Journal of Electrostatics 115 (2022) 103652

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Journal of Electrostatics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/elstat

A review of electrostatic standards

Paul Holdstock
Holdstock Technical Services, Manchester, M22 5TG, United Kingdom

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The majority of national and international standards with electrostatics in their scope are concerned with con­
Standards trolling the hazards and undesirable effects of static electricity. There are some standards that relate to appli­
Protection of electronic devices cations of static electricity, electrophotographic printing for example, but these are not included in this review.
Healthcare facilities
This review is far from comprehensive, but is confined to some of the standards with which the author is most
Explosive atmospheres
familiar and in the development of which the author has participated. Many of these are in the IEC 61340 series
of electrostatic standards [10-27], including the core system standard for protection of electronic devices, IEC
61340-5-1 [23]. Also in the IEC 61340 series are standards for healthcare facilities and new projects to develop
guidance for office areas and public spaces. The system standard for controlling electrostatic hazards in explosive
atmospheres is IEC TS 60079-32-1 [2], which is supported by a testing standard IEC 60079-32-2 [3]. These two
standards are under revision at the time of writing and some issues that might be considered in the revision are
also discussed in this review.

1. Introduction International Organisation for Standardization (ISO). Many more are

The purpose of standards is to ensure a consistent approach to safety,
reliability and efficiency. Standards provide agreed procedures for
testing and certification of products, processes and systems, and support
industry and commerce by removing technical barriers to trade.
Standards documents include normative standards and advisory or
guidance documents, which are referred to as codes of practice, rec­
ommended practices, technical reports, guidelines, etc. Standards doc­
uments can be further categorised according to the intended application.
A testing standard specifies apparatus and procedures for testing and can
be general or specific to defined product, group of products or appli­
cation. A product standard specifies requirements to be fulfilled by a
product or group of products, to establish its fitness for purpose. Re­
quirements can be based on performance testing, with reference to
testing standards, or can be design requirements, or a combination of
both. A process or system standard specifies requirements to be fulfilled
by a process or system, to establish its fitness for purpose, and typically
includes references to product standards and testing standards. In
addition to establishing product requirements, there can also be rules
and guidance on the use of products within a process or system.
The majority of national and international standards with electro­
statics in their scope are concerned with controlling the hazards and
undesirable effects of static electricity. They are developed interna­
tionally by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and the
published by national standards bodies. There are some standards that
relate to applications of static electricity, electrophotographic printing
for example, but these are not included in this review. Testing standards
and product standards form the largest collection of electrostatic stan­
dards. System standards are fewer in number but are amongst the most
important of electrostatic standards. It is impossible to include all na­
tional and international electrostatic standards in this review because
there are simply too many. This is in part a reflection of the broad scope
that electrostatics encompasses. It should also be recognised that there is
a good deal of duplication and proliferation of near equivalent stan­
dards. Whilst this is far from desirable, it is not unexpected given the
different national, technical and commercial interests involved in stan­
dards development.
This review is far from comprehensive, but is confined to some of the
standards with which the author is most familiar and in the development
of which the author has participated. Many of these are in the IEC 61340
series of electrostatic standards [10–27] that originated in the elec­
tronics industry. Today the IEC 61340 series has expanded to cover all
industries. Current and future projects also cover healthcare facilities,
offices areas and public spaces. IEC 61340 is divided into six parts. Part 1
is a single Technical Report, IEC 61340–1 [10], which provides an
overview of electrostatic phenomena, principles and measurements.
Part 2 [11,12] contains testing standards for general application. Part 3
contains standards that specify the waveforms for device testing (now

E-mail address: paul@holdstock.biz.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.elstat.2021.103652
Received 30 June 2021; Received in revised form 6 October 2021; Accepted 24 November 2021
Available online 27 December 2021
0304-3886/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
P. Holdstock Journal of Electrostatics 115 (2022) 103652

