TÍNH NĂNG MĂY BĂY

Nhật Bách Thấu | aklmm | xiquachvagau@gmail.com

1.Khối lượng

2.Density/ temperature

6 yếu tố 3.Wind (headwind, tailwind) RC, RD

4.Speed- Acceleration

5.Runway condition Slope, surface

6. Aircraft configuration (Flap/ Slat;…)

Contents
TAKE-OFF ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
LANDING .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
CLIMB ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 15
DESCENT .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 22
CRUISE .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 26
TURNING.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 27

TAKE-OFF
 Factor effecting Takeoff: 1,2,3,5,6(flap setting+ airframe contamination)

1. Ăircraft’s weight: m↗ ⤇ climb angle ↘ + Rate of climb ↘

Ín given conditions heavier aircraft’ll have: - longer takeoff distance required

- higher takeoff speed.

 Explain:

A heavy airplane needs a longer runway because:

a =F/m : if you are heavy “a” is small

t= V/a : it takes you longer reach the speed V.

s= ½*a t2 : if it takes longer, you use more distance.

Normally, lift-off speed is about 15% above stall speed. Thus if weight increases ⇨ higher stall speed, your
lift-off speed increases too. As a result more time is needed (higher weight also means slower
accerleration) to get to that lift-off speed and you will need more runway at the same time.

2. Density/ temperature:

* Air temperature: Temp ↗ ⤇ climb angle ↘ + Rate of climb ↘

- Effect on aerodynamics: When the Outside Air Temperature increases, the air density decreases =>
for a given weight, the airspeed must be increased to compensate for the air density reduction => Take-off
distance is increased.

- Effect on engine: The efficiency of the jet engine depends on the temperature of the air surrounding it.
The higher the air temperature, the less thrust can be produced by the engine. Therefore the rate of
acceleration is smaller and the aircraft will need a longer takeoff distance and smaller takeoff climb
grandient.

 Explain:

A higher temperature causes a low air density. The same effects of field elevation apply. Higher end speed,
less power from the engine and lower thrust from the propeller. For a fan engine these factors also apply if
the temperature is high enough. The “flat rated temperature” of a jet engine is the threshold at which the
thrust begins to decrease under the influence of the temperature. Be extra cautions on an elevated field
during a hot day. “Hot and high”. Your takeoff speed must increase speed while the airplane has less power.

Warm air is less dense than cold air because there are fewer air molecules in a given volume of warm air
than in the same volume of coller air. As a result, on a hot day, an airplane will require more runway to
takeoff, will have a poor rate of climb and a faster approach and will experience a longer landing roll.

* Air density: Ăir density ↘ ⤇ climb angle ↘ + Rate of climb ↘

- Effect on aerodynamics: As air density is reduced (for example, with increasing altitude), take-off
distance begins to increase quickly. (because velocity increase).

- Effect on engine: As air density is reduced, the available Take-off thrust is reduced. Therefore, Take-
off distances are longer and Take-off climb gradients are reduced.

 Explain:

When air density decreases both engine and aerodynamic performance also suffer losses. The reason being
is that with a lower density, air molecules are futher apart from each other (as such there are less air
molecules per m3 or ft3).

A number of factors (altitude/ pressure, temperature and humidity) influence air density. A higher altitude,
low pressure area, higher temperature and high humidity all have one result: they lower the density of the
air. And as a result of that: a reduction in aircraft and engine performance.

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When taking off any DA above ISA sea level, you will still need the same indicated airspeed. But because air
density is lower, true airspeed will be higher and as a result your groundspeed is higher. To get to the same
indicated airspeed you will also need more runway for your groundroll.

3. Wind: Headwind ⤇ ↘ Distance Tailwind ⤇ ↗ Distance

- Headwind conditions: + shorter takeoff distance required

+ smaller ground speed

+ same air speed

- Tailwind conditions: + longer take off distance required

+ greater ground speed

+ same air speed

 The wind component along the runway axis is an important influencing factor for take-off. It affects the
Take-off ground speed and, therefore, the Take-off distances, which are reduced in case of headwind and
increased in case of tailwind.

The distance required for take off depends on the ground speed.

While the lift and the drag during take off depend on air speed.

- The crosswind component does not affect Take-off performance.

Explain:

In a headwind you initial velocity not zero because there is wind already blowing over your wings. This
headwind you can deduct from your final ground speed.

With headwind you need a shorter runway beacaus:

T= V/a : the speed is lower, it takes less time to reach that lower speed

S= ½*a t2 : if it takes less time you need less distance.

Not only for safety reasons a takeoff that is abandoned will also use less runway to stop because ground
speed is lower (check the ASDA distance during preflight). Climbing into the wind will result in a steeper
climb, which is ideal for clearing obstacles in your climb out path.

5. Runway conditions:

* Slope: Upward slope ⤇ Take-off distances ↗

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 Accelerate stop distance ↘

Downward slope ⤇ Take-off distances ↘

Ăccelerate stop distance ↗

 Explain:

Suppose you have a runway with a down slope. You then roll easier because you travel along the slope.
Your acceleration a is larger,

With down slope distance becomes shorter becauseL

a= F/m : The acceleration a is larger and thus

t= V/a : it takes less time to reach the speed V.

s= ½* a t2 : If it takes less time you need less distance.

* Runway surface condition:

Friction coefficient (Wet, mud, sand, water,…)⤇ TOD↗

- During the take-off, the largest contributor to drag is friction on the wheels, If this friction is increased
take-off distance will increase.

