Bulacan State University – Civil Engineering Department

3-WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

WATER SUPPLY/WITHDRAWALS

Most fresh water is supplied by pumping groundwater and withdrawing water from lakes and rivers. The demand for fresh
water supplies increases because of population growth and increasing development.

A water supply system capable of supplying a sufficient quantity of potable water is a necessity for a modern city. The
elements that make up a modern water supply system include
(1) the source(s) of supply,
(2) storage facilities,
(3) transmission (to treatment) facilities,
(4) treatment facilities,
(5) transmission (from treatment) and intermediate storage facilities, and
(6) distribution facilities.

In the development of public water supplies, the quantity and quality of the water are of paramount importance. The
relationship of these two factors to each of the functional elements is indicated in Table 3.1. As shown in Figure 3.1, not
every functional element will be incorporated in each water supply system.

Table 3.1 The Functional Elements of Public Water Supply System (Source: Linsley and Franzini 3rd edition)

Principal concerns in facilities design

Functional Element Description
(primary/secondary)
Surface water sources of supply such as rivers, lakes, and
Source(s) of supply Quantity/quality
reservoirs, or groundwaters
Facilities used for the storage of surface water, usually
Storage Quantity/quality
located at or near the source of supply
Facilities used to transport water from storage to
Transmission Quantity/quality
treatment facilities
Treatment Quantity/quality Facilities used to improve or alter the quality of water
Facilities used to transport treated water to intermediate
Transmission and storage Quantity/quality storage facilities and to one or more points for
distribution
Facilities used to distribute water to the individual users
Distribution Quantity/quality
connected to the system

Figure 3.1 Interrelationship of the functional elements of a municipal water supply system (Source: Linsley and Franzini 3rd edition)

Source(s) of water supply

Storage

Transmission

Treatment

Transmission and storage

Distribution

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM | Water Resources Engineering 1

FTSamonte2017
Bulacan State University – Civil Engineering Department

Categories of Water Use

 Domestic use is that water which is used in private residences, apartment houses, etc, for drinking, bathing, lawn
sprinkling, and sanitary and other purposes.
 Commercial and industrial use is that water used by commercial establishments and industries.
 Public use includes the water required for use in parks, civic buildings, schools, hospitals, churches, street washing,
etc.
 Water that leaks from the system, meter slippage, unauthorized connections, and all other unaccounted-for water
is classified as loss and waste.

Factors affecting Water Use

(1) Climate
More water is used in warm, dry climates than in humid climates for bathing, lawn watering, air conditioning,
etc. In extremely cold climates, water may be wasted at faucets to prevent freezing of pipes.

(2) Characteristics of Population

Water use is influenced by the economic status of the customers. The per capita use of water is much lower in
poor areas than in wealthy areas.

(3) Environmental Concern

Increased public concern about excessive use of resources has led to the development of devices that can be
employed to reduce the quantity of water used in residences.

(4) Industry and Commerce

Manufacturing plants often require large amounts of water. The actual amount depends on the extent of the
manufacturing and the type of industry. Some industries develop their own water supply and place little or no
demand on a municipal system. Zoning of the city affects the location of industries, so zoning information may
be helpful in estimating future industrial demands.

(5) Water Rate and Metering

If water costs are high, people may be more conservative in water use and industries may develop their own
supplies at a lower cost. Customers whose water supply is metered are more likely to repair leaks and use
water with discretion.

(6) Size of City

Per capita water use in sewered communities tends to be higher in large cities than in small towns. Typically,
the difference results from greater industrial use, more parks, greater commercial use, and perhaps more loss
and wastes in large cities. In many small communities that are not sewered, on-site systems made up of a
septic tank and a leach field system are commonly used for the disposal of wastewater.

(7) Need for Water Conservation

In many parts of the world, drought conditions have forced the residents of affected communities to reduce
water use voluntarily, and in some cases the agency responsible for providing water has had to ration the
available supply. Significant reductions in water use can be made through effective educational programs.

Estimates of Water Use

The first step in the design of a water supply system is to estimate the requirement for water. Previous records in the city
under study or data from similar cities in the area are the best guide in selecting a value of per capita use for design
purposes.