superseded by standards in the IEC 60749 series [7–9]). Part 4 [13–22] document can be too restrictive, or can introduce unnecessary re­
contains testing standards for specific applications. Part 5 [23–26] quirements. For example, a company might have determined that ESD
contains standards for the protection of electronic devices. Part 6 protective garments are not required in their facility, or that grounding
currently has one standard for healthcare facilities [27]. can be achieved using wrist straps rather than ESD protective footwear
The two main system standards that are discussed are IEC 61340-5-1 and flooring. The prescriptive style of the document made it difficult to
[23] for protection of electronic devices and IEC TS 60079-32-1 [2] for distinguish between mandatory requirements and optional or non-
electrostatic hazards in explosive atmospheres. essential elements. Although the first edition of IEC 61340-5-1 [23]
was published as an informative document, it was intended ultimately to
2. Standards for protection of electronic devices become a full International Standard. Revision started soon after pub­
lication, and IEC TC 101 decided to simplify and clarify the document by
The top-level International Standard for protection of electronics specifying only the essential elements that are necessary to establish and
from electrostatic phenomena is IEC 61340-5-1 [23]. It specifies the manage an ESD control program. IEC TC 101 also decided to remove all
essential requirements for the design, establishment, operation and test method descriptions from the document and publish them as indi­
maintenance of an electrostatic discharge (ESD) control program and vidual standards.
covers all areas of operation in which ESD sensitive devices (ESDS) and The first International Standard edition of IEC 61340-5-1 [23] was
equipment are handled. ESDS are characterised according to the severity published in 2007. The descriptions of test methods were mostly
of ESD that they can tolerate without damage or disruption. ESD severity removed to be replaced by references to test method standards. Refer­
is quantified as the voltage in a model circuit that simulates ESD from a ence was made to International Standards if they existed. At the time,
specific source. Standards for device sensitivity testing include IEC some of the test methods that were included in the Technical Report did
60749–26 [7] for human body model (HBM), IEC 60749–27 [8] for not exist as International Standards and as a temporary fix, until such
machine model (MM) and IEC 60749–28 for charged device model standards were developed, reference was made to existing ANSI/ESD
(CDM). The requirements in all editions of IEC 61340-5-1 [23] are series standards. The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) ac­
intended to protect ESDS having withstand voltages greater than or credits the EOS/ESD Association to develop standards for protection of
equal to 100 V HBM. IEC 61340-5-1:2016 [23] also includes re­ electronics against electrical overstress and electrostatic discharge. The
quirements to protect ESDS having withstand voltages greater than or EOS/ESD Association is an industry organisation that has a global
equal to 200 V CDM and 35 V for isolated conductors. MM was previ­ membership, and so although ANSI standards are notionally only
ously used to represent isolated conductors, but MM is no longer applicable in USA, they have been adopted in many parts of the world by
commonly used to characterise ESDS. the electronics industry. The re-organising of IEC 61340-5-1 [23] would
IEC 61340-5-1 [23] was first published internationally as a Technical make it more aligned with the style and principles of the ANSI/ESD
Report in 1998 by the IEC Technical Committee (TC) 101: Electrostatics. S20.20 standard.
In Europe, it replaced a series of European Standards, EN 100015 Parts 1 National Standards Body members of IEC can freely translate IEC
to 4 [34–37], which in common with the earlier British Standard BS standards into their own language for national implementation. Such an
5783 [44], were prescriptive in nature. The first edition of IEC agreement does not exist for ANSI/ESD standards, and so in countries
61340-5-1 [23] followed the same philosophy as the European and where English is not a main language, full implementation of IEC 61340-
British Standards, specifying everything related to a typical electrostatic 5-1:2007 [23] was problematic. Therefore, IEC TC 101 decided to
discharge protected area (EPA). Table 1 provides a summary of the fast-track some ANSI/ESD test method standards into IEC. A fast-tracked
contents of the first edition of IEC 61340-5-1 [23]. standard foregoes some of the development steps and allows earlier
Contained in each of the sections listed in Table 1 was guidance, implementation of test methods. The testing standards that were refer­
recommendations and what were intended to be future requirements. A enced in IEC 61340-5-1:2007 [23] are shown in Table 2, with the
comprehensive document such as this can be invaluable to start-up equivalent International Standards that were subsequently developed.
companies and other small to medium-sized enterprises that have When the second International Standard edition was published in
limited experience in establishing ESD control programs. On the other 2016, the testing standards referenced were all International Standards
hand, for companies with established ESD control programs, such a within the IEC 61340 series. The only remaining test method description
in IEC 61340-5-1 [23] is for the compliance verification of a person/­
footwear system. The requirements for packaging were removed from
Table 1
Summary of the contents of IEC 61340-5-1:1998 [23]. the second edition and replaced with a reference to International Stan­
dard IEC 61340-5-3 [25]. This in turn referenced IEC 61340-2-3 [12] for
Signs & markings Construction of EPA
surface resistance testing and IEC 61340-4-8 [20] for electrostatic
Devices Ground facility
Packaging Ground bonding point discharge shielding testing; the latter being one of the testing standards
Equipment Ground cords fast-tracked from an ANSI/ESD standard.
EPA and EPA boundaries Electrostatics fields The other major change in IEC 61340-5-1 [23] when it migrated
EPA Certification of conformance from a Technical Report to an International Standard was the intro­
Configuration Field work
Management responsibilities Protective packaging
duction of requirements to prepare three plans: an ESD control program
Requirements for ESD protective items Purchase, receipt, storage and plan, a training plan and a compliance verification plan. Taken together,
handling the three plans document how an organisation establishes operates and
Working surface & storage racks Training maintains an ESD control program in compliance with the standard. The
Floors Quality management
plans are required to cover the same elements as those listed in Table 1,
Seating Responsibilities
Garments Management but whereas the Technical Report was prescriptive in how each element
Gloves & finger cots ESD co-ordinator should be implemented, the International Standard requires each
Wrist straps Qualifying ESD protective items organisation to document which elements are included in the ESD
Footwear Daily, monthly & six-monthly control program and how they are to be implemented. Another impor­
checks
Ionizers Periodic auditing
tant concept that was introduced in the International Standard is
Tools, machinery, dispensers & test Test methods for ESD protective items tailoring. This permits an organisation to evaluate the requirements of
equipment IEC 61340-5-1 [23] in relation to its own application and add, modify or
Trolleys & carts Test methods for measuring charge delete requirements as appropriate, provided any tailoring decisions are
decay
documented in the ESD control program plan with technical