››The runway surface condition has effect on the wheel drag. If the runway is contaminated by snow, slush
or standing water, the wheel drag will be greater. Thus the accelerating force decreases and the take off
distance required increases.

6. Aircraft configurations:

* Flap setting: Flap setting ⤇ TOD ↘

- For a given aeroplane mass, an increase of flap angle:

+ increases the lift coefficient CL, which reduces take-off speed; thus, the Take-off distance decreases;

+ increases the drag and decreases the lift to drag ratio, thus the climb gradient after Take-off decreases.

- Reduced flap setting: + longer TODR

+ greater climb gradient

Optimum flaps setting: + shorter TODR

+ reduced climb gradient

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* Aircraft contamination:

The airframe is contaminated by frost, ice or snow ⤇ TOD ↗

- In addition if the airframe is contaminated by frost, ice or snow during take off the aircraft performance
will be reduced, and the take off distance will be increased.

 Explain:

* The use of aircraft systems or their failure:

- The anti- skid system: In case of an anti-skid system failure in a Class A aircraft, the stopping distance will
increase which will result in an increased stopping distance in case of a rejected takeoff. As a result you
need a longer runway even if you do not intend to stop, because the possibility of stopping must be present.

- The anti- icing system:

+ when a jet takes off in icing conditions the use of the anti-icing system results in having less power
from the engines because the hot air for the anti-icing system is taken from the engines. That causes
significantly longer takeoff distances and reduced climb performance. The relative humidity.

+ The relative humidity is also a factor. The takeoff performance of an airplane is based on a prescribed
relative humidity of the air. That influence does not show from the takeoff tables.

+ Water molecules are lighter than oxygen and nitrogen, the main components of dry air. You can now
state that where there is water in the air there is no dry air. Because most air is lighter than dry air the
density decreased when the relative humidity increases. The aircraft performance will decrease.

+ The influence of high humidity are not as important as those from the other variables. For example, if
you look at a takeoff in a very hot and humid tropical climate, the biggest problen is the high temperature
and the resulting lower air density.

- Flaps:

+ The effect of extending the wing flaps is beneficial to the moment of lift-off because the speed at which
you can fly is lower than without flaps. The stall speed decreases. As a result the ground roll is shorter but
the total TODR to screen height is not automatically shorter. The drag of the flaps can cause the advantage
to disappear in the (initial) climb.

+ Extending the flaps beyond the maximum position for takeoff makes no sense because the drag
increases faster than the lift. The use of flaps can have a clear disadvantage: Once you are airborne then the
extra drag form the flaps will decrease your angle of climb. The use of flaps in a climb to a higher altitude is
always a disadvantage and is normally not done. To climb fast you should retract the flaps as soon as
possible after the 50 or 35 feet point.

 Distance: TODA, TOD, TORA, TOR, ASD, ASDA.

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1. Take Off Distance Available (TODA): The length of the take-off run available plus the length of the
clearway, if provided.

- The maximum length of the clearway is half the TORA.

- In case no clearway exists, TODA is same as TORA. TODA includes ground as well as air segments.

+ Maximum TODA = 1.5 x TORA (an EU OPS limit)

+ The maximum clearway that can be used is limited to 50% of the TORA making the TODA 150% of the
TORA.

2. Take Off Distance (TOD): is the total length of the take off run and the initial climb distance to 35 ft.

- The Take-off distance must not exceed the take-off distance available

TOD ≤ TODA

? Factor effecting TOD:

- Effect of decreased air density: reduces thrust and, therefore, acceleration. Increases the true take-off
speed. Reduces initial climb angle.

- High, hot and humid conditions decrease aircraft performance:

1000ft increase in altitude or a 100C increase in temperature = 10% increase in takeoff distance.

* The mass of airplane

* The wind:

* The slope of the runway:

* The surface of the runway: paved/ unpaved

If the runway is a grass runway then you have more rolling resistance when compared to a concrete
runway. The acceleration now is smaller.

* The field elevation and the pressure altitude:

The field elevation is the altitude of the airport above sea level. The pressure altitude is the altitude above
1013 hPa.If the elevation increases then so does the pressure altitude. The pressure then decreases.

That effect has several consequences:

- The end speed in knots TAS:

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 + If the field is at a high elevation above sea level then the air pressure and the density are less.

+ Since the air density is a variable inside the lift formula which tells you that a lower air density you
need a higher speed (TAS) to develop the same amount of lift.

This higher end speed in TAS will take more time and as a result more runway length.

The speed in IAS will remain the same, that is the advantage of using IAS. This can be explained as
follows:

× IAS is indicated on the speedometer from the product ½*ρ* V2

× With increasing field elevation ρ decreases and as a result V (TAS) must increase to keep the
outcome of the product constant, and that is exactly what happens.

- The power of the engine:

Because of the lower air density you need a higher end speed (V) and your engine will also be less
powerful. That is because there is less air to create the fuel/ air mixture. Lower power results in less Force
(F). If you have a propeller airplane then propeller will also perform less and as a result you will have even
less Force.

On an elevated runway the required takeoff distance will increase because:

a= F/m : F is less so acceleration (a) is less and then

t= V/ a : it takes extra long before you reach the higher speed V.

s= ½*a t2 : If it takes longer, you use more distance.

