Case Studies in Construction Materials 17 (2022) e01293

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

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Case study

The evaluation of calcium carbonate added and basalt fiber

reinforced roller compacted high performance concrete
for pavement
Sadik Alper Yildizel a, Bassam A. Tayeh b, Mehmet Uzun a, *
a
Karamanoglu Mehmetbey University, Karaman, Turkey
b
Civil Engineering Department, Islamic University of Gaza, Gaza, Palestinian Authority

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The purpose of this research was to evaluate the mechanical properties and durability of basalt
Basalt fiber fiber (BF) reinforced, and ground calcium carbonate incorporated (GCC) roller-compacted con­
Ground calcium carbonate crete (RCC) by considering different amounts of basalt fibers (BFs). Concrete specimens con­
Roller compacted concrete
taining various BFs (0.5 %, 0.75 %, 1 % and 1.25 % by weight) and GCC amounts (replacing 5 %,
Optimization
10 % 15 % and 20 % by weight of cement) were examined. A hybrid optimization study based on
the Placket Burmann and Taguchi methods was also conducted to enhance the effects of in­
gredients in terms of their compressive and flexural strengths. The experimental results showed
that compressive and flexural strengths varied in the range of 28.74–44.95 MPa and 3.92–6.13
MPa respectively at the age of 28 days. Moreover, factors consisting of 260 kg/m3 cement, 1.25 %
of BF and 20 % GCC were obtained as the optimum condition for the proposed RCC design. The
developed BF reinforced and GCC added RCC could be a reasonable alternative material for
pavement construction.

1. Introduction

RCC mixtures contain the same components as conventional concrete, namely, cement, aggregate, and water; however, they differ
in design and pouring requirements [1]. RCC designs have lower cement and water contents along with their required specific con­
sistency than plain concrete pavements [2]. Mix design and compaction quality with zero slump are the main factors that have sig­
nificant influences on the strength of RCC [3]. Generally, the compressive strengths ranges from 30 to 60 MPa at 28 days’ age [4]. RCC
mixtures must bear roller-originated loads during the pouring stages [5]. The mixture content must be dry and wet enough for proper
production. In other words, RCC requires a certain level of dryness to resist roller originated stresses and wetness so that it can grant the
hydration process of the cement [6]. RCC mixes can develop excellent durability and mechanical performance as long as the design is
appropriate and the compaction has been appropriately performed [7]. The mechanical performance of RCC mixtures is determined by
considering their engineering properties, such as compressive and flexural strengths and abrasion resistance under various loading
scenarios. According to recent research, fibre inclusion in the RCC mixtures enhances material properties like flexural strength, fatigue,
and fracture energy [8–10]. The critical fiber ratio of the RCC mixtures is a significant issue directly affecting the mechanical and
durability performances. Typically, samples with a fiber content of 1–3 kg/m3 by weight of the mixtures are well-behaved [11]. Recent

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: sayildizel@kmu.edu.tr (S.A. Yildizel), btayeh@iugaza.edu.ps (B.A. Tayeh), mehmetuzun@kmu.edu.tr (M. Uzun).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2022.e01293
Received 30 May 2022; Received in revised form 28 June 2022; Accepted 29 June 2022
Available online 1 July 2022
2214-5095/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
S.A. Yildizel et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 17 (2022) e01293

studies also prove that the mechanical properties of RCC can be improved by the addition of sustainable cement replacement materials
such as silica fume and fly ash [12–14]. The inclusion of cement replacement materials such as micro silica improves the mechanical
strengths and homogeneity while reducing freeze and thaw resistance by decreasing air voids [15]. In addition to the development of
these properties, its health benefits are also increasing [16]. Another common practice of limiting the consumption of non-renewable
resources is the replacement of aggregates with other eco-aggregates such as reclaimed asphalt pavement and tire rubber aggregate
[17,18].
The utilization of fibers to improve concrete properties is a widespread practice. Generally, various fibers such as glass, steel, and
basalt enhance concrete mechanical performances. Steel fibers are the most used materials among many fiber types. With the addition
of steel fibers, the shear failures in concrete composites can be prevented [19]. However, steel fibers contribute to the faster corrosion
mechanism due to their high sensitivity. Furthermore, the utilization of steel fibers results in an increment in design loads of the
concrete structures [20,21]. Glass fibers are commonly preferred by prefabricated concrete producers; however, their usage is limited
due to the alkaline reactivity property [22]. Polypropylene fibers are also utilized for the flexural and compressive strengths and
impact resistances [23,24]. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in bringing BFs to the concrete sector [25–28]. BFs have
some advantages over other fiber types with tensile deformation abilities, and Freezing and Thawing (F&T) resistance properties and
carry a great potential to be used in different types of concrete applications [29,30].
Optimization problems in concrete products have been investigated in various studies [31,32]. Design of experiments (DoE) is
widely preferred due to its accurate results, and it also performs planning and defining the experiment conditions for controlled trials
[33,34]. DoE types such as Response surface, Taguchi, mixture, and screening designs are recently utilized in concrete optimization
studies [35–38]. Successful results have been obtained with these optimization studies [39]. Placket–Burmann and the Taguchi designs
are mainly used to select important parameters and their optimization [40,41]. In this research, these features of the related methods
were effectively utilized.
The main focus of the present study is to propose a hybrid system based on Taguchi, ANOVA and Plackett-Burmann methodologies
and optimize BFs reinforced and GCC added roller-compacted concrete, since very limited studies exist in the current literature.
Furthermore, the effects of cement, GCC and BF on the compressive and flexural strengths were investigated and optimized. This
research also aims to contribute to an environmental-friendly optimization by limiting the cement usage and utilization of the BFs.