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P. Holdstock Journal of Electrostatics 115 (2022) 103652

Table 2
Testing standards referenced in the 2007 and 2016 editions of IEC 61340-5-1 [23].
Product Testing standard & parameters to be measured

2007 2016

Cord & wrist band ANSI/ESD S1.1[40] R IEC 61340-4-6[18] R

Wrist strap system IEC 61340-5-1 A.1[23] R IEC 61340-4-6[18] R
Footwear IEC 61340-4-3[15] R IEC 61340-4-3[15] R
Person/footwear/flooring system IEC 61340-4-5[17] Rg IEC 61340-4-5[17] Rg
Person/footwear system IEC 61340-5-1 A.2[23] Ra IEC 61340-5-1[23] Rgpa
Working surface, storage racks & trolleys IEC 61340-2-3[12] Rgp IEC 61340-2-3[12] Rgp
Rp-p Rp-p
Rga Rga
Flooring IEC 61340-4-1[13] Rgp IEC 61340-4-1[13] Rgp
Rga Rga
Seating IEC 61340-2-3[12] Rgp IEC 61340-2-3[12] Rgp
Rga Rga
Static control garments ANSI/ESD STM 2.1[41] Rp-p IEC 61340-4-9[21] Rp-p
or user defined
Groundable static control garments ANSI/ESD STM 2.1[41] Rp-p IEC 61340-4-9[21] Rgp
or user defined
Ionization ANSI/ESD STM 3.1[42] td IEC 61340-4-7[19] td
Vo Vo
Packaging IEC 61340-2-3[12] Rs IEC 61340-5-3[25] Rs
ANSI/ESD STM 11.31[43] E E

R = resistance Rg = resistance to ground Rgp = resistance to groundable point Rp-p = resistance point-to-point.
Rs = surface resistance E = energy td = decay time Vo = offset voltage.
a
= compliance verification.

justification. 3. Standards for electrostatic control in healthcare facilities,

The ability for an organisation to build an ESD control program
around its own requirements whilst still complying with the re­
quirements of IEC 61340-5-1 [23] enables the standard to be imple­
mented in a broad range of organisations, and for those that lack
experience of ESD control programs, further guidance is provided in IEC
TR 61340-5-2 [24]. This Technical Report is essentially a “user guide” to
IEC 61340-5-1, providing the technical background to all the re­
quirements in the International Standard. It also provides guidance on
ESD control products and optional elements of an ESD control program
that are not included in IEC 61340-5-1 [23]. An informative annex
contains an example ESD control program plan, which serves as a good
starting point for any organisation developing an ESD control program
for the first time.
At the time of writing, IEC 61340-5-1 [23] is starting its next revision
cycle. There are likely to be changes to maintain alignment with
ANSI/ESD S20.20 [39] and some adjustments based on industry feed­
back. A change that has been in planning concerns compliance verifi­
cation. This is the process by which the technical requirements of an ESD
control program are evaluated to ensure continuous compliance with
the ESD control program plan. Testing for compliance verification does
not need to be as rigorous as qualification testing, and often the use of
simpler, basic test equipment is adequate. In IEC 61340-5-1:2016 [23],
test methods used for compliance verification are based on the same
testing standards used for product qualification. There is a note advising
it is not expected that testing standards are followed in their entirety, but
it is not clear to what extent the testing standards should be followed.
Since 2017, IEC TC 101 has been developing a separate document for
compliance verification. It was published in 2019 as a Technical Report,
IEC TR 61340-5-4 [26], which was purely an advisory document. IEC TC
101 has continued developing the document and it is scheduled to be
published in the second half of 2021 as a Technical Specification. Ulti­
mately, it is planned for IEC 61340-5-4 [26] to be published as an In­
ternational Standard, but in the meantime is serves as a useful document
to specify the minimum requirements for compliance verification
testing, and is likely to be referenced in the next edition of IEC
61340-5-1 [23].
office areas and public spaces
Historically, the main concern about electrostatic hazards in
healthcare facilities has been focussed on the risk of igniting flammable
anaesthetic gases. In many cases, mixtures of anaesthetic gases with air,
oxygen and nitrous oxide are violently explosive, and fatal accidents
have resulted from explosions during anaesthesia using such gas
mixtures.
In USA, the National Fire Protection Association Health Care Facil­
ities Code NFPA 99 [50], first published in 1984, established criteria to
reduce risks to staff, patients and visitors to healthcare facilities. The
requirements for anaesthetising locations and adjacent areas, mixed
facilities and hyperbaric facilities covered grounding equipment and
furniture, grounding medical staff and patients via conductive flooring
and footwear, or grounding straps for patients on operating tables,
maintenance of conductive flooring, all types of textile materials:
clothing, bedding, drapes, etc. and the use of conductive and antistatic
accessories: coverings for operating tables, stretcher pads, pillows,
cushions, etc. There were also cautions about electrostatic hazards in
other locations arising from ESD through sensitive components causing
equipment failure, inadvertent use of static-producing materials in
mixed facilities, electrostatic clinging, and involuntary movement of
personnel subjected to electrostatic discharges.
In 1996, UK National Health Service (NHS) published comprehen­
sive guidance in NHS Health Guidance Note – Static Discharges [48],
updating requirements and recommendations issued by the Department
of Health over the previous 25 years. It covered similar requirements to
those given in NFPA 99 [50] and included descriptions of electrostatic
phenomena, reference to equipment electromagnetic computability
(EMC) requirements and testing, and information on the use of ionizers
to control static electricity. The Guidance Note was supported by a series
of Health Technical Memoranda, publications covering specific design,
construction and operational guidelines.
By around 1990, the use of flammable anaesthetic gases had all but
ceased in hospitals in the developed world. Comprehensive re­
quirements for electrostatic control started to disappear from standards.
For example, NFPA 99:2021 [50] has just a few lines about grounding
patients in hyperbaric facilities; other antistatic procedures are as
directed by the safety director. NFPA 99B:2021 [51] does have more