* The temperature:

* The rotation speed:

This speed has a value that depends on the weight of the aircraft. It is important to use correct value of
Vr and not to rotate too early or too late. Both will cause the takeoff distance to increase.

If you do rotate too late then you have used more runway than necessary. Rotating at a low speed also
results in longer runway required because the wings reach an angle of attack too soon in the takeoff roll.
Angle of attack causes lift and lift cause drag.

3. Take Off Run Available (TORA): The length of runway which is declared available by the appropriate
Authority and suitable for the ground run of an aeroplane taking off.

- TORA is either equal to the runway length, or to the distance from the runway entry point (intersecting
taxiway) to the end of the runway.

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4. Take Off Run (TOR) : is defined as the distance from brake release to ½ the Air Distance. (Air Distance
is distance from lift-off to 35 ft).

- The Take off run must not exceed the take off run available.

TOR ≤ TORA

5. "Accelerate-stop distance" (ASD): includes the total distance it takes you to start your takeoff roll, lose
an engine, and bring your aircraft to a stop.

6. Accelerate-Stop Distance Available (ASDA): The length of the take-off run available plus the length of
the stopway, if provided.

- ASDA must not be used as TORA. ASDA is used for calculation of V1.

- The accelerate-stop distance must not exceed the accelerate-stop distance available.

ASD ≤ ASDA

Each of these distances vary with configuration, weight, wind and density altitude. But, speed has a massive
effect on each of these distances.

* NOTE: When neither clearway, nor stopway exist at the end of the runway (for a given QFU), the runway
length is called “balanced field length”. Ín this case: TORĂ = TODĂ = ĂSDĂ.

Therefore, you must check the two conditions: TOD ≤ Balanced field length

ASD ≤ Balanced field length

 V1, V2, VR, VLOF.

* NOTE:

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- Engine Failure Speed (VEF): is the calibrated airspeed at which the critical engine is assumed to fail. All
takeoff performance figures after critical engine failure are calculated from this speed.

- Minimum Control Speed Airbone (Vmca) .

- The reference stall speed (VSR).

- Minimum Unstick Speed (Vmu).

1. Take off “decision” speed (V1) : the calibrated airspeed on the ground at which, as a result of engine
failure or other reasons, the pilot assumed to have made a decision to continue or discontinue the takeoff.
V1 must be established in relation to VEF as follows:

VEF < V1

Influence of V1: Final takeoff speed means the speed of the airplane that exists at the end of the takeoff path
in the en route configuration with one engine inoperative. In case of higher V1, the opposite occurs, ASD is
longer than TOD.

2. Take off “safety” speed (V2) : This speed will be reached at 35 feet above the runway surface with one
engine inoperative.

V2 ≥ V2min where V2min = greater of [1.10 Vmca; 1.13 VSR (= 1.2 Vs)]

Influence of V2: For a given aeroplane mass, when V2 increases, all the Take-off speeds increase too, and a
longer Take-off distance is necessary in order to achieve a higher V2 at 35ft

3. Rotation speed (VR) : is the speed at which the pilot initiates the rotation, at the appropriate rate of about
3° per second.

Regulations prohibit a rejected take - off after rotation has been initiated, thus V R must be greater than
V1.

VR is entered in the MCDU by the crew during the flight preparation.

VR > 1.05 Vmca

4. Lift off speed (VLOF) : is the airspeed at which the aeroplane first becomes airborne. It depends on the
MTOW, flap setting and angle of attack

1.05 Vmu < VLOF (1 ENG OUT)

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 1.10 Vmu < VLOF (all engines)

VLOF [must] not [be] less than 110% of VMU in the all-engines-operating condition and not less than 105%
of VMU determined at the thrust-to-weight ratio corresponding to the one-engine-inoperative condition.”

 Take-off segments

- lift off – 50ft: airbone acceleration (USA: 35ft).

Ground acceleration (from Brake release to start of rotation)

Rotation (From start of rotation until airborne)

Airborne acceleration (after liftoff)

LANDING
 Factor effecting Landing: 1, air density, wind, landing speed, 5,6

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1. Weight: If weight is increased, VREF will be higher, giving as a result a longer landing distance.

M ↗ ⤇ Landing distance ↗

Explain:

A heavier aircraft has a higher approach speed (1.3Vs, and stall speed is higher) and therefore needs more
runway length to stop. Rule of thumb: 10% more weight means 10% more runway needed when landing.

2. Air density:

* Air density: Ăir density ↗ ⤇ Landing distance ↘

When increase of pressure attitude (density decrease) will increase TAS, so the landing
distance will be increased as well.

A rule of thumb is: an increase of 1000 ft in DA produce a 2% increase of the landing

distance.

Explain:

High elevation airports are characterized by low pressure and high ambient temperatures. The True
Airspeed (TAS) will be higher than the Indicated airspeed indicated by the Airspeed indicator to the pilot
in air of low density. This increase in TAS leads to greater touchdown speed hence increases the landing
roll. More energy has to be absorbed by the brakes thus demanding the need of a longer runway. An
increased density altitude means a longer landing distance.

* Air Temperature: Actual landing distance (ALD) is calculated in ISA conditions, so the temperature has no
influence on it.

3. Wind: Headwind ⤇ LDR ↘ ; Tailwind ⤇ LDR ↗

* The wind affects the deceleration force during the landing roll. A headwind component adds to the
deceleration force and therefore increases the braking efficiency & reduce the landing distance. While a
tailwind component for the same reason reduces the braking efficiency & increase the landing distance.