2. Method of experimental and optimization studies

2.1. Material characterization and experimental studies

Crushed rock containing limestones was used as coarse aggregate, and river sand was utilized as fine aggregates (FA) in this study.
To avoid segregation, the maximum aggregate size was set to 20 mm. Any organic materials were removed from aggregates following
to air-drying process. Betocarb®, a commercial product based on calcium carbonate, was used as a cement replacement and filler
material. The material properties and gradation curves of the aggregate mix are presented in Table 1 and Fig. 1, respectively. Addi­
tionally, Fig. 2 provides scanning electron microscopy images (SEM) of the GCC particles. CEM I type cement conforming to EN 197
standard was used. Table 2 shows the material properties of cement and GCC.
Table 3 presents the proposed mixture proportions according to the recommendations of the Taguchi design. Twenty-five different
mixtures were casted in the initial experimental study. The cement replacement levels with GCC were determined to be 5 %, 10 %, 15
% and % 20 by weight. Basalt fibers were added to the mixtures with the ratios of 0.5 %, 0.75 %, 1 % and 1.25 % by weight of mixtures
(8 mm in length and aspect ratio of 560). Water-to-binder (W/b) ratios were kept between 0.40 and 0.44 in accordance with the
allowable compaction ratio and optimum water contents as per the requirements of ACI 207. R-11 [43]. According to ASTM C 1435,
the mixtures were compacted in three layers using a compactor at blow counts of 1000 and 1850 r/min (10 kg surcharge) [44]
standard. As a result, the optimal water content of the mixes varies within certain limits as per the ASTM D 1557 [45].
The mixtures were mixed with a pan type mixer with a 60 L capacity. After dry mixing the aggregates, GCC, cement, and BFs, the
required potable water was added. For six minutes, the mixer speed was maintained at 250 rpm. The consistency of the mixtures was
determined by the ASTM C1170 [46] standard with a Ve-Be test device. Additionally, the fresh density of the mixtures was determined.
150 mm × 300 mm cylindrical samples were prepared for the compressive strength tests. Flexural strength tests were performed on
100mx100mmx500m rectangular samples. All mechanical tests were conducted for 7,28, and 90 days in accordance with EN 12390-2
and EN 12390-3 standards. Additionally, the water absorption rates of RCC samples were determined in accordance with ASTM C 642
specifications [47]. First, the specimens were dried in a 105 C◦ oven for 24 h prior to getting cooled to laboratory temperature (23 C◦ ),
and their weights were recorded as “W1”. Next, the same RCC samples were boiled for 5 h in a container, cooled, and then boiled again.

Table 1
Material properties of aggregates (Provided by the supplier).
Material attributes Fine agg. Coarse agg.

Fineness Modulus 2.63 –

Specific gravity 2.65 2.78
Bulking 7.5 % –
SiO2 content 0.72 % –
Moisture Content 0.12 % 0.42 %

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Fig. 1. Graduation curves of the aggregates (ASTM C33 [42]).

Fig. 2. SEM image of GCC (Betocarb®).