3
P. Holdstock
detail, but still nowhere near as comprehensive as in earlier editions.
NHS Health Guidance Note – Static Discharges [48] is still extant, but it
appears little used.
EN 13795–1:2019 [38], the European Standard for surgical gowns
and drapes has no electrostatic requirements. Informative Annex C
considers three possible hazards: ESD damage to equipment, ESD igni­
tion of flammable anaesthetic agents and ESD ignition of flammable
vapours (specifically alcohols). In the latter case, it is believed adequate
controls are in place to prevent ignition from the use of diathermy,
which is considered to be a greater risk than ESD. Whilst this is
reasonable, the justification for the lack of electrostatic requirements to
prevent ESD damage to equipment is rather less convincing. Annex C
references IEC 60601-1-2:2014 [6] and suggests that as there is a figure
showing that the maximum electrostatic voltage in rooms without hu­
midity control is 13 kV, the immunity testing to 15 kV ensures adequate
protection of medical electrical (ME) equipment. However, this ignores
that IEC 60601-1-2:2014 [6] also states: “there are circumstances under
which ME EQUIPMENT that was tested to an IMMUNITY TEST LEVEL of
15 kV air discharge failed in use and put PATIENTS at RISK. In two such
case studies, ME EQUIPMENT that was tested to 15 kV failed in the
field.”
In 2015, the Finnish National Committee of IEC proposed a new
standard for electrostatic control in healthcare. The justification for the
proposal came from reports of medical electrical equipment failures
resulting from ESD, anecdotal accounts of alcohol-based hand sanitizers
catching fire, and with concerns about contamination resulting from
electrostatic attraction (ESA). The standard was developed by IEC TC
101 and published in 2018 as IEC 61340-6-1 [27]. Four electrostatic
risks are considered: ESD damaging or disrupting electrical equipment,
contamination caused by ESA, ignition of flammable substances and
electrostatic shocks to people. As in all electrostatic control standards,
the primary control is to ground all personnel and other conductors.
Recognising that electrostatic control needs to be tailored for different
locations within a healthcare facility, locations are classified into groups
defined by IEC 60364-7-710 [5] as:
Unclassified – waiting rooms, office areas, etc.
G0 – consulting rooms, inpatient wards
G1 – ECG, EEG, EHG, CAT, special care baby units, etc.
G2 – operating theatres, coronary care units, ICU, etc.
Table 3 summarises the electrostatic control methods required or
recommended for different locations in a healthcare facility.
The requirements for grounding can be implemented by the use of
conductive footwear and flooring or, in the case of fixed items, by direct
connection to ground. The testing standards used to qualify materials
and products are the same as those specified in IEC 61340-5-1:2016 [23]
(see Table 2), with the addition of IEC 61340-2-1 [11] for measuring
charge decay time, and ISO 18080 Parts 2, 3 & 4 [28–30] for qualifying
low charging materials. The test methods described in the ISO 18080
standards [28–30] are all based on triboelectric charging of small
specimens of material. They are useful for initial material selection, but
because triboelectric charging is so dependent on the way in which
materials contact, rub together and separate, final qualification testing
requires testing that replicate, as near as possible, in-use charging
Table 3
Electrostatic control methods specified in IEC 61340-6-1 [27].
Ground personnel via footwear & Ground other conductors via flooring or direct
flooring connection
Unclassified Not mandatory Not mandatory
Group 0 Recommended Recommended
G1 Recommended Recommended
G2 Required Required
a
Conductive and dissipative materials should only be used if grounding is provided.
4
Journal of Electrostatics 115 (2022) 103652
conditions. Annex A in IEC 61340-6-1 [27] specifies test methods for low
charging textiles. For upholstery and clothing, the test methods
described in IEC TS 61340-4-2 [14] are specified. These measure the
body voltage on a person when rising from a chair, or when removing
outer clothing. Test methods based on the same principles are also
described in Annex A in IEC 61340-6-1 [27] for bedding, curtains and
surgical drapes. Annex B in IEC 61340-6-1 [27] gives some guidance on
the use of ionization to limit electrostatic charge build-up. At present the
guidance is rather limited, but it is one area that might be expanded in
future revisions.
The electrostatic hazards identified in IEC 61340-6-1 [27] can occur
almost anywhere. In 2019, IEC TC 101 registered a preliminary work
item in its programme of work to develop a Technical Report on elec­
trostatic control in office areas and public spaces, such as shops, res­
taurants, libraries, etc. The intention is to provide architects and interior
designers with guidance to help reduce electrostatic hazards and
nuisances.
4. Standards for potentially explosive atmospheres
Potentially explosive atmospheres created by gases, vapours or dust
clouds can be ignited by electrostatic discharges, including those
emanating from the human body and other conductors, and from in­
sulators. NFPA 77 [49] was one of the first standards to address elec­