- A headwind reduces our landing distance required due to the reduced groundspeed at touchdown
(increases the braking efficiency).

- A tailwind increases our landing distance required due to the increased groundspeed at touchdown.
(decreases the braking efficiency).

**Strong cross-winds, turbulence and wind shear make handling difficult and are likely to result in an
increased landing distance.

 Explain:

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The headwind reduces the landing distance for an aircraft. Landing into a headwind reduces the Ground
Speed (GS) for the same TAS.[1] This is beneficial to pilots as well as Air traffic controllers (ATC). An aircraft
landing into a headwind will require less runway and will be able to vacate the runway sooner. If the
headwind decreases near the ground, there's a decrease in the performance of the aircraft and it will tend
to sink and possibly under shoot the aiming point. Tailwind increases the Ground Speed of an aircraft for
the same TAS and thus a longer runway distance will be required for an aircraft to land. Landing in a
tailwind situation could lead to the aircraft over shooting the runway and colliding with objects or terrain.

4. Landing speed: Landing speed ↗ ⤇ Landing Distance Required ↗

 Explain:

The excess speed places a greater working load on the brakes because of the additional kinetic energy to
be dissipated. Also, the additional speed causes increased drag and lift in the normal ground attitude, and
the increased lift reduces the normal force on the braking surfaces. The deceleration during this range of
speed immediately after touchdown may suffer, and it is more probable for a tire to be blown out from
braking at this point.

5. Runway conditions:

* Slope: Upward slope ⤇ Landing distances ↘ ; Downward slope ⤇ Landing distances ↗

- Up slope: If an aircraft is landing up hill it will take less time to slow down therefore the landing distance
will reduce

- Down slope: If an aircraft is landing down hill it will take more time to slow down therefore the landing
distance will increase.

* Surface: Friction coefficient ↘ ⤇ Landing distance ↗

- Landing performance depends on the runway braking conditions. A hard dry surface gives the good
braking condition & reduce landing distance.

- If the runway is wet or contaminated the landing distance achieved will be increased.

6. Aircraft configuration:

* Flap/ Slat: High flap/slat setting↗ ⤇ landing distance ↘

An increase in flap deflection implies an increase in the lift coefficient (CL), and in the wing surface. It is
therefore possible to reduce speed such that the aircraft will need a shorter distance to land.

The lift/drag factors may also be varied by the pilot to adjust the descent through the use of landing flaps.
Flap extension during landings provides several advantages by:

+ Producing greater lift and permitting lower landing speed.

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 + Producing greater drag, permitting a steep descent angle without airspeed increase.

+ Reducing the length of the landing roll.

 Explain:

High Flap settings help an aircraft to increase the aerodynamic drag and reduce the stalling speed so that
the aircraft can fly at low speeds safely. Flaps also enable pilots to take a steeper approach path while
landing.

* Other systems: The braking systems is inoperative ⤇ Landing distance ↗

- If some of the braking systems is inoperative (spoilers, one of the brakes, anti-skid…), the landing distance
will also be increased. It is important to check LDA in such cases.

* Flying technique: Flying technique ↘ ⤇ LDR ↗

- One of the factors that most affect landing distance in a real flight is the flying technique. If landing speed
is not properly maintained, glide path is too steep or the height above threshold is higher than usual, the
landing distance may be increased dramatically.

⤇Therefore it is essential to fly a good approach in order to have a good landing.

 Distance: ALD, LDR, LDA.

1. Actual/Calculated Landing distance (ALD): is the horizontal distance traversed by the aeroplane from
a point on the approach path at a selected height (15m = 50 ft) above the landing surface to the point on
the landing surface at which the aeroplane comes to a complete stop.

2. Landing Distance Required (LDR): is the measured horizontal distance between that point on the
landing surface at which the aeroplane is brought to a complete stop or, for seaplanes, to a speed of
approximately 9 km/h (5 kt) and that point on the landing surface which the aeroplane cleared by 15.2 m
(50 ft) multiplied by a safety factor.

A turbojet aircraft must be able to land within 60% of the LDA.

A turboprop aircraft must be able to land within 70% of the LDA.

* Landing Distance Required – Dry runways = LDR = ALD + safety factor = ALD/ 0.7

* Landing Distance Required – Wet Runways: If the runway is wet, then the landing distance required is
115% of the corresponding LDR for a dry runway = LDR. 115%

* Landing Distance Required – Contaminated Runways:

LDR contaminated ≤ greater (1.15 × ALD contaminated. RLD wet)

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 The LDR depends on a number of factors, principally:

+ The aircraft landing mass; + The surface wind and temperature;

+ The runway elevation and slope; + The condition of aircraft braking systems.

+ The runway surface conditions (dry, wet or contaminated).

3. Landing distance available (LDA): The length of runway which is declared available and suitable for
the ground run of an aeroplane landing (Stopways are not included in the LDA).

- With no obstacle under landing path, the Landing Distance Available (LDA) is the runway length (TORA).
The stopway cannot be used for landing calculation.

 Go around: is an aborted landing of an aircraft that is on final approach. In case of performing a missed
approach procedure, the aircraft must be able to climb with a minimum gradient. Two different minimum
gradients have been established, one for approach configuration and another for landing configuration

* Approach climb: Allows for a missed approach where the go-around must be flown with the aircraft in
the approach configuration. The steady gradient may not be less than:

- The approach climb is demonstrated with:

[1] the critical engine inoperative and the remaining engines at takeoff thrust

[2] maximum landing weight

[3] a climb speed not exceeding 1.4 VSR (EASA) or 1.5 VSR (FAR).