After deciding on an average per capita requirement, the future population of the city must be estimated to determine
average total use. The economic aspects of the problem include determining how far into the future the population should
be projected. The basic question to be answered is: Is it cheaper in the long term to design and build the system to meet the
demand expected at some future data or to build new for the short term and plan additions as future needs develop? The
answer is often a compromise. Some portions of the system may be more economically built to ultimate size immediately,
while other portions are left for expansion. If wells are to be used for the water source, the design period may be short
because other wells can be drilled when needed. On the other hand, if a dam must be built, the design period may be long.

If an engineer is required to make a population estimate for a city or region, he or she should consider any physical and
economic limits on the city’s growth. Surrounding incorporated areas or geographical barriers may limit growth to that
which can occur through use of undeveloped land within the city limits or multifamily apartments in lieu of single-family
residences. Small towns close to large cities may often receive a rapid influx of commuters unless transportation difficulties

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM | Water Resources Engineering 2

FTSamonte2017
Bulacan State University – Civil Engineering Department

interfere. Facilities or resources favorable to industrial development presage continued growth. Areas dedicated to single-
family residences will reach their limiting population sooner than areas that permit large apartment developments.

The engineer must assemble all pertinent facts, together with opinions of local residents who have watched the area’s
growth. Comparison with similar cities may be helpful, but the development of a single industry or a new transportation
facility may change the similarity almost overnight. The ultimate population of a geographic area may be predicted on the
prospective development indicated by the master plan for the community. Such estimates are disrupted by any change in
the zoning pattern. Typical population densities for various types of development are given in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2 Typical population densities (Source: Linsley and Franzini 3rd edition)
Persons per acre
Type of area
(Persons per hectare)
Residential
Single-family dwellings 5 – 30 (12 – 75)
Multiple-family dwellings 30 – 100 (75 – 250)
Apartments 100 – 1000 (250 – 2500)
Commercial 15 – 30 (40 – 75)
Industrial 5 – 15 (12 – 40)

Requirements for firefighting must also be considered. The annual volume of water use for firefighting is small, but during
fires the rate of use may be high. The rate of flow needed for the firefighting usually is that required to confine a major fire
to the buildings within a block or other complex. Determination of the required flow rate depends on the size, construction,
occupancy, and exposure of the buildings within and surrounding the block or complex. Thus, the required flow rate varies
throughout a city. The flow required for firefighting is added to the average use for the maximum day to determine what is
assumed to be the maximum rate of use during a fire.

WATER CHARACTERISTICS AND QUALITY

Impurities in Water

The principal impurities found in water and their origins are listed in Table 3.2. The impurities are classified as
(1) ionic and dissolved;
(2) nonionic and undissolved; and
(3) gases.

▪ Dissolved impurities are further classified into two groups depending on whether the ions are positive or negative.
▪ Nonionic and undissolved impurities are often categorized according to size and are identified as suspended if they
will settle and colloidal if they will not settle.
▪ Color and organic matter can be classified as both ionic and dissolved, as well as nonionic and undissolved,
depending on the nature of the molecules.

The presence or absence of impurities depends on the source of the water. To evaluate whether the impurities are harmful
one must determine
(1) The nature and amounts of the impurities present,
(2) The uses to be made of water, and the tolerance for various impurities for each use.

Sampling
The collection of water samples to be used in determining the impurities that may be present is an important step that
is often poorly conceived.

First, the sample must be representative of the source that is to be evaluated.

Second, the sampling equipment, procedures, and techniques must be selected so that changes in the constituents to
be analyzed will not occur between the time the samples are collected and the time they are analyzed. Thus, if
dissolved gases are to be determined, field analysis may be necessary. Special care is also required when
bacteriological samples are to be determined.

Units
The unit most commonly used to define the concentration of impurities found in water is milligrams per liter (mg/l),
which is also equal to grams per cubic meter (g/m3). Concentration can also be expressed as parts per million (ppm) on
weight basis.

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM | Water Resources Engineering 3