trostatic ignition risks. The project was initiated in 1936 and the first
edition was published in 1946. Similar National Standards were pub­
lished in UK as BS 5958–1 [45] and BS 5958–2 [46], and in Germany as
ZH 1/200 [54], which later formed the basis for a European Committee
for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC) Code of Practice [32,
33] together with an internal Shell International Petroleum publication
from 1988 [52]. The CENELEC Code of Practice was first published in
1999 as R044-001 [32] and updated to CLC/TR 50404 in 2003 [33].
Technical Recommendations were published in Japan as
JNIOSH-TR-No. 42 in 2007 [47].
In the European Union (EU), Atmosphère Explosive (ATEX) Di­
rectives [55–57] define the health & safety requirements for industries
in which operations include potentially explosive atmospheres. There
are two ATEX Directives: Directive 1999/92/EC – ATEX Workplace
Directive [56], and Directive 2014/34/EU – ATEX Equipment Directive
[57] (replaces 94/9/EC [55]). The ATEX Workplace Directive [56] re­
quires employers to:
− identify operations that include powders, liquids & gases that could
form potentially explosive atmospheres;
− categorise areas according to the probability of occurrence of
potentially explosive atmospheres;
− take precautions to prevent the formation of potentially explosive
atmospheres;
− identify all possible ignition sources and take precautions to prevent
the ignition of potentially explosive atmospheres if they do occur;
− take precautions to mitigate the detrimental effects of explosions if
they do occur.
If an employer identifies electrostatic discharges as a possible igni­
tion source within its operations, the employer is required to take
Use of conductive or dissipative Use of low charging
materials materials
Not mandatory Recommended
Recommendeda Recommended
Recommendeda Recommended
Recommended Recommended
P. Holdstock
precautions to minimise the risk of electrostatic charging and occurrence
of incendiary electrostatic discharges. Equipment and products procured
to implement the necessary precautions are required under the ATEX
Equipment Directive [57] and other EU Directives and Regulations to be
officially certified for conformity. One way for a manufacturer to
demonstrate conformity to EU legislation is by the use of a standard
developed following a request from the European Commission and
designated as a harmonised standard. CLC/TR 50404 [33] was a Code of
Practice published as a Technical Report, and could not be designated as
a harmonised standard. The harmonised standards that support ATEX
equipment certification are European implementations of IEC standards
in the IEC 60079 series [1–3]. IEC 60079–0 [1] is the core standard in
the series and specifies the general requirements for equipment for
explosive atmospheres. In addition to supporting ATEX Directives in the
EU, the IEC 60079 [1–3] series also supports the IECEx international
conformity assessment system.
Although IEC 60079–0 [1] does contain some requirements related
to electrostatic control, the more extensive guidance provided in
CLC/TR 50404 [33] was considered essential to ensure full conformity,
and for certification purposes some of the recommendations in CLC/TR
50404 [33] needed to become requirements. Therefore, in 2007, work
started to develop CLC/TR 50404 [33] into an International Standard.
The project was assigned to IEC TC 31 – Equipment for explosive at­
mospheres, the Technical Committee responsible for the IEC 60079 se­
ries, and a joint working group, JWG 29, was established with IEC TC
101. CLC/TR 50404 [33] was taken as the base document. NFPA 77
[49], JNIOSH TR-No. 42 [47] and other standards and technical publi­
cations were additional sources of information. The project was allo­
cated to Part 32 of IEC 60079, and resulted in two documents being
published. The first, IEC TS 60079-32-1 [2], was published as a Tech­
nical Specification in 2013 and contained the main guidance. Two years
later, all the required test methods were published together as a testing
standard, IEC 60079-32-2 [3].
The guidance in IEC TS 60079-32-1 [2] is grouped into sections ac­
cording to where electrostatic charging occurs. The main sections are:
− static electricity in solid materials;
− static electricity in liquids;
− static electricity in powders;
− static electricity when handling explosive and electro-explosive
devices;
− static electricity on people and electrostatic shock.
Each section starts with general considerations before giving detailed
guidance for specific situations. The final section of the main document
is applicable to all other sections, and specifies recommendations and
requirements for the most fundamental of electrostatic controls –
earthing and bonding. In electrostatic standards the terms “earth” and
“ground” are both used. “Earth” tends to be used in standards origi­
nating in Europe, and “ground” tends to be used in standards originating
in North America. Although is some contexts the two terms can have
different meanings, in the context of electrostatic standards, the terms
have the same meaning are interchangeable.
Informative annexes provide background information, including
fundamentals of static electricity, electrostatic discharges in specific
situations, flammability properties of materials, classification of haz­
