ACI SP-2 (1999) ACI Manual Concrete Inspection

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S T D - A C 1 SF-2-ENGL 1999 nh129'+9 OEi'iBL4L 7 T B 1111
AC1 MANUAL OF
CONCRETE INSPECTION
Reported by AC1 Committee 3 11
Claude E. Jaycox Michael T.Russell

Chairman Secretury
Gordon A. Anderson Kingsley Drake Oswin Keifer, Jr.'

Joseph E Artuso John V. Gruber Lionel W. Vincent
Jorge Garcia Bemardini Robert L. Henry Woodward L. Vogt
John E Cook Charles J. Hookham George R. Wargo
Mano R. Diaz Robert S . Jenkins Bertold Weinberg
Donald E. Dixon Thomas A. Johnson Roger E. Wilson
*Deceased
Publication SP-2(99)
American Concrete Institute
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S T D = A C I SP-2-ENGL
Ninth Edition
Copyright O 1999, American Concrete Institute
First printing, February, 2000
All rights reserved including rights to reproduction and use in any form or by any means, including the making of copies by
any photo process, or by any electronic or mechanical device, printed or written or oral, or recording for sound or visual repro-
duction or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless permission in writing is obtained from the copyright
proprietors.
AC1 Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and Commentaries are intended for guidance in planning, designing, ex-
ecuting, and inspecting construction. The document is intended for the use of individuals who are competent to evaluate
the significance and limitations of its content and recommendations and who will accept responsibility for the application
of the material it contains. The American Concrete Institute disclaims any and all responsibility for the stated principles. The
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Institute shall not be liable for any loss or damage arising therefrom.
Reference to the document shall not be made in contract documents. If items found in this document are desired by the
Architecnngineer to be a part of the contract documents, they shall be restated in mandatory language for incorporation by
the Architecmngineer.
The Institute is not responsible for the statements or opinions expressed in its publications. Institute publications are not able to
nor intended to supplant individual training, responsibility, or judgment of the user, or the supplier, of the information presented.

PREFACE
This manual is for the guidance, assistance, and instruction of concrete inspectors and others engaged
in concrete construction, such as field engineers, construction superintendents, supervisors, laboratory and
field technicians and inspectors, and workers. Journeymen may find it valuable as a reference for improv-
ing their work, and apprentices can use it as an effective instruction manual. Although designers’ duties
are primarily confined to office work they may find the manual a valuable tool that provides a ready de-
scription of the various details of concrete construction. Such information may enable designers to better
adapt their designs to the realities of field construction.
Because of the diverse possible uses of the manual, and the varied backgrounds of the readers, it in-
cludes the reasons behind the technical instructions.
Except for the seventh edition, each previous edition included a series of minor revisions over the pre-
vious edition. The seventh edition was completely rewritten. This ninth edition was revised where deemed
necessary or required due to changes in reference documents. Much of the older material has been retained
because experience has shown it to be useful and technically correct. The field of concrete construction is
ever-changing, however, and some of the biggest advances in modern-day construction have taken place
in the concrete field. A list of only a few of the recent developments in materials, equipment, and processes
includes shrinkage-compensating cement, sophisticated admixtures, fibrous concrete, epoxy resins, high
capacity and automated concrete production equipment, high-strength concrete, and systems building. Al-
though there has seldom been reason to change the fundamentals developed earlier, added material is nec-
essary to recognize new technology. The field of inspection has been expanded drastically, and the
approach and emphasis modified in recent years, without change to the basic technology of the past. The
need to cover all items that affect inspection has been the reason for continuing to revise this AC1 Manual
of Concrete Inspection.
In preparing this edition of the manual, as with previous editions, the task of AC1 Committee 3 11 was
not to make policy on construction practices, but rather to interpret the policies set forth by other autho-
rized bodies. As before, the main emphasis of the manual is on the technical aspects of inspection and con-
struction. Administrative factors of inspection are generally limited to the first chapter. The manual covers
brief summaries of many subjects in concrete technology. The reader is encouraged to read ACI Manual
of Concrete Practice for further information.
Because this manual is general and broad in nature, no part of the manual should be included by reference
in contract documents. Applicable inspection requirements for each project must be determined and spec-
ified as necessary.
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111