FTSamonte2017
Bulacan State University – Civil Engineering Department

Table 3.2 Principal Impurities and Their Origins (Source: Linsley and Franzini 3rd edition)
Impurity
Origin Ionic and dissolved Nonionic and undissolved Gases
Positive ions Negative ions Suspended Colloidal
From minerals, Calcium Bicarbonate Clay Clay Carbon dioxide
soils, and rocks Iron Carbonate Silt Silica
Magnesium Chloride Sand Ferric oxide
Manganese Fluoride Other organic soils Aluminum Oxide
Potassium Nitrate Magnesium dioxide
Sodium Phosphate
Zinc Hydroxide
Borates
Silicates
Sulfate
From the atmosphere Hydrogen Bicarbonate Dust Carbon dioxide
Chloride Pollen Nitrogen
Sulfate Oxygen
Sulfur dioxide
From the Ammonia Chloride Organic soil (topsoil) Vegetable coloring Ammonia
decomposition of Hydrogen Bicarbonate Organic wastes matter Carbon dioxide
organic matter Sodium Hydroxide Organic wastes Hydrogen sulfide
Nitrite Hydrogen
Nitrate Methane
Sulfide Nitrogen
Organic radicals Oxygen
Other gases
From living organisms Algae Viruses Ammonia
Diatoms Bacteria Carbon dioxide
Minute animals Algae Methane
Fish Etc.
Etc.
From municipal and Inorganic ions Inorganic ions Clay Inorganic and organic Chlorine
industrial sources and including a variety of Organic molecules Silt solids Sulfur dioxide
other human heavy metals Color Grit and other Coloring matter
activities inorganic solids Chlorinated organic
Organic compounds Compounds
Oil Pesticides
Corrosion products Viruses
Etc. Bacteria

Physical Characteristics of Water

 Total solids are determined by evaporating a sample and weighing the dry residue. Suspended solids are found by
filtering a sample of water. The difference between total solids and suspended solids represents dissolved solids.
Depending on the size of the openings in the filter paper that is used, a portion of the colloidal material will also be
measured as suspended solids. Information on total suspended solids is used for design of water-treatment
facilities. Total dissolved solids concentration, in conjunction with a detailed chemical analysis, is used to assess the
suitability of various water sources for alternative uses such as industry or agriculture.

 Turbidity decreases the clarity of water and results from the finely divided impurities, regardless of source, that
may be present in water. Turbidity is usually caused by clay, silt, and soil particles, and other colloidal impurities.
The degree of turbidity depends on the fineness of the particles and their concentration. Turbidity is measured
with a turbidimeter by measuring the interference to the passage of light through a water sample. Surface waters
in which there is significant increase in a level of turbidity after a rainfall are often identified as “flashing waters.”

 Water sometimes contains considerable color resulting from certain types of dissolved and colloidal organic matter
leached form soil or decaying vegetation. Wastes from industrial activities also are often responsible for color in
water. Color intensity is measured by visual comparison of the sample with Nessler tubes containing solutions of
different standard intensity.

 Tastes and odors in water are caused by the presence of decomposed organic material and volatile chemicals, and
are measured by diluting the sample until the taste and odor are no longer detectable by a human test. Drinking
water should be practically free of color, taste, and odor.

 The temperature of water is important in terms of its intended use, its treatment to remove impurities, and its
transport. The temperature depends on the source of water. Groundwater temperatures will vary depending on
the depth and characteristics of the aquifer from which the water is drawn. Temperatures of surface water drawn
from a deep reservoir also vary with depth.

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM | Water Resources Engineering 4

FTSamonte2017
Bulacan State University – Civil Engineering Department

Chemical Characteristics of Water

 The pH of water is a measure of the acidic and basic nature of the water and is defined as the logarithm of the
reciprocal of the hydrogen-ion concentrations in moles per liter. Pure water at 24C is balanced with respect to H+
and OH- ions, and contains 10-7 moles per liter of each type. Thus, the pH of neutral water is 7. Waters with a pH
lower than 7 are acidic and those with a higher pH are basic.

 The dissolved cations and anions reported in Table 3.3 are the principal ones found in most waters throughout the
world. The distribution of the specific species will depend on the source of the water.

 The alkalinity of water is a measure of its capacity to neutralize acids. In natural waters the alkalinity is related to
the bicarbonate, carbonate, and hydroxide concentration. Total alkalinity usually is expressed in terms of
equivalent carbon carbonate in milligrams per liter. Acidity is expressed in terms of the amount of calcium
carbonate required to neutralize the water.

 Carbon dioxide is one of the minor gases present in the atmosphere and is an end product of both aerobic and
anaerobic biological decomposition. Rainwater and most surface water supplies contain small amounts of carbon
dioxide (usually less than 5 mg/l), but groundwater may contain significant amounts resulting from the biological
decay of organic matter. The presence of carbon dioxide is significant because it affects the pH of a water, it is
corrosive to most piping systems, and it affects the dosage required where chemical treatment is used.