Table 2
Chemical and physical properties of cement and GCC (Provided by the supplier).
Property Cement GCC

Fe2O3 3.51 0.053

CaO 60.23 97.82
Al2O3 4.41 0.054
MgO 2.38 1.93
K2O – 0.014
Free CaO 1.72 –
LOI (%) 2.93 –
Color – White
Specific gravity 3.14 –
Soundness, mm 0.53 –
Fineness (cm2/g) 3677 –
Setting time (min.) 177–228 –
Blue value (g/kg) – <102
d50 %, (µm) – 6–32

Final cooled weights were recorded as “W2”. The water absorption (Wa) values were determined with the following formula Eq. (1):

Wa= [(W2- W1)/ W1]x100 (1)

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Table 3
RCC mixtures (L25, kg/m3).
Mixture no. Cement (kg) GCC (kg) BF (% by weight.) FA (kg) CA (kg) W/C+GCC Optimum water content (%)

R 260 0 0 750 1128 0.40 5.27

M1 260 13 0.50 750 1128 0.41 5.39
M2 260 26 0.75 750 1128 0.42 5.52
M3 260 39 1.00 750 1128 0.43 5.85
M4 260 52 1.25 750 1128 0.44 6.48
M5 247 0 0 750 1128 0.40 5.13
M6 247 13 0.50 750 1128 0.41 5.24
M7 247 26 0.75 750 1128 0.42 5.32
M8 247 39 1.00 750 1128 0.43 5.53
M9 247 52 1.25 750 1128 0.44 6.19
M10 234 0 0 750 1128 0.40 5.02
M11 234 13 0.50 750 1128 0.41 5.11
M12 234 26 0.75 750 1128 0.42 5.21
M13 234 39 1.00 750 1128 0.43 5.39
M14 234 52 1.25 750 1128 0.44 6.01
M15 221 0 0 750 1128 0.40 4.82
M16 221 13 0.50 750 1128 0.41 4.91
M17 221 26 0.75 750 1128 0.42 5.12
M18 221 39 1.00 750 1128 0.43 5.23
M19 221 52 1.25 750 1128 0.44 5.81
M20 208 0 0 750 1128 0.40 4.65
M21 208 13 0.50 750 1128 0.41 4.74
M22 208 26 0.75 750 1128 0.42 5.03
M23 208 39 1.00 750 1128 0.43 5.11
M24 208 52 1.25 750 1128 0.44 5.42

Fig. 3. Flowchart of the proposed methods.

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Polycarboxylate based superplasticizer admixture was also utilized during the mixing process with the ratios of 2.5 % by the cement
weight.

2.2. Optimization studies

The Taguchi method was used for the initial experimental design. Trial numbers were decreased with the utilization of this
technique. Three factors related to the strength properties, such as BF, GCC and Cement contents of the mixtures, were analyzed. To
achieve maximum strength values, signal-to-noise ratios were used with the principle of "larger is better" for compressive and flexural
strength evaluations. Moreover, twenty-five specimens were prepared (L25 design) according to the Taguchi design requirements.
ANOVA analyses were conducted subsequently to Taguchi design to determine the contribution of each factor. No factor was ignored
during this analysis. Finally, the Placket Burmann design was conducted based on ANOVA analysis and Taguchi Design. Outcomes of
the Placket Burmann design were also validated with trials to test the verifications of the proposed systems. The flow chart of the
applied methods is presented in Fig. 3 for easier follow-up of the study.
Table 4 shows the experimental ingredients and their levels for both flexural and compressive specimens. Levels were determined
based on similar research prior to the analysis [26–28]. A regression model was also proposed to compare the results of the Taguchi
design for compressive and flexural strengths. As it is seen in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5, R2 values are obtained as 98.8 % and 98.7 % for
compressive and flexural strengths, respectively, indicating that the errors are normally distributed, and the design is linearly fitted.
The design table of the Placket Burmann method is presented in Table 5. All flexural and compressive strength analyzes were per­
formed on 28-day strengths.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Preoptimization experimental results: fresh and mechanical properties of RCC mixtures