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The manual is based on information from many sources, organizations, and individuals whose contributions are gratefully
acknowledged. The published references are listed at the end of the text. References to standard specifications and methods
of testing are listed separately.
The original manuscript was prepared by Joe W. Kelly, author-chairman of Committee 31 1, and revised over a period of
years to achieve a first edition in 1941. The second edition, also in 1941, included a number of corrections and minor revisions.
The third edition, in 1955, incorporated many constructive suggestions from users. The fourth edition, in 1957, brought several
sections up to date and contained editorial corrections.
The fifth edition provided new information on settlement of concrete, shoring and forming, strength requirements, cold-
weather concreting, and shotcrete. The sixth edition primarily provided updated information in all chapters, and included edi-
torial and substantive changes throughout.
The seventh edition presented a complete revision of the manual by eliminating sections of the previous edition covering
concreting methods no longer in use. Chapters 2, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 (partial), 16, 17, and 18 covered material that was included
in the manual for the first time. All other material was reviewed and updated as required to conform to current practice.
This ninth edition, like the eighth, has been revised as deemed appropiate by the committee. Members were assigned chap-
ters to review, and their suggestions were discussed. Chairman Claude Jaycox was especially helpful in getting the revisions
in order so the full committee could make an appropiate review. The committee thanks Mr. Jaycox.
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iv
CONTENTS
PREFACE ................................................................................................................................................................ ...

III
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .......................................................................................................................................... iv
CHAPTER 1-INSPECTION AND THE INSPECTOR ............................................................................. 1
INSPECTION PROCESSES AND ORGANIZATION.................................................................... 1
THE INSPECTOR......................................................................................................................... 4
REFERENCE LIBRARY ............................................................................................................... 6
MEASUREMENT AND TOLERANCES ........................................................................................ 6
SAFETY ........................................................................................................................................ 7
CHAPTER 2-STATISTICAL CONCEPTS FOR QUALITY ASSURANCE ............................................ 8

TRADITIONAL QUALITY ASSURANCE ...................................................................................... 8
STATISTICAL CONCEPTS IN QUALITY ASSURANCE.............................................................. 8
BASIC STATISTICAL PROCEDURES AS APPLIED TO CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION..........9
BASIC STATISTICAL CONCEPTS ............................................................................................ 10
STATISTICAL TOOLS ................................................................................................................ 11
CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................ 14
APPENDIX 1-SAMPLING BY RANDOM NUMBERS............................................................... 14
APPENDIX 2-NORMAL DISTRIBUTION CURVES ................................................................ 17
APPENDIX 3-COMPUTING STANDARD DEVIATION AND
REQUIRED AVERAGE CONCRETE STRENGTH.................................................................. 18
APPENDIX &-CONTROL CHARTS ON CONCRETE MATERIALS ............................................... 19
CHAPTER 3-INSPECTION AND TESTING OF MATERIALS ............................................................ 21

CEMENT..................................................................................................................................... 21
AGGREGATES........................................................................................................................... 22
WATER ....................................................................................................................................... 28
ADMIXTURES ............................................................................................................................ 28
STEEL REINFORCEMENT ........................................................................................................ 29
CURING COMPOUNDS FOR CONCRETE ............................................................................... 29
JOINT MATERIALS ................................................................................................................... 29
CHAPTER &HANDLING AND STORAGE OF MATERIALS .............................................................

31
CEMENT HANDLING AND STORAGE ...................................................................................... 31
AGGREGATE HANDLING AND STORAGE .............................................................................. 31
STORAGE AND HANDLING OF POZZOLANIC MATERIALS................................................... 33
ADMIXTURE STORAGE AND HANDLING ................................................................................ 33
CHAPTER 5-FUNDAMENTALS OF CONCRETE ............................................................................... 34

GENERAL CLASSIFICATIONS OF CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION......................................... 34
CONCRETE REQUIREMENTS.................................................................................................. 34
NATURE OF CONCRETE .......................................................................................................... 34
FREEZE-THAW RESISTANCE ................................................................................................. 37
SHRINKAGE AND SWELLING .................................................................................................. 37
V
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CHAPTER 6-CONCRETE MIXTURES: PROPORTIONING AND CONTROL .................................... 39
METHODS OF SPECIFYING CONCRETE PROPORTIONS .................................................... 39
METHOD OF PROPORTIONING FOR SPECIFIED STRENGTH OR
WATER-CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS RATIO ( w / c ~.............................................................
) 40
CONCRETE WITH POZZOLAN AND OTHER CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS ......................... 40
PROPORTIONING FOR RESISTANCE TO VARYING EXPOSURE CONDITIONS .................43
PROPORTIONS BY ABSOLUTE VOLUME ............................................................................... 44
CONTROL OF CONCRETE PROPORTIONS............................................................................ 45
COMPUTATIONS FOR YIELD ................................................................................................... 48
CHAPTER 7-BATCHING AND MIXING .............................................................................................. 49