 Calcium and magnesium are the principal ions that make up the hardness of water. As noted in Table 3.3, other
divalent and trivalent dissolved metal ions, such as aluminum, iron, manganese, and zinc, also contribute to the
total hardness. Hardness is expressed in milligrams per liter of equivalent calcium carbonate.

 The conductivity of a water sample is determined by measuring its electrical resistance between two electrodes
and comparing this resistance with the resistance of a standard solution of potassium chloride at 25C. For most
waters the concentration of dissolved solids in milligrams per liter is equal to 0.55 to 0.7 times the conductivity in
microsiemens per centimeter at 25C. The exact value of the coefficient depends on the types of salts in the water.

Table 3.3 Common Analyses Used to Assess the Chemical Characteristics of Water (Source: Linsley and Franzini 3rd edition)
Abbreviation/
Test Use of test results
Definition
To measure the acidity or basicity of an aqueous
pH pH = log 1/H+
solution
Dissolved cations
Calcium Ca++
Magnesium Mg++
Potassium K+
Sodium Na+
To determine the ionic chemical composition of water
Dissolved Anions and to assess the suitability of water for most
Bicarbonate HCO3- alternative uses
Carbonate CO3- -
Chloride Cl-
Hydroxide OH-
Nitrate NO3-
Sulfate SO4- -
To measure the capacity of the water to neutralize acids
Alkalinity HCO3- + CO3- - + OH- To measure the amount of a basic substance required
to neutralize the water
To assess the corrosiveness of water and the dosage
requirements where chemical treatment is to be used;
Carbon dioxide CO2
can be used to estimate pH is the bicarbonate
concentration is known
Hardness  multivalent cations To measure the soap-consuming capacity and scale-
forming tendencies of water
To estimate the total dissolved solids or check on the
μmhos
results of a complete water analysis
Conductivity (micromhos)/cm
[total dissolved solids or TDS in mg/l = 0.55 to 0.7 X
at 25
conductivity value of sample in μmhos/cm]

Biological Characteristics of Water

 Bacteria
Varying in size from about 1 to 4 microns, bacteria cannot be seen with the naked eye. Disease-causing bacteria
are called pathogenic bacteria. Non-pathogenic bacteria are usually harmless. Aerobic bacteria require oxygen for
survival; anaerobic bacteria thrive in the presence of free oxygen. Facultative bacteria are those which live either
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM | Water Resources Engineering 5
FTSamonte2017
Bulacan State University – Civil Engineering Department

with or without free oxygen. Escherichia coli (colon bacilli or coliforms) are bacteria that inhabit the intestines of
warm-blooded animals. These usually harmless bacteria are excreted with feces, and their presence in water is
taken as an indication that pathogenic bacteria may be present. Water that has been contaminated recently with
wastewater will contain coliform organisms.

 Coliform Organisms
Harmless organisms of the coliform group live longer in water than pathogens. It is presumed that water is safe if it
is negative to the coliform test.

 Other microorganisms
Algae are one-celled plants that impart taste and odor in water. They grow in the presence of sunlight and can be
seen in clear streams and ponds.
Fungi are plants that grow without sunlight and at times will infest water mains, producing unpleasant tastes and
odors, and may even cause clogging.

WATER TREATMENT

Physical and Chemical Treatment Methods

The physical and chemical unit operations listed in order that occur most frequently in water treatment plants are identified
in Table 3.4.

Table 3.4 Unit operations and processes and their application in the treatment of water (Source: Linsley and Franzini 3rd edition)
Operation or Process Application
Unit Operation
Screening Coarse screens are used to protect pumps from floating solids.
Fine screens are used to remove floating and suspended materials.
Microscreening Used to filter out fine impurities such as algae, silt, etc.
Aeration (gas transfer) Used to add and remove gases that may be under- or supersaturated with respect to the water.
Mixing Used to mix chemicals and gases that may be added for treatment.
Flocculation Creation of velocity gradients by gentle mixing to promote the aggregation of particles.
Sedimentation Used to remove particles such as silt and sand or flocculated suspensions.
Filtration Used to filter the residual solids that remain in water after it has settled.
Unit Process
Coagulation Describes the process of adding chemicals to bring about their agglomeration in the flocculation
process.
Disinfection Used to destroy the pathogenic organisms that may be present in natural water.
Precipitation The removal of dissolved ionic species such as calcium and magnesium (hardness) by adding
chemicals that bring about their precipitation.
Ion exchange Used for the selective or complete removal of the dissolved cationic and anionic ions in the
solution.
Adsorption Used for the removal of a variety of organic compounds such as those responsible for color, taste,
and odors.
Chemical oxidation Used to oxidize various compounds that may be found in water such as those responsible for taste
and odor.