ardous areas and equipment protection levels, and a flow chart for a
systematic evaluation of electrostatic risks. The latter is intended to
assist new users of the standard in navigating the complex requirements
to find a systematic procedure to evaluate any product or process. The
final annex describes the same test methods that were subsequently
published in IEC 60079-32-2 [3]. This was an expediency to the ensure
earliest possible publication. It is intended to remove this annex from
IEC TS 60079-32-1 [2] when it is revised.
In most cases, the recommendations and requirements in IEC TS
60079-32-1 [2] existed in the earlier standards on which it was based or
5
Journal of Electrostatics 115 (2022) 103652
in other standards which it references. In some cases, the development of
IEC TS 60079-32-1 [2] revealed gaps where new guidance was required.
One such case concerned the electrostatic classification of flexible in­
termediate bulk containers (FIBC). In CLC/TR 50404 [33], classification
was based on the three Types A, B and C proposed by Maurer et al. [60],
plus Type D. Type A are FIBC with no electrostatic protection. Type B are
FIBC made from materials with electrical breakdown voltage less than 6
kV to prevent the occurrence of propagating brush discharges. Type C
are FIBC made from materials with a resistance to earth of less than 108
Ω, and are designed to dissipate electrostatic charge via a connection to
earth. Type D are FIBC that dissipate electrostatic charge via corona and
do not require earthing. Test methods for measuring breakdown voltage
and resistance to earth were well established and available in existing
testing standards, but there was no standardised test for evaluating Type
D FIBC. The only guidance given in CLC/TR 50404 [33] was “FIBC Type
D shall only be used in the presence of a flammable atmosphere after
they have been qualified as safe – i.e. after it has been demonstrated that
no incendive discharges will occur”.
IEC TC 101 launched and new project in 2004 to develop a testing
standard for FIBC. The project was allocated to Part 4 of the IEC 61340
series and designated as IEC 61340-4-4 [16]. Test methods for
measuring breakdown voltage and resistance to earth were based on
existing International Standards IEC 60243–1 [4] and IEC 61340-2-3
[12] respectively. Ignition testing had been used by manufacturers
and testing laboratories during the development of the first designs of
Type D FIBC, but the procedures were not standardised. The principle of
testing is to fill FIBC with an electrostatically charged material, such a
polyethylene or polypropylene pellets, then approach the side of the
FIBC with an earthed spherical electrode to initiate an electrostatic
discharge. The electrode is located at the exit of a small gas chamber
through which a flammable gas/air mixture flows. This creates a
localised flammable atmosphere in front of the electrode. Any electro­
static discharge that occurs when the electrode approaches the side of
the FIBC will pass through the flammable atmosphere. A safe FIBC will
not cause ignition. If during ignition probe approaches around the FIBC
one or more ignitions occur, the FIBC cannot be consider safe for use in
potentially explosive atmospheres. Before standardization in IEC
61340-4-4 [16], ignition testing parameters varied amongst labora­
tories. Generally, laboratories tried to replicate typical conditions found
in industry. However, during the development of IEC 61340-4-4 [16],
based on representations made by FIBC users, it was decided that the
standardised test parameters should replicate worst case conditions,
which are summarised in Table 4. The charging current represents the
case of FIBC with large discharge spouts emptying very quickly. The
minimum ignition energy (MIE) of the gas mixture is the same as the
lowest value reported for methanol (Haase [59]), which is considered to
be the most sensitive vapour that is likely to be present when FIBC are
emptied.
The first edition of IEC 61340-4-4 [16] was published in 2005. Sec­
ond and third editions were published in 2012 and 2018 respectively,
which added more guidance on the safe use of FIBC, requirements for
labelling and testing, and classification of inner liners. The systematic
approach to standardization within IEC ensured that recommendations
and requirements developed in IEC 61340-4-4 [16] were transferred to
IEC TS 60079-32-1 [2], and vice-verse.
Table 4
Test parameters specified in IEC 61340-4-4 [16] for ignition testing of FIBC.
Atmosphere for conditioning and testing (23 ± 2) ◦ C/(20 ± 5) %RH, and
(23 ± 2) ◦ C/(60 ± 10) %RH
Charging current (3.0 ± 0.2) μA negative polarity
MIE (0.14 ± 0.01) mJ
Flammable Gas Ethylene
Air (21.0 ± 0.5)% oxygen, balance nitrogen
Gas Composition (5.4 ± 0.1)% ethylene
Gas Flow Rate (0.21 ± 0.04) litre/s
P. Holdstock
Another example of where guidance in IEC TS 60079-32-1 [2] has
created a need for a new testing standard is that of composite interme­
diate bulk containers (IBC). The requirements in IEC TS 60079-32-1 [2]
for these rigid containers, which can be used to store and transport
flammable liquids, include surface resistance and leakage to earth limits.
There is no guidance on which test methods should be used, and the
general test methods included in IEC 60079-32-2 [3] are not always