[4] the landing gear retracted.

[5] approach flaps selected.

* Landing Climb: Landing climb gradient charts are calculated for go-around with the aircraft in the landing
configuration. Both FAR and EASA require the steady climb gradient to be not less than 3.2%.

The landing climb is demonstrated with:

[1] both engines operating, at the thrust is available 8 seconds after the thrust levers are increased from
the minimum flight idle to the takeoff thrust position

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[2] landing gear extended

[3] landing flaps selected

[4] a climb speed of not more than 1.13 VSR and VMCL.

CLIMB
 Factor Effecting Climb: 1, 2, 3, 4- Speed and acceleration, 6- Retraction of flap and landing gear.

1. Weight:

m ↗ ⤇ climb angle ↘

rate of climb ↘

- Increased mass gives higher drag which reduces the excess thrust (the difference between the thrust and
drag), and therefore reduces the climb angle for a given thrust & reduces the rate of climb.

Explain:

A heavier aircraft decrases the climb performance as the power required to maintain a given speed in level
flight increases with a higher all up weight. So there is less excess power available to climb. And as a result,
climb performance and service ceiling will suffer.

2. Air density/ Temperature:

* Temp:

Temp ↗ ⤇ climb angle ↘

rate of climb ↘

- The higher the air temperature, less thrust can be produced by the engines. Because of that the difference
between the thrust and the drag during climb is smaller. Therefore the climb angle & the rate of climb will
be reduced.

* Air density:

Altitude increase ↗ (density decrease↘) ⤇ the climb angle & the rate of climb will be reduced (↘).

- Due to air density reduction when pressure altitude increases, climb thrust and drag decrease. But, since
the drag force decreases at a lower rate than the available thrust, the difference between thrust and drag
decreases. Therefore, the climb gradient and the rate of climb decrease with pressure altitude, due to a
lower excess of thrust.

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 With increasing altitude, the rate of climb: "decreases because power available decreases and power
required increases" .

- You will get the best rate of climb where there is the greatest excess of power available over power
required. This will occur at SL, as altitude increases the power available decreases and the power required
increases, the gap closes, and rate of climb decreases.

You'll get the best angle of climb where there is the greatest excess of thrust over drag. Thrust decreases
with increasing altitude, drag stays almost constant, the gap closes and the angle of climb decreases.

 Explain:

At any altitude where OAT is higher than standard ISA temperature climb performance will be reduced. If
QNH is lower than ISA then aircraft climb performance is affected too.

3. Wind:

- WIND HAS NO AFFECT ON THE RATE OF CLIMB. The rate of climb is independent from the wind speed,
because it is always considered in reference to the air not the ground.

Headwind: climb angle ↗

Tailwind: climb angle ↘

- A headwind will reduce the ground speed and therefore reduce the horizontal distance that an aircraft
travels in comparison to the no wind conditions. Therefore a headwind gives increased climb angle, while
a tailwind affects in opposite direction and gives reduced climb angle. Crosswind component has no effect
on the climb gradient.

4. Speed & acceleration: Speed ↗ ⤇ Climb angle ↘

- When the aircraft is accelerating during climb some portion of the excess thrust is required for the
acceleration, so there will be less excess thrust and therefore reduce climb angle.

6. Retraction of flap and landing gear:

Drag↘ ⤇ Climb angle ↗ + Rate of climb ↗

- When the flap and landing gears are retracted, the drag is reduced, resulting in an increase in excess thrust,
therefore the rate of climb is increased.

- The drag of an aircraft will depend on its configuration. After takeoff the configuration is with gear down
and takeoff flaps. When the gears are retracted the drag is reduced, resulting with increased excess thrust
(the difference between thrust and drag), therefore the climb gradient is increased. The same thing occurs
when the flap is retracted.

If higher flap angle is used to reduce the take-off distance required, the climb gradient will be reduced.

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When a lower flap angle is used the take-off distance required is increased, but the climb gradient is
increased as well.

Explain:

Extending the flaps will decrease the climb performance as L/D ratio is reduced and the power required
increased. The best rate-of-climb and angle of climb is always reached with flaps up.

 Vx, Vy:

- Speed for Maximum angle of climb (Vx): This is the speed at which the aeroplane gains the most altitude
in the shortest horizontal distance covered (i.e. best gradient). This occurs at a relatively low airspeed and
gives best obstacle clearance.

+ Best angle of climb airspeed for an airplane is the speed at which the maximum excess thrust is available
over that required for level flight.

+ The best angle of climb will result in a steeper climb path, although the airplane will take longer to reach
the same altitude than it would at best rate of climb.

+ The best angle of climb, therefore, is used in clearing obstacles after takeoff.

× Best angle of climb speed will be when the excess thrust is greatest.

× Plotting the thrust and drag curve on a graph, we can see that best angle of climb speed (VX) is at a point
where there is a maximum difference between the two curves (i.e. maximum difference between thrust and
drag).

× Since the thrust lines differ for jets and propeller aircraft, their VX is different.

× Vx for jet aircraft is close to Vmd (minimum drag speed).

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× Where Vx for propeller aircraft is lower than Vmd, somwhere close to the stalling speed (about 1.1VS).