The Vebe times of the mixtures are illustrated in Fig. 6. As seen from the results, Ve-be time considerably increases with the addition
of BF due to the negative effect of BF on the consistency of the mixtures. On the other hand, in mixture M20 increase in workability and
consequently the decrease in Vebe times were attributed to a slightly higher water to binder ratio when it is compared to the reference
mixture. In addition, GCC particles inclusion improves workability in all mixtures since they acted as ball-bearings due to their partly
spherical shapes [48]; however, BFs additions are more dominant on the recorded Vebe times. In addition, the effect of increasing
binder amount is also observed on this property.
Fig. 7 represents the wet density test results. As showed in the figure, the addition of GCC significantly increased the wet density of
mixtures containing the same amount of cement. The filling of voids by GCC particles clarifies this condition. As a result, the same
volume is filled with more mass [49].
The water absorption rates of the mixtures are shown in Fig. 8. Mixtures with 260 kg cement, especially M3 and M4, showed the best
performances compared to the other specimens’ test results. The water absorption results were 2.94 % and 2.75 % for M3 and M4
mixtures, respectively, which are within the acceptable limits of similar research [50–52]. The filler effect of GCC particles is
responsible for the decrease in water absorption rates.
The flexural and compressive strength test results of the specimen produced in the laboratory according to the Taguchi designs are
given in Table 6. GCC and BF inclusions improved both strengths properties of the RCC mixtures. Compressive strength was
considerably affected by cement replacement with GCC in all mixtures; however, not surprisingly, BF’s contribution to the compressive
strength is not that much. In addition, the use of BFs up to 1.25 % by weight has no adverse effects [26–28]. The samples with 20 %
GCC replacement enhanced the compressive strength up to 27 %. It was discovered that GCC primarily acted as a cementitious ma­
terial, increasing its strengths. The remaining material from pozzolanic reactions with Ca (OH)2 acted as a filler material due to its
appropriate particle size. These findings indicate that the use of various cementitious materials and fibers positively affects the
compressive strength of the RCC [53–56]. Flexural strengths varied between 3.92 MPa and 6.13 MPa at 28 days. BF’s inclusion of up to
1.25 % by weight of the mixtures improved the flexural strength of the samples, as expected [28,57].

3.2. Designs and optimization results

Cement (C), ground calcium carbonate (GCC) and basalt fiber (BF) were regarded as control ingredients during Taguchi design and
trial numbers were decreased to twenty-five. ANOVA was used to determine the effect of each factor following the experimental studies
based on the Taguchi design. The F-values were used to determine the contribution to the strengths [58]. Table 7 and Table 8 presents
the Analysis of variance results for the compressive and flexural strength at 28 days, respectively. GCC and cement are the most

Table 4
Experimental ingredients and their levels in the Taguchi design.
Factors Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5

Cement 208 221 234 247 260

GCC 0 5 10 15 20
BF 0 0.5 0.75 1 1.25

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Fig. 4. Regression model of compressive strength Taguchi design.

Fig. 5. Regression model of flexural strength Taguchi design.

Table 5
Placket Burmann method design table.
Design number Pattern

Cement GCC BF

1 – + –
2 – – –
3 + – +
4 – – +
5 + + +
6 – + +
7 + + –
8 – + +
9 + – +
10 – – –
11 + + –
12 + – –

effective factors for compressive strength, as expected, since they have a higher F-value than the other factors. On the other hand, the
contribution to the flexural strength of BF and C is higher than GCC, as shown in Table 8. Based on the analysis results, it was found that
no factor can be ignored during the optimization study.
Surface and counter plots for compressive and flexural and compressive strengths according to the results of the Placket-Burmann
method are given in Fig. 9 and Fig. 10, respectively. These diagrams depict the various interactions on the related strength responses,

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Fig. 6. Ve Be test results.

Fig. 7. Wet density test results.

Fig. 8. Water absorption test results.

with blue representing low strength and red representing high strength. Compressive strengths increased with the increasing GCC
replacement and cement contents, and maximum compressive strength value was obtained at a cement content of 260 kg/m3 and a
GCC replacement amount of 20 %. BF had a minimal effect on the compressive strength [25,27] compared to the other factors;
however, the maximum strength value was recorded at a 1.25 % BF content level. Flexural strengths increased as both inputs increased,

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Table 6
Compressive and flexural test results.
Mixture code Compressive strength (MPa) Flexural strength (MPa)

7-days 28-days 90-days 7-days 28-days 90-days

R 23.92 35.15 39.69 3.26 4.35 4.64

M1 26.74 39.47 44.59 3.71 4.95 5.28
M2 28.01 41.21 46.53 3.9 5.21 5.59
M3 29.24 43.13 48.69 4.38 5.84 6.23
M4 30.61 44.95 50.74 4.61 6.13 6.56
M5 22.58 33.21 37.51 3.17 4.23 4.51
M6 25.32 37.21 42.02 3.61 4.82 5.16
M7 26.41 39.08 44.13 3.84 5.14 5.48
M8 27.84 41.09 46.39 4.27 5.71 6.11
M9 28.83 42.51 48.01 4.53 6.09 6.52
M10 21.11 31.11 35.14 3.06 4.09 4.38
M11 24.86 36.72 41.48 3.52 4.71 5.06
M12 26.43 39.01 44.03 3.74 5.02 5.39
M13 27.75 40.95 46.11 4.24 5.67 6.11
M14 28.31 41.91 47.29 4.42 5.97 6.39
M15 20.21 29.95 33.74 2.95 3.97 4.25
M16 24.56 36.41 41.12 3.42 4.59 4.89
M17 26.41 38.91 43.89 3.61 4.92 5.27
M18 27.77 40.82 46.11 4.12 5.51 5.91
M19 27.74 41.01 46.32 4.31 5.74 6.12
M20 19.54 28.74 32.45 2.91 3.92 4.19
M21 24.59 36.22 40.88 3.14 4.21 4.51
M22 26.32 38.74 43.74 3.48 4.75 5.09
M23 27.52 40.51 45.76 3.89 5.21 5.58
M24 27.71 40.91 46.11 4.12 5.52 5.92