suitable. The concentric ring electrode assembly specified in IEC
61340-2-3 [12] and referenced in the of IEC 60079-32-2 [3] is designed
for measuring flat, horizontal surfaces. Although this assembly can be
used by holding it in place against the sides of a composite IBC, many
areas on the surface remain inaccessible or not sufficiently flat to enable
sensible measurements to be made. Strip electrodes, formed using
conductive paint or adhesive, conductive tape are options specified in
IEC 60079-32-2 [3]. Whilst strip electrodes can be used for qualification
testing, they are not ideal for quality control testing of production
composite IBC, and certainly painted-on electrodes cannot be used for
this purpose.
IEC TC 101 is currently developing a new testing standard for com­
posite IBC, IEC 61340-4-11 [22]. A new tripod electrode assembly
designed by Schubert GMD is being considered, which allows access for
measurement to all parts of a composite IBC, including radiused edges
and corners, as shown in Fig. 1. The spring-loaded plunger is pushed
until the insulator at the end just touches the surface under test, which
ensures that the force applied by the electrodes is 50 N irrespective of
the orientation of the surface under test. The articulated tripod feet
ensure good electrical contact on non-planar surfaces. Resistance can be
measured between the two closest spaced contact electrodes, which are
52 mm centre-centre apart, or between either one of the contact elec­
trodes and earth or earth bonding point. Initial inter-laboratory trials
indicate good agreement between measurements made with the tripod
electrode assembly and with the strip electrodes currently specified in
IEC 60079-32-2 [3]. The first Committee Draft was circulated by IEC in
June 2021 for National Committee comments.
At the time of writing, both IEC TS 60079-32-1 [2] and IEC
60079-32-2 [3] are being revised. The revision will take account of
experience gained in the use the standards since their publication. One
of the issues that has been identified is the specification of electrodes for
resistance measurements. The need to develop new electrodes assem­
blies for composite IBC is one example, but there are other situations
Fig. 1. Tripod electrode assembly and measurement on the edge of a composite IBC.
6
Journal of Electrostatics 115 (2022) 103652
where the existing specifications are problematic. Zater et al. [61]
summarised some of the issues identified in a study conducted by
Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB), which resulted in a new
design for a soft conductive rubber strip electrode assembly being
developed by PTB. The new electrode assembly overcomes many of the
problems with previous designs, and reported results of trials indicated
good agreement with assigned values. Nevertheless, there are still situ­
ations in which this improved electrode assembly is not suitable. It is not
uncommon for resistance measurements to be required on small,
non-planar components. IEC 60079-32-2 [3] does refer to a suitable test
method is IEC 61340-2-3 [12] that can be used in such situations. The
two-point electrode assembly specified in IEC 6130-2-3 [12] has two 3.2
mm diameter conductive rubber contact electrodes spaced 6.4 mm
centre-centre. The contact electrodes are attached to spring-loaded
metal pins mounted in an insulated metal handle. Components that
are too small even for the use of these electrodes are unlikely to require
measurement.
One issue faced by some users of IEC TS 60079-32-1 [2] and IEC
60079-32-2 [3] is that although there is a number of possible electrode
assemblies that can be used, it is not clear whether the specified
acceptance limits for resistance can be verified with all possible elec­
trode assemblies. This confusion is further compounded by IEC 60079–0
[1], one of the core standards supporting IECEx and ATEX certification,
only specifying painted-on strip electrodes. The minimum sample size
required is 150 mm × 60 mm. Table 7 of IEC 60079–0:2017 [1] specifies
a maximum area of 400 mm2 for non-metallic material for Group IIC
equipment with Equipment Protection Level (EPL) Ga. A non-metallic
component just a little larger than this requires resistance measure­
ment to ensure it complies with the specified resistance limits. It is
clearly not possible to do this using the specified strip electrodes.
The specification of resistance limits and test methods for measuring
resistance has been identified as one area for careful consideration in the
revision of IEC TS 60079-32-1 [2] and IEC 60079-32-2 [3].
Another issue that has come up in the author’s commercial testing
work is the size of electrode specified for transferred charge testing. This
test measures the quantity of charge in an electrostatic discharge from a
charged sample to a spherical electrode. The test method is commonly
used to evaluate insulating materials that are greater in area than the
specified limits for safe use in explosive atmospheres, but which cannot
be replaced with dissipative or conductive materials. Both IEC 60079-
P. Holdstock
32-2 [3] and ISO 80079–36:20016 [31] specify a (25 ± 5) mm diameter
electrode. A review of available literature does suggest that an electrode
within this diameter range is likely to provoke the largest discharges. In