BATCHING OPERATIONS........................................................................................................ -49
MIXING OPERATIONS .............................................................................................................. 53
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INSPECTION.............................................................................................................................. 56
CHAPTER &-INSPECTION BEFORE CONCRETING ......................................................................... 61

PRELIMINARY STUDY ............................................................................................................. 61
INSPECTION OF PREPARATORY WORK ............................................................................... 61
FINAL INSPECTION BEFORE PLACING .................................................................................. 68
CHECKLIST FORM ................................................................................................................... 68
CHAPTER 9-CONCRETING OPERATIONS ....................................................................................... 70

SITE CONDITIONS ............................................................ 1....................................................... 70
HANDLING OF CONCRETE ...................................................................................................... 70
CONSOLIDATION ...................................................................................................................... 73
FINISHING .................................................................................................................................. 76
CONSTRUCTION JOINTS ........................................................................................................ 79
CHAPTER 10-CURING. PROTECTION. FORM REMOVAL. AND RESHORING ..............................

81
REMOVAL AND SUPPORT OF FORMS ................................................................................... 81
CURING ...................................................................................................................................... 82
SPECIAL CURING CONDITIONS AND PROTECTION............................................................. 84
CHAPTER Il-CORRECTION OF DEFECTS IN NEWLY HARDENED CONCRETE

AND REPAIRS OF OLDER CONCRETE ............................................................................................ 86
PLAIN EXPOSED FORMED SURFACES .................................................................................. 86
REPAIRS TO IN-SERVICE STRUCTURES ............................................................................... 88
ARCHITECTURAL CONCRETE................................................................................................. 88
STRUCTURAL CONCRETE....................................................................................................... 88
STRUCTURAL SPALL REPAIRS............................................................................................... 89
STRUCTURAL REPAIRS USING EPOXY RESIN ..................................................................... 90
SAFETY DURING EPOXY RESIN REPAIR OPERATIONS ...................................................... 91
REPAIR WITH EPOXY POLYMER CONCRETE AND MORTAR .............................................. 91
INJECTION GROUTING OF CRACKS....................................................................................... 92
CHAPTER 12-SLABS FOR BUILDINGS ............................................................................................ 94

POSITIONING REINFORCEMENT............................................................................................ 94
MIXTURE REQUIREMENTS...................................................................................................... 94
SLABS ON GRADE .................................................................................................................... 95
STRUCTURAL SLABS ............................................................................................................... 97
JOINT CONSTRUCTION............................................................................................................ 98
vi
CHAPTER 13-PAVEMENT SLABS AND BRIDGE DECKS ............................................................... 99
FOUNDATION (SUBGRADE AND SUBBASE COURSE) ......................................................... 99
FORMS..................................................................................................................................... 100
STEEL REINFORCEMENT ...................................................................................................... 101
CONCRETE.............................................................................................................................. 101
PAVING .................................................................................................................................... 102
ACCEPTANCE ......................................................................................................................... 105
JOINTS ..................................................................................................................................... 106
WEATHER PROBLEMS........................................................................................................... 108
PROTECTION FROM PREMATURE TRAFFIC ....................................................................... 109
BRIDGE DECKS....................................................................................................................... 109
CHAPTER 14-ARCHITECTURAL CONCRETE ................................................................................ 111

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND COOPERATION............................................................... 112
UNIFORMITY ........................................................................................................................... 113
INSPECTION PROCEDURES ................................................................................................. 114
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FORMS ..................................................................................................................................... 114
REINFORCEMENT .................................................................................................................. 115
CONCRETE MATERIALS ........................................................................................................ 115
MIXTURES AND MIXTURE PROPORTIONS.......................................................................... 116
BATCHING. MIXING. AND TRANSPORTING ......................................................................... 116
PLACING AND CONSOLIDATION........................................................................................... 116
FINISHING-SURFACE TREATMENT .................................................................................... 116
EXPOSED-AGGREGATE FINISH............................................................................................ 117
CURING .................................................................................................................................... 118
REPAIRS .................................................................................................................................. 118
PRECAST MEMBERS.............................................................................................................. 118
POST-FINISHING PROTECTION AND ERECTION................................................................ 118
FINAL ACCEPTANCE .............................................................................................................. 118
CHAPTER 15-SPECIAL CONCRETING METHODS ........................................................................ 120