Table 7
Compressive strength ANOVA results.
Factor df Adj SS Adj MS F-value

C 3 43.893 10.9732 23.95

GCC 3 357.483 89.3707 195.02
BF 3 3.29 0.8224 1.79
Error 3 5.499 0.4583
Total 12 410.164

Table 8
Flexural strength ANOVA results.
Factor df Adj SS Adj MS F-value

C 3 0.69490 0.17373 18.88

GCC 3 0.09074 0.02269 2.47
BF 3 8.64426 2.16107 234.83
Error 3 0.11043 0.00920
Total 12 9.54034

and BF had a more substantial effect than the other factors [28,29,59]. As a result of Placket Burmann design outputs and counterplots,
factors consisting of 260 kg/m3 cement, 1.25 % of BF and 20 % cement replacement of GCC contents were evaluated as optimal
conditions to achieve maximum strength values.
A quadratic regression model was proposed, and experimental results were compared with the predicted values of the Placket-
Burmann design for both flexural and compressive strengths. Correspondingly, regression models were presented in Fig. 11 and
Fig. 12 for compressive and flexural strengths. R2 values were obtained as 97.1 % and 99.5 %, indicating that the quadratic regression
model was accurate [60].
The optimization results also presented in the Eqs. (2) and (3) to predict the flexural and compressive strength at the age of 28 days:

CS = - 0.83 + 0.1357 C + 0.3904 GCC + 2⋅86 BF (2)

FS = 1⋅843 + 0.009904 C + 0.00425 GCC + 1⋅26 BF (3)

The analysis results were validated through experimental tests to obtain the final designs. The mixture designs and test results of the
validation specimens at 28 days are presented in Table 9. During validation tests, three specimens were prepared for each data set. The

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Fig. 9. Compressive and flexural strength counter plots of Placket-Burmann method results.

proposed optimization system, as shown in Table 9, can be successfully applied to RCC production.

4. Conclusions

In this study, a hybrid model based on the ANOVA, Taguchi and Placket Burmann design was proposed to optimize basalt fiber
reinforced and ground calcium carbonate added roller compacted concrete mixture contents. The optimization results were used in the
laboratory, and validation tests were also performed. The study’s main conclusion can be summarized as follows:

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Fig. 10. Surface plots of Placket-Burmann method results.

• Workability of the RCC mixtures decreased with the BFs addition; however, GCC addition showed positive effects on it.
• The water absorption rates of the mixtures decreased with the inclusion of GCC particles into the samples.
• The specimen with 20 % of GCC enhanced the compressive strength up to 27 %.

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Fig. 10. (continued).

• BF’s inclusion of up to 1.25 % showed the best performance with respect to the flexural strength with 6.13 MPa test result.
• Cement, basalt fiber, and ground calcium carbonate are the effective factors for compressive and flexural strengths in the proposed
model.

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Fig. 10. (continued).

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Fig. 11. Regression model of compressive strength Placket Burmann.

Fig. 12. Regression model of flexural strength Placket Burmann.

Table 9
Validation samples mix design.
Mixture code Cement (kg) GCC (kg) BF (% by weight.) FA (kg) PA (kg) W/C+GCC Optimum water content (%)

Gvmean 260 52 1.25 750 1128 0.40 5.27

Mean compressive strength (MPa) 48.52
Mean flexural strength (MPa) 6.12

• Placket Burmann design outputs and counterplots were evaluated as optimal conditions to achieve maximum strength values, with
factors including 260 kg/m3 cement, 1.25 % BF, and 20 % cement replacement of GCC contents.
• The outputs of this research can be used to analyze the mechanical properties of basalt fiber reinforced roller compacted concrete
production under on-site conditions.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Sadik Alper Yildizel: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software Writing – reviewing and editing. Bassam Tayeh: Data curation,
Writing – original draft preparation. Mehmet Uzun: Visualization, Investigation. Writing – review & editing.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to

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influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

No data was used for the research described in the article.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge to the staff of KMU-BILTEM for their help and supports.

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