Desalting

In recent years there has been a rapidly increasing interest in the development of processes that will convert saline water
to fresh water. Ocean water has as dissolved-salts content of about 35,000mg/l. Many groundwater supplies are brackish
(dissolved salts 1000 to 3000 mg/l) and too salty for consumption. Some of the many processes for removing salts from
water are discussed.

 Distillation
Distillation of seawater has been practiced for many years. Research has been aimed at development of evaporators that
would have minimum difficulty with scale formation. Various types of vapor-compression and multiple-effect flash systems
show promise. Solar stills have been used for limited production in areas having abundant sunshine throughout the year.
However, large-scale production by solar stills does not appear economically feasible.

 Freezing
In the freezing process the temperature of the seawater is gradually lowered until ice crystals are formed. These are free of
salt and can be separated from the brine.

 Demineralization
Salts can be removed from water through use of ion exchangers similar to those used for softening.

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM | Water Resources Engineering 6

FTSamonte2017
Bulacan State University – Civil Engineering Department

 Electrodialysis
By this method ions diffuse under the action of an electric potential through membranes that are selectively permeable to
different types of ions.

 Reverse Osmosis
This process also makes use of membranes, but ones which are selectively permeable to water, rather than to salts. By
applying pressures as high as 1500 psi (10,000 kN/m2), fresh water is pushed through the membranes while leaving the salts
behind. Flow rates through the membranes depend upon the initial salinity and have varied from about 20 gpd/ft 2 for
seawater to 30 gpd/ft2 for brackish water.

Disposal of treatment plant sludge

The principal methods that have been used for the processing and disposal of sludges are summarized in Table 3.5.

Table 3.5 Principal methods that have been used for the processing and disposal of sludges (Source: Linsley and Franzini 3rd edition)
Method Application
Gravity thickening The sludge from water treatment operations is relatively dilute and some type of thickening is
required to reduce the volume of water that must be removed in subsequent processing steps.
Lagoons Sludge is held and thickened in storage lagoons; decanted water is returned to the treatment plant
and is reprocessed. Ultimately, sludge must be removed from the lagoons.
Drying beds Sand beds are used to dewater the sludge.
Discharge to sewers Where possible, discharge to sewers represents one of the simplest and most satisfactory ways of
disposing the sludge. This practice may upset the operation of the wastewater treatment facilities.
Centrifugation Each of these methods has been used to dewater (thicken) treatment plant sludges. Performance
Heat treatment is dependent on the characteristics of the sludge and local operating conditions.
Sludge freezing
Sludge pressing
Vacuum filtration
Coagulant recovery
Alum recovery
Magnesium carbonate
Coagulation and recovery

Water Treatment Plant Design

The steps involved in treatment plant design typically include:

(1) bench tests and pilot plant studies;
(2) synthesis of alternative flow sheets;
(3) selection of design criteria;
(4) layout of the physical facilities;
(5) preparation of hydraulic profiles;
(6) preparation of solid balances; and
(7) preparation of construction drawings, specifications, and estimates.

 Bench tests and pilot plant studies

The purpose of conducting bench tests and pilot plant studies is (1) to establish the suitability of alternative unit
operations and processes for treating given water and (2) to obtain the data and information necessary to design the
selected operations and processes. Ideally, bench tests should be conducted to establish the required chemical doses.
This information will be useful in sizing the chemical storage and feed equipment as well as all of the other operations
and processes in the treatment scheme.
A continuous pilot plant study may still be necessary to verify the results obtained from the bench tests.

 Synthesis of treatment process flowsheets

A flowsheet can be defined as the grouping together of the necessary unit operations and processes to achieve a
specified treatment objective. Alternative flowsheets will be developed on the basis of the characteristics of the water
to be treated, the treatment objectives, and, if available, the results of bench and pilot scale tests.

 Selection of design criteria

After one or more alternative flowsheets have been developed, the nest step in design involves selection of design
criteria and sizing the treatment units. Design criteria are selected on the basis of theory, the results of the bench tests
and pilot scale studies, and the past experience of the designer.