- Speed for Maximum rate of climb (Vy): This is the airspeed when an aircraft gains the most altitude in the
shortest time and is normally achieved at a shallower angle of climb and a higher airspeed than V X.

+ Vy is performed at an airspeed where the mosr excess power is available over that required for level
flight.

Rate of climb = V. (Thrust – Drag)/ Weight

+ This condition of climb will produce the most gain in altitude in the least amount of time ( maximum rate
of climb in feet per minute).

Best angle of climb airspeed (Vx) is considerably lower than best rate of climb (Vy).

Rate of climb is the height gained per unit of time (feet per minute).

Rate of climb is affected by the TAS and the climb angle (in a steady climb).

Rate of climb increases if:

- Speed increases at a given climb angle.

- Climb angle increases for a given speed.

* Rate of climb:

- When the obstacles are over flown it is the important to consider the rate of climb.

- Rate of climb is the vertical component of the speed, expressed in feet per minute. It depends on the
airspeed (V) and the angle of climb or climb gradient.

- Rate of climb= V.sin α = V.climb gradient = V. (Thrust – Drag)/ Weight

- Best rate of climb is important to ensure aircraft reach required altitude in the minimum time.

1.Factors Affecting Climb Gradient:

In reference to the above figure, anything that reduces the distance between the thrust and drag curves,
reduces the climb gradient and vice-versa.

Altitude and Temperature

The drag for a given EAS (close to IAS) stays the same with variations in temperature and pressure.

However the thrust decreases with low pressure and high temperature.

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So High Altitude (i.e. low pressure) or High Temperature decreases the climb gradient.

The reduction in temperature at higher altitudes has the effect of increasing the climb gradient but
reduction in pressure is more significant, so overall as the aircraft climbs, the climb gradient is reduced.

Mass

Increase in mass - Increases in lift - Increase in lift induced drag - Reduction in excess thrust - Reduced
climb gradient.

Flaps

Increase in flap setting - Increases in drag - Reduced climb gradient.

Change of lift produced produces no benefit to climb gradient. Climb gradients are best when the aircraft is
flapless.

Wind

The climb gradient in aerodynamic terms is considered in the air mass and is therefore not affected by
wind. It is an air gradient.

If the gradient is related to ground distance a headwind will increase the flight path climb gradient whereas
a tailwind will decrease it.

In this case the gradient should be referred to as the Flight Path Angle.

Bank Angle

Increase in bank angle - Increase in induced drag - Reduced climb gradient.

2. Factors Affecting Value of Vy:

Altitude and Temperature

As altitude increases, best rate of climb TAS increases.

Change in air density with altitude means that for a given TAS the EAS and IAS reduce.

Reduction in EAS and IAS is faster than the increase in TAS

Vy is ideally expressed as an IAS.

So Vy (as an IAS) decreases as height increases.

EAS and TAS diverge less in lower temperatures and more in high temperatures.

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Thus Vy decreases less with height in low temperatures and more with height in high temperatures.

Mass

Increase in mass - increase in induced drag - left side of drag curve (power required curve) shifts to the
right - VY increases.

Flaps and Gear

Increase in flaps or extending the gear - increase in profile drag - right side of drag curve (power required
curve) shifts to the left - VY decreases.

3. Factors that affect Rate of Climb:

Altitude and Temperature

In a climb - Thrust reduces - TAS increases - Product of Thrust x TAS reduces - Power available reduces.

In a climb - Drag constant - TAS increases - Product of Drag x TAS increases - Power required increases.

Power available reduces - Power required increases - Rate of climb decreases.

Thus increase in altitude and increase in temperature reduces the rate of climb.

Mass

Rate of Climb = (Power Available - Power Required) / Weight

Rate of climb is inversely proprtional to mass.

Flaps and Gear

Increase in drag - Increases in power required - Decrease in rate of climb.

Wind

It has no effect.

 Ceiling: Service ceiling, Absolute ceiling

* Service ceiling: is where the rate of climb drops below a prescribed value. The service ceiling is the
maximum usable altitude of an aircraft. (a typical value might be 100 feet per minute climb or 30 metres
per minute).

* Absolute ceiling (or aerodynamic ceiling): is the altitude at which the (maximum) rate of climb goes to
zero.

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 RC = 0 ⬄ Pavai = Preq

 Vẽ, giải thích – climb:

The angle of climb (γ - GAMMA) is the angle between the climb path and the horizontal.

The balance of forces in a steady climb show thrust is acting upwards and an element of weight is adding
to the drag

As the thrust assists the lift, the lift required is less than in level flight. Verify mathematically by the formula
Lift = W.cos gamma

For a steady speed to be maintained the thrust and the two retarding effects of aerodynamic drag and the
weight element must be equal.

If Thrust = T, Drag = D and Weight = W, then as a formula it can be written as:

T = D + W sin gamma

or

Sin gamma = T - D / W

It means that climb angle (Sin gamma) depends on the excess thrust (i.e. thrust less drag) and the weight.

Tan gamma = Opposite / Adjacent

Opposite = Height gained

Adjacent = Distance covered on ground.

Height gained against distance covered on ground is the climb gradient.

Thus Tan gamma = climb gradient

For small angles Adjacent is nearly the same as Hypotenuse and Opposite/Adjacent = Sin relation.

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So we get an approximate formula for climb gradient, which is:

Sin gamma = T – D / Weight (1)

or

Climb gradient = T – D / Weight

Meaning that the greatest climb gradient is obtained when a greatest difference exists between thrust and
drag and the weight is least.