specifying an electrode of this size, the standards developers have tried
to replicate worst case conditions. Standards are by their nature con­
servative and when specifying safety requirements, a standard can only
specify what is known to be safe. Standards developers cannot know
every possible situation, so it is reasonable to use worst case conditions.
Nevertheless, there should be provision to qualify materials and equip­
ment when it is certain that actual use conditions are less severe.
As an example, a manufacturer requires a piece of equipment to be
certified under ATEX Directives [57] for hazardous areas of explosion
Group IIB, Zone 1/EPL Gb. During normal operation, the internal vol­
ume of the equipment is classed as Zone 21, but the powder within the
equipment might contain residual solvent in some applications and
hence the requirement to certify the equipment for Group IIB, Zone
1/EPL Ga. The equipment contains an internal component that is made
from an insulating polymer, which exceeds the maximum specified area.
The polymer cannot be replaced with dissipative or conductive material
without compromising mechanical integrity or food contact compliance.
It is necessary to determine if incendiary discharges can be generated
from the insulating polymer component, which is done according to the
transferred charge test method specified in IEC 60079-32-2 [3]. The
results in Table 5 are for measurements of transferred charge in single
electrostatic discharges from a charged polymer sample. The measuring
apparatus consists of a spherical electrode connected to a 22 nF capac­
itor. Transferred charge is determined from the voltage across the
capacitor, which is recorded and measured using an Agilent DSO6102A
digital storage oscilloscope (1 GHz, 4 GS/s) with an Agilent 10073C 10:1
passive probe (500 MHz). In these tests, two spherical stainless-steel
electrodes are used: 20 mm diameter and 15 mm diameter. The sam­
ple under test is rubbed with one of a variety of materials and the
electrode is then brought close to the charged surface to provoke a
discharge. The procedure is repeated nine times for each rubbing ma­
terial. The rubbing materials are from opposite ends and near the middle
of a triboelectric series. A further sequence of measurements is made
after charging the sample under test with − 60 kV DC corona. The values
in Table 5 are the maximum transferred charge recorded in each
sequence of measurements.
The maximum acceptable transferred charge for Group IIB, Zone 1/
EPL Gb specified in IEC TS 60079-32-1 [2] is 25 nC. Measuring trans­
ferred charge using an electrode within the diameter range specified in
IEC 60079-32-2 [3] does not qualify the polymer as safe for use in a
hazardous area of Group IIB, Zone 1/EPL Gb. However, if a smaller
diameter electrode is used, transferred charge is within the maximum
acceptable limit for Group IIB, Zone 1/EPL Gb. In this example, the
equipment is a closed system during normal operation. Nothing from
outside the equipment can approach the polymer component inside the
equipment to provoke an electrostatic discharge. When a potentially
explosive atmosphere is present inside the equipment, the only earthed
conductor that can approach the polymer component is an internal
metal component that has an edge diameter of 15 mm. Therefore, it is
reasonable to use a 15 mm diameter electrode to measure transferred
charge because it represents the actual conditions of use. JWG 29 might
need to consider this for the revision of IEC TS 60079-32-1 [2] and IEC
60079-32-2 [3].
In updating IEC TS 60079-32-1 [2] and IEC 60079-32-2 [3], JWG 29
will also consider new information from national standards such as
NFPA 77 [49] and TRGS 727 [53].
5. Concluding remarks
Anyone wanting to understand the principles of electrostatic phe­
nomena, or learn how to control electrostatic hazards, or design and
manufacture products to protect against electrostatic hazards can gain a
good deal of valuable information from the library of national and
7
Journal of Electrostatics 115 (2022) 103652
Table 5
Maximum transferred charge in single electrostatic discharges from a polymer.
Charging method Transferred charge, nC
20 mm Ø electrode 15 mm Ø electrode
Wool − 17 − 10
Nylon − 83 − 22
Cotton − 7 − 11
Leather − 15 − 13
PTFE +36 +10
Corona (− 60 kV DC) − 44 − 23
international standards that exist around the world. The adoption and
implementation of electrostatic standards is important for the protection
of life and property. The standards included in this review allow orga­
nisations and individuals to establish good practice to protect products
during manufacture, transport and use, and to protect personnel work­
ing in hazardous areas. In 2015, the United Nations adopted the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development [58], with 17 Sustainable Devel­
opment Goals (SDG) at its core. IEC and ISO contribute to all 17 SDG and
many of the standards included in this review contribute to one or more
SDG.
All standards bodies have procedures to regularly review and revise
standards. Electrostatic standards are revised to keep them updated with
technological developments and developments in our understanding of
electrostatics.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
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