 Plant layout

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM | Water Resources Engineering 7

FTSamonte2017
Bulacan State University – Civil Engineering Department

Using the information on the size of the facilities determined on the basis of the selected criteria, various plant layouts
are developed within the available land. The layout selected will almost always be dependent on specific conditions
existing at site.
 Hydraulic Profiles
Once the treatment facilities and interconnecting piping have been sized and a tentative layout has been developed,
hydraulic profiles should be computed for average and peak flow rates. These profiles are prepared for three reasons:
(1) to ensure that the hydraulic gradient is adequate for flow through the treatment facilities, and (2) to establish the
head for pumps where required, and (3) to ensure that plant facilities will not be flooded or backed up during periods
of peak flow.

 Solids balances
After the design criteria for the treatment process have been selected, solids balances should be prepared for each
process flowsheet. Ideally, solids balances should be prepared for the average and peak flow rates. The preparation of
a solids balance is the determination of the quantities of solids entering and leaving each unit operation or process.
These data are especially important in the design of the sludge-processing facilities.

 Construction drawings and specifications

The final step in the design process involves the preparation of construction drawings, specifications, and cost
estimates. Because the clarity with which the construction drawings are presented will affect both the bid prices and
final plant operation, the importance of this step cannot be overstressed. Construction specifications have been more-
or-less standardized. The key issue is to make sure that specifications are complete so that costly change orders can be
eliminated. Finally, the engineer’s cost estimate is used as a guide in evaluating the bids submitted by the various
contractors.

WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

Types of Water Distribution Systems

If topographic conditions are favorable, gravity distribution system (Figure 3.2) is used. This requires a reservoir at a
sufficient elevation above the city so that water can reach any part of the distribution system with adequate pressure. If
pumping is necessary, water may be pumped directly into closed distribution lines or into reservoirs which serve to equalize
pumping rates throughout the day and provide for peak use.

A treelike distribution system (Figure 3.3) with many dead ends is unsatisfactory because water may become stagnant at
the extremities of the system. Moreover, if repairs are necessary, a large district must be cut off from water. Finally, with a
locally heavy demand or during a fire, head loss may be excessive unless the pipes are quite large. These difficulties are
minimized with a gridiron, or belt-line layout.

A single-main system (Figure 3.4) is one in which a single main serves both sides of a street.

In a double-main system (Figure 3.5) there is a main on each side of the street. One pipe supplies fire hydrants and
domestic service on its side of the street. The chief advantage of the two-main system is that repairs can be made without
interfering with traffic and without damage to the pavement.

Figure 3.2 Example of gravity distribution system Figure 3.3 Example of tree-like or dead ends distribution system

M
B
S
B
V V
S
B
B B

V
S
B
B V S

B B

M Water main

S Sub-main
WATER SUPPLYBSYSTEM | Water Resources Engineering
Branch 8
FTSamonte2017
V Valve
Bulacan State University – Civil Engineering Department

Figure 3.4 Example of single- main distribution system Figure 3.5 Example of double-main distribution system

street
fire hydrant
fire hydrant
street
street

Water main
Water main Water main

Pressure requirements in water distribution systems

In designing water distribution systems pressure requirements for ordinary use and for firefighting must be considered. In
residential districts, pressures of 60 psi (410 kPa) at the hydrant are recommended for fire fighting. In commercial districts a
minimum of 75 psi (520kPa) is tolerable, but higher pressures must be provided in districts with tall buildings. The American
Water Works Association recommends a normal static pressure of 60 to 75 psi (410 to 520 kPa) throughout a system.
Faucet pressures of 5 psi (35 kPa) are satisfactory for most domestic needs. Assuming a maximum pressure loss of 5 psi (35
kPa) in the meter, about 20 psi (140 kPa) in the house service pipe and plumbing, and with the main about 5 ft (1.5 m)
below ground level, a total pressure of about 35 psi (240 kPa) in the main is adequate for residential buildings with one- and
two-storey houses. Allowing about 5 psi (35 kPa) for additional stories, a pressure of 75 psi (520 kPa) should be satisfactory
for buildings up to 10 stories high. Many cities require owners of tall buildings to install booster pumps to avoid the need
for very high pressures in the mains.