T  D
? Chứng minh công thức: RC  V sin   V  
 W 
(1) ⇨ nhân 2 vế (1) với V ta có công thức cần c/m.

Rate of climb = TAS x Sin gamma

Sin gamma = T-D/W (as mentioned above)

So Rate of Climb = TAS x (T-D)/W

TAS x thrust = Power Available.

TAS x Drag = Power Required.

So Rate of Climb = (Power Available - Power Required) / Weight

DESCENT
 Factor Effecting Descent: 1,2,3,4,6

1. Weight: m ↗ ⤇ descent angle ↘ + rate of descent ↘

- The heavier weight develops more enery going downhill than the lighter Aircraft. More energy/speed
more lift-lower rate of descent.

A heavier plane must increase its angle of attack to provide extra lift.

It thus incurs proportionately more drag and thus requires proportionately more thrust.

The thrust comes from the vertical component of the glide ie the rate of change of height times the weight
of the plane.

So the heavier plane needs more thrust because it is heavier. But it is heavier so it provides more thrust
for a given angle of descent.

 Explain:

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A change in weight does not affect the descent angle. With an aeroplane flying at its best L/D ratio, an
increase in weight will increase the Forward component of weight (FCW), increasing the speed down the
slope, and therefore the rate of descent, but not the descent angle.

2. Air density/ Temperature:

T↘ ⤇ρ↗ ⤇ descent angle ↗

rate of descent ↗

 Explain:

Density altitude and humidity affect rate of descent by increasing or decreasing drag. A high density altitude
and high humidity environment—thinner air—results in reduced drag which, in turn, decreases the deficit
thrust produced at any given power setting. Once we are airborne, of course, there is not much we can do
about the density altitude or humidity factors expect understand how they affect performance.

3. Wind:

Headwind: reduce the horizontal distance => increased descent angle (↗)

Tailwind: descent angle ↘

- WIND HAS NO EFFCT ON THE RATE OF DESCENT. The rate of descent is independent from the wind
speed, because it is always considered in reference to the airspeed not the groundspeed.

Crosswind component has no effect on the descent gradient.

 Explain:

A headwind will reduce the ground speed and therefore reduce the horizontal distance that aircraft travels
in comparison to the no wind conditions. Therefore a headwind gives increased descent gradient (steeper
descent in reference to the ground), while a tailwind affects in opposite direction and gives reduced descent
gradient. Crosswind component has no effect on the descent gradient.

In headwind conditions it is to be expected that aircraft will start their descent later (the top of descent will
be closer to the start of the approach); while in tailwind conditions they will start their descent earlier.

4. Speed:

- In general, rate of descent increases with increasing drag.

Rate of descent = V x (DRAG - THRUST) / WEIGHT

⬄ V↗ ⤇ rate of descent ↗ + Descent angle ↗

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6. Aircraft configuration (flap/slat and landing gear):

Use flap/ Slat ⤇ Lift ↗

Drag ↗ ⤇ v ↗ ⤇ descent angle ↗

Rate of descent ↗

 Explain:

The increased drag produced by the flap requires an increased FCW to maintain equilibrium and thereby
steepens the descent, increases the ROD, and reduces the range.

 Vẽ, giải thích - descent

The above diagram shows the forces in the descent. Again look at the forces parallel and perpendicular to
the descent path. To descend at a constant angle, lift must equal the component of weight, W cos γ (shown
in blue).

When lowering the aeroplane’s nose to descend, thrust must be reduced, otherwise the aeroplane
accelerates. The above diagram shows that this is because a component of weight (W sin γ) is now acting
in the same direction as thrust. For these two forces to be balanced by drag, which is the only force pulling
backward up the descent path, thrust must be smaller than in straight-and-level flight.

In the above diagram the forces parallel to the descent path are shown in red. The forces perpendicular to
the descent path are shown in blue.

Therefore,

D = T + W sin γ, and

L = W cos γ

This means that weight is greater than lift (W > L) and drag is greater than thrust (D >T).

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* Descent angle = D - T / W

With idle thrust and Lift almost equal to weight

Descent angle = D / L

Thus Increase in Drag will increase the descent angle

At constant mach descent IAS and TAS are increasing which inceases the total drag (due to profile drag).

? C/m công thức Rate of descent = V x (DRAG - THRUST) / WEIGHT

Ta có: T – D + Wsin γ = 0 ⬄ sin γ = ( D – T) / W

Nhân 2 vế với v, ta có: sin γ. V = [( D – T )/ W] V

Mà: sin γ. V = RD ⇨ công thức cần c/m.

 Top of descent point:

* The top of descent point or TOD is the point for an aircraft to initiate a descent to a lower level for
arrival at the destination airfield. The aircraft is leaving the cruise phase of the flight and start a descent
phase to the first approach altitude expected at one approach fix.

[The point at which the descent is initiated from the cruising level is called top of descent(ToD) point].

- The flight crew will have to calculate the top of descent point to ensure that they arrive at the correct
level for the start of their approach.

* Rule of 3: In aviation and based on a 3° descent rate, transport pilots adopted a formula to assure a slow,
steady and comfortable descent for their passengers: the rule of three or "3:1 rule of descent".

- A 3:1 descent plan means that the aircraft will require three nautical miles for every one thousand feet
of aircraft altitude above ground.