SLIPFORMING VERTICAL STRUCTURES ............................................................................. 120
SLIPFORMING CAST-IN-PLACE PIPE.................................................................................... 121
TILT-UP CONSTRUCTION ...................................................................................................... 121
LIFT-SLAB CONSTRUCTION .................................................................................................. 123
PREPLACED-AGGREGATE CONCRETE ............................................................................... 123
UNDERWATER CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION ..................................................................... 124
VACUUM-TREATED CONCRETE ........................................................................................... 125
PUMPED CONCRETE ............................................................................................................. 126
SHOTCRETE ........................................................................................................................... 128
CHAPTER 16-SPECIAL TYPES OF CONCRETE ............................................................................ 132

STRUCTURAL LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE CONCRETE................................................... 132
LIGHTWEIGHT FILL CONCRETE............................................................................................ 134
LOW-DENSITY CONCRETE.................................................................................................... 134
HIGH-DENSITY CONCRETE ................................................................................................... 136
MASS CONCRETE .................................................................................................................. 137
MASS CONCRETE FOR DAMS............................................................................................... 138
STRUCTURAL MASS CONCRETE ......................................................................................... 139
SHRINKAGE-COMPENSAT1NG CONCRETE ........................................................................ 140
CHAPTER 17-PRECAST AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE ......................................................... 143

PRECAST/PRESTRESSED CONCRETE INSTITUTE ............................................................ 144

PRECAST CONCRETE ............................................................................................................ 144
REPAIRS .................................................................................................................................. 148
PRECAST PRESTRESSED CONCRETE ..... .......................................................................... 148
CAST-IN-PLACE PRESTRESSED CONCRETE...................................................................... 150
CHAPTER 18-CONSTRUCTION RELATED TO CONCRETING ...................................................... 153

PRESSURE GROUTING .......................................................................................................... 153
GROUTING UNDER BASE PLATES AND MACHINE BASES ................................................ 153
MORTAR AND STUCCO ......................................................................................................... 156
CHAPTER 19-TESTING OF CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES ...................................................... 157

SAMPLING ............................................................................................................................... 157
TESTS OF FRESHLY MIXED CONCRETE ............................................................................. 157
STRENGTH TESTS .................................................................................................................. 159
ACCELERATED CURING OF TEST SPECIMENS .................................................................. 161
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF LIGHTWEIGHT INSULATING CONCRETE ....................... 161
UNIFORMITY TESTS OF MIXERS .......................................................................................... 161
DENSITY OF STRUCTURAL LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE .................................................... 163
TESTS OF COMPLETED STRUCTURES ............................................................................... 163
SHIPPING AND HANDLING SAMPLES ................................................................................... 164
AGGREGATE TESTING .......................................................................................................... 164
CHAPTER 20-RECORDS AND REPORTS ....................................................................................... 168

QUALITY-CONTROL CHARTS ................................................................................................ 171
BATCH PLANT AND MIXING INSPECTION............................................................................ 171
CONCRETE PLACEMENT ....................................................................................................... 175
GENERAL RECORD REQUIREMENTS .................................................................................. 178
RETENTION OF RECORDS .................................................................................................... 178
CHAPTER 21-REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 179

CHAPTER 2 2 4 T A N D A R D S . SPECIFICATIONS. TEST METHODS. AND REPORTS ................... 180
CHAPTER 23-CHECKLIST OF INSPECTION .................................................................................. 185
APPENDIX ............................................................................................................................................ 188