Distribution reservoirs

Distribution reservoirs are used to provide storage to meet fluctuations in use, to provide storage for fire-fighting use, and
to stabilize pressures in the distribution system. The reservoir should be located as close to the center of use as possible.
The water level in the reservoir must be high enough to permit gravity flow at satisfactory pressures to the system it serves.
Elevated storage may be used advantageously for pressure stabilization (Figure 3.9). The hydraulic grade line at a time of
high use in a system with an elevated tank which is located poorly is shown in Figure 3.6. Pressure will be quite low at the
far end of the system. Pressure conditions would be improved if the elevated tank were situated in or near the high-
consumption district (load center) as shown in Figure 3.7.
Various types of distribution reservoirs are built to meet the topographic and structural conditions encountered. If hills of
adequate elevation exist in or near the town, a surface reservoir (Figure 3.8), either below ground level or of the cut-and-fill
type, is usually best. Small reservoirs may be simple excavations lined with gunite, asphalt, an asphalt membrane, or butyl
rubber. Larger reservoirs require a concrete lining, with side walls designed as retaining walls to resist external soil loads
when the reservoir is empty.

Most surface reservoirs are covered to prevent contamination by animals, birds, and humans, and, by shutting out sunlight,
the growth of algae. Reservoir roofs may be made of wood, concrete, or steel. Precast slabs of lightweight concrete are
widely used. Open distribution reservoirs should be fenced to keep out trespassers.

If the topography does not permit sufficient head from a surface reservoir, a standpipe or elevated tank may be used to
gain the necessary height (Figure 3.9). Steel, reinforced concrete, and timber are used for the construction of standpipes.
Prestressed construction is used extensively for concrete standpipes to minimize cracking. Since large variations in pressure
are undesirable in a distribution system, fluctuation of the water level in a standpipe is usually limited to 30 ft (10 m) or
less. Generally, standpipes over 50 ft (15 m) high are not economical because the lower portion of the standpipe serves
only to support the upper useful portion.

Figure 3.6 Elevated tank is located poorly

HGL

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM | Water Resources Engineering 9

FTSamonte2017 Pump
Bulacan State University – Civil Engineering Department

Figure 3.7 Better location of elevated storage tank

HGL (low demand)

HGL (low demand)

HGL
high demand

high demand
Pump

Figure 3.7 Surface reservoir Figure 3.8 Stand pipe Figure 3.9 Elevated storage

Design of water distribution systems

1) The design of a water distribution system requires a detailed map of the city, on which the contours (or all
controlling elevations) and locations of present and future streets and lots are identified.
2) After studying the topography and selecting the location of distribution reservoirs, the city may be divided into
districts, each to be served by a separate distribution system.
3) The probable maximum use (allowing for fire-fighting and future growth) for each sub-area of the city must be
estimated.
4) A skeleton system of supply mains leading from a distribution reservoir is assumed. Example in Figure 3.9. These
supply mains must be large enough to deliver the expected requirements with adequate pressure. Computer
programs using the Hardy Cross Method or more efficient matrix techniques are used to determine the discharge
and head loss in each pipe of the network. The effect of the flow in auxiliary mains is neglected at first but may be
accounted for later. Flow in the supply-main network is analyzed for fire-fighting needs in several areas of the
district to check the adequacy of the system under the various patterns of withdrawal. In selecting supply mains,
possible future capacity requirements should be considered.
5) After the supply-main network is selected, distribution mains are added to the system. The hydraulic computations
can be only approximate because all factors affecting the flow cannot possibly be accounted for. Minor
distribution mains that serve fire hydrants should be at least 6 in. (150 mm) in diameter in residential areas and 8
or 10 in. (200 or 250 mm) in diameter in high-value districts. Street mains serving only domestic needs are
normally 2 or 4-in. (50 or 100-mm) diameter pipes.

 Valves
The valve layout in a distribution system is an important part of the design. Air-relief valves should be
provided at summits and drain valves should be provided at low points. The most common valves are gate
valves, which should not be more than one quarter mile (0.4 km) apart. A closer spacing is preferable to
minimize the area cut off from water during repairs. Gate valves over 12 in. (300 mm) in size are usually placed
in manholes to permit inspection and are provided with concrete supports to prevent settling. Altitude valves
to prevent the overflow of elevated tanks are usually designed to operate automatically. Pressure-regulating
valves may be used to divide the distribution system into various pressure zones.

 Hydrants
Fire hydrants should not be more than 500 ft (150 m) apart to avoid excessive head loss in small-diameter fire
hose. Hydrants are preferably placed at intersections so that they can be used in all directions from the corner.