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 Gliding flight:

- In the ultimate situation, there is no power at all. In this case, the airplane will be in gliding.

- Gliding is done in relatively still air and requires no thrust. The aircraft is slowly descending, converting
the gravitational potential energy of altitude into kinetic energy needed to counteract drag and maintain
airspeed. This is done at a nearly level attitude and is done at a fairly constant airspeed. Nearly all airplanes
will glide during some portions of the flight, particularly the approach to landing. Gliders or sailplanes
spend much of their time gliding.

- Gliding Flight

• Thrust = 0 • Ăirspeed ~ constant

• Flight path angle < 0 in gliding flight • Ăir density ~ constant

• Ăltitude is decreasing

CRUISE
 Factor Effecting Cruise: 1, 2, 3- density altitude.

1. Aircraft mass:

M ↗ ⤇ Drag ↗ ⤇ Thrust to balance the drag ↗ ( fuel flow ↗ + specific range ↘)

⤇ Fuel flow ↗ ⤇ Endurance ↘

2. Air density (altitude):

Ăltitude ↗ ⤇ Density ↘ ⤇ Drag ↘ ⤇ fuel flow ↘ + range ↗

3. Wind:

Headwind ⤇ the best range ↘ ; Tailwind ⤇ the best range

3 options for cruise: Best range, best endurance, best speed?

* Best range cruise:

- Range refer to distance aircraft can fly on a given amount of fuel. The maximum range means to fly the
greatest possible distance with available fuel.

- Specific Range (SR) express the range performance of the aircraft at a moment in time.

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 NM/hour Knots
Specific Range   (best ratio of velocity to fuel flow)
Fuel/hour Fuel Flow

- The optimum cruise altitude is that at which a given thrust setting results in the corresponding maximum
range speed. The optimum altitude is not constant and changes over the period of a long flight as
atmospheric conditions and the weight of the aircraft change.

Weight ↗ ⤇ optimum altitude ↘ Temperature ↗ ⤇ optimum altitude ↘

+ A small change in temperature will not significantly alter the optimum altitude.

* Best endurance cruise:

- Endurance is the time that aircraft can remain airborne with the fuel available. In other words, how long
an aircraft is able to remain airborne on a given amount of fuel.

- It will be greatest when the fuel is used at the lowest possible rate, that is, the fuel flow is minimum.

- Specific Endurance will have units of time/units of fuel.

Flight hours/hour 1
Specific Endurance  
Fuel/hour Fuel Flow

+ Flying for maximum endurance is often a requirement if we need to hold for weather.

+ When PWR required is at a minimum fuel flow is at a minimum therefore that is the PWR required for
maximum range.

+ When flying for maximum endurance you should fly at the minimum altitude (safely!) as PWR required
increases with an increase in altitude.

* Best speed cruise: The maximum speed means to fly the greatest possible velocity with available fuel.

TURNING
 ĐN, vẽ hình:

* The turn is the basic manoeuvre used to change heading of an aircraft.

* Forces in the turn:

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- Vertical forces:

The above diagram shows an aeroplane in a level turn to the left. In the diagram φ (PHI) is theangle of bank.
Since the only forces acting on the aeroplane in the vertical plane are, lift and weight, weight must equal
the vertical component of lift. This means that lift must be greater than weight.

Looking at the right angle triangle a,b,c this means that,

Cos φ = W/L

- Lateral forces:

In a steady level turn the centripetal force required to make the aeroplane turn, is produced by the lateral
component of lift, shown in the above diagram.

The centripetal force = Mass x V2/r

where, V is the velocity (TAS) in metres per second, around the circumference of a circle of radius r metres.

Looking in the above diagram at triangle a, b, c and using tan φ = opposite side/adjacent side, it is now
possible to see that,

Tan φ = AB/BC = (mV2/r)(1/W)

and, as W = m x g

Tan φ = (mV2/r) x (1/mg)

Tan φ = V2/rg (cancelling m, the mass)

This equation shows that the angle of bank is only influenced by the TAS and radius of turn, and is not
affected by aeroplane weight. Therefore two aeroplanes (identical, except one is twice the weight of the
other) which have the same TAS and angle of bank, will have the same turn radius.

Similarly, if two aeroplanes are turning at the same angle of bank, but aeroplane B is flying twice as fast as
aeroplane A, aeroplane B will have four times the turn radius.

Tan φ = V2/rg

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This is because for Tan φ to remain constant, the effect of doubling V is that V2 will increase by 22= 4, so the
radius must also increase by 4.

 Factor effecting turning:

* Airspeed: The higher the airspeed at a constant angle of bank the:

+ Lower the rate of turn + Larger the radius of turn.

* Angle of bank: at constant speed, the greater the angle of bank the

+ greater the rate of turn + higher the stalling speed

+ smaller the radius of turn + greater the load factor.

- The main factors which affect an aircraft turning under asymmetric power conditions are airspeed and
the direction of the turn relative to the failed engine. For example, consider an aircraft where the left engine
has failed and the yawing and rolling moments have been stabilised using right rudder. To initiate and hold
a balanced left turn, the amount of right rudder needed to counteract the yaw has to be reduced, whilst a
balanced right turn requires additional right rudder under the same conditions. If the airspeed is too low,
turning toward the operating engine may reduce the control forces to a critical level. At low indicated
airspeeds, it is therefore necessary to limit turns to only small angles of bank, since rudder deflection may
become insufficient to maintain a balanced turn.

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