. Create impingement drag → ↑ decelerating force
ii. ↓ Wheel friction → wheel is not retarded by the brake in an efficient
way
↓ Braking action → ↑ LD

When more than the 25% of the runway is covered in a layer of moisture
equivalent to a depth of 3mm or more of water, there will have to be a report
of: runway contamination and/or braking action.

5.4 *(foto al final de los apuntes)