 Cross connections

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM | Water Resources Engineering 10

FTSamonte2017
Bulacan State University – Civil Engineering Department

A cross connection occurs when the drinking-water supply is connected to some source of pollution. For
example, if a community has a dual water distribution system, one for fire-fighting and the other for domestic
consumption, the two may be interconnected so that the domestic water may be used to supplement the
other system in case of fire. Such an arrangement is dangerous, for contaminated water from the fire-fighting
supply may get into the drinking water system even though the two systems are normally separated by closed
valves.

 Construction and maintenance of water distribution systems

The basic requirement of pipes for water distribution systems are adequate strength and maximum corrosion
resistance. In cold climates, pipes should be far enough below ground to prevent freezing in winter. In warm
climates, the pipes need be buried only sufficiently to avoid damage from traffic loads.
Leakage from distribution systems will vary with the care exercised in construction and the age and condition
of the system. Patented leak detectors use audiophones (Figure 3.10) to pick up the sound of escaping water
or the disturbance in an electrical field caused by saturated ground near the leak. If pressure gages are
installed along a given length of pipe from which there are no take offs, a change in the hydraulic gradient can
be taken as an indication of a leak. In some instances the escaping water itself (Figure 3.12) or unusually lush
vegetation (Figure 3.11) may be used to spot the location of a leak.
While pipe is being handled and placed, there are many opportunities for pollution. Hence, it is necessary to
disinfect a new system or an existing system after repairs or additions. Disinfection is usually accomplished by
introducing chlorine, calcium hypochlorite, or chlorinated lime in amounts sufficient to give an immediate
chlorine residue of 50 mg/l. The chemical is introduced slowly and permitted to remain in the system for at
least 12 and preferably 24 hours before it is flushed out. The flushing may be accomplished by opening several
fire hydrants.
The hydraulic efficiency of pipes will diminish with time because of tuberculation, encrustation, and sediment
deposits. Flushing will dislodge some of the foreign matter, but to clean a pipe effectively a scraper must be
run through it. The scraper may be forced through by water pressure or pulled through with a cable. Cleaning,
even though costly, may pay off with increased hydraulic efficiency and increased pressures throughout the
system.

 Pumping required for water supply systems

Pumps are required to deliver water from wells, and in most communities the topography is such that the
water must be lifted to distribution reservoirs and elevated tanks. In many municipal distribution systems,
booster pumps must be installed on the mains to increase pressure.
Centrifugal pumps are better adapted than displacement pumps for use in water distribution systems.
Because pump efficiency varies with the load two or more pumps are often installed in parallel so that the
number of pumps in operation can be varied depending on the flow through the pumping station. Each pump
should have a check valve in its discharge to prevent backflow when the pump is stopped.

Figure 3.9 Example of system of supply mains leading from a distribution reservoir

Figure 3.12

Figure 3.10 Figure 3.11

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM | Water Resources Engineering 11

FTSamonte2017
Bulacan State University – Civil Engineering Department

DEVELOPMENT OF MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS

Planning requirements

The design of a complete water system is the exception rather than the rule. Usually the work consists of an extension or
improvement of existing facilities rather than design of a completely new project. In the early stages of a proposed project,
the engineer is required to prepare a report describing the project and presenting a cost estimate. In the case of a public
system, this report is presented to the governing body of the community for consideration. If the proposed project is
acceptable, an election may be called to authorize a bond issue, the most common method of financing public water-works
systems. The bonds are secured by the taxing power of the municipality, by the physical properties of the utility, or by the
revenue to be derived from the sale of water. Direct taxation, special assessments, and federal loans are also used as a
means of financing public water systems.
In planning a project the engineer should obtain legal advice concerning the rights to possible sources of water before
recommending any for use.

Planning steps

Generally, the following steps must be accomplished in planning a municipal water system:
1) Obtain data on, or estimate, the future population of the community, and study local conditions to determine the
quantity of water that must be provided.
2) Locate one or more sources of water of adequate quality.
3) Provide for the necessary storage of water, and design the works required to deliver the water from its source to
the community.
4) Determine the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the water, and establish water-quality
requirements.
5) Design any water-treatment facilities that may be necessary to meet water-quality requirements.
6) Plan and design the distribution system, including distribution reservoirs, pumping stations, elevated storage,
layout and size of mains, and location of fire hydrants.
7) Provide for the establishment of an organization that will maintain and operate the supply, distribution, and
treatment facilities.

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM | Water Resources Engineering 12

FTSamonte2017