“GUIDE FOR CONCRETE INSPECTION” (AC1 311.4R-95) .................................................... 188
“GUIDE FOR CONCRETE PLANT INSPECTION AND FIELD TESTING OF
READY-MIXED CONCRETE (AC1 311.5R-97)........................................................................ 200
INDEX .................................................................................................................................................. 205
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viii
CHAPTER 1-INSPECTION AND THE INSPECTOR
INSPECTION PROCESSES AND ORGANIZATION
Need for inspection
The reason for having inspection is to ensure the require-
ments and intent of the contract documents are faithfully ac-
complished. Some inspectors, not directly or indirectly
responsible to the building owner, will have different respon-
sibilities, as described later.
The term “inspection” as used in concrete construction in-
cludes not only visual observations and field measurements
but also laboratory testing and the assembly and evaluation of
test data. Likewise, the term inspector also applies in many in-
stances to individuals classed as laboratory technicians who
are assigned to perform the testing, particularly in the field.
One important responsibility for the concrete inspector is
the quality of the materials used in the concrete. Often, low-
quality raw materials, particularly aggregate materials, can
be used to produce concrete of satisfactory quality if they are
suitably processed or beneficiated. The final materials enter-
ing the concrete mixture, however, must be of specified qual-
ity. It is difficult and usually impossible to produce specified
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concrete from nonconforming materials.
Fig. 1.1-Concrete is able to provide any structural or
On the other hand, a principal ingredient needed for speci- architectural shape and any sur$ace design.
fied concrete construction is good-quality workmanship in all
operations and processes. This aspect becomes an important
caused, at least in significant part, by poor construction-in
responsibility of the inspector. It has been said that most good
other words, poor workmanship. He stated, “Competent and
concrete is made from tested and certified cement; sound, du-
strict, almost unfriendly, supervision seems to be one key to
rable, well-graded, and properly tested aggregates; suitable ad-
the problem of how to prevent failures.” He added further,
mixtures; and clean, pure water. Most nonconforming
“The one thing which these failures conclusively point to is
concrete is made from the same good-quality materials.
that all good concrete construction should be subjected to
Manual skills, technical knowledge, motivation, and pride
rigid inspection... It is believed that only by this kind of in-
of workmanship all contribute to good workmanship, which
spection is it possible to guard against the failure of concrete
is the real key to quality concrete construction. Workers in
structures.”
concreting crews may have been exposed to some technical
training, but seldom adequately. Many workers have pride in For every monumental structural collapse, there are innu-
their work and do make an attempt to attain satisfactory qual- merable instances of minimal failure, if this is defined as
ity. The need to stay within cost limits, however, often re- nonconformance with design requirements. This is particu-
quires an emphasis on production rate. If this consideration larly true for properties such as durability, watertightness,
is uppermost, quality may receive inadequate attention. lron- and other desirable qualities.
ically, cost may suffer also. Unsophisticated pursuit of fast But there is requirement of even more than all the forego-
production may increase the cost and slow the schedule. ing to ensure good concrete work. Fifty years ago, the late,
Techniques that speed concrete placement may add material great F. R. McMillan said it in the foreword to the first edition
cost or require extra finishing or repair, or lengthen the cur- of his famous Concrete Primer (McMillan and Tuthill 1987)
ing process. “Many who have been interested in the cause of better
The desire for quality has led to the establishment of in- concrete have noted the difficulty of making any real
spection forces to monitor and control concrete construction. progress until someone in authority has been convinced that
The following quotation provides an example of early-day good concrete can be had, that it should be had, and, having
thinking and problems regarding concrete construction. “Nor been so convinced, has sent out the word that it must be had.”
is greater care required upon any works than upon such as are
to withstand the action of water; for this reason, all parts of Importance of specifications
the work need to be done exactly according to the rules of the This manual provides details and descriptions of practices
art, which all the workmen know, but few observe,” wrote involved in good workmanship as well as procedures consid-
Sextus Julius Frontinus, the water commissioner of Rome, in ered necessary to ensure satisfactory concrete construction.
the year 97 B.C. Times have changed, but the problem still It cannot be emphasized too strongly, however, that the in-
exists. spector is governed strictly by the requirements of the contract
Jacob Feld, one of the most noted investigators of structural documents, which are a part of the contract defining the work.
failures, listed examples in his book, “Lessons from Failures Other references and this manual can be used only as sources
of Concrete Structures,” showing that a high percentage of of information for background data and to serve as additional
failures of concrete structures that he had investigated were guidance on items not covered by the contract documents. In
1
S T D - A C I SP-2-ENGL i w m O m
n b u w ~ W B L ~ 7130
2 MANUAL OF CONCRETE INSPECTION
Fig. 1.2-Concrete’s ability to be formed in any shape lets

artistry andfunction go hand in hand.
some situations, inspectors will be governed by “performance
criteria supplied by management” or “provisions of applicable
building codes or regulations.” Administrative instructions, in-
cluding description of specific duties, must of course be pro- Fig. I .3-ACI-certijìed jìeld technician perj5orming a
vided by the agency employing the inspector. slump test.
The contract documents are the main criteria governing the tion of the quality of operations as part of the contrac-
decisions and actions of an inspector; therefore, clear speci- tor’s quality-control program. This helps to assure the
fications and drawings are essential. (Although the inspector contractor that the finished construction will meet all
has no control over the contract documents for the project un- requirements of the contract documents and thus will be
der construction, the inspector should provide feedback to accepted by the owner’s representative;
the designer in the form of suggestions for changes to use in
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Function as part of the fabricating or manufactwing

succeeding contract documents, if appropriate.) Much of the
team of a producer of concrete materials or products
friction in construction arises from differing interpretations
who furnishes to the construction industry, rather than
of indefinite or incomplete contract documents. The contract
only to a specific project. Examples of such operations
documents need not be voluminous, but they should be care-
are cement mills, aggregate producers, ready-mixed
fully written and specific.
concrete producers, precasting plants, and prestressing
yards. These inspection forces operate essentially as
Development of inspection organizations
those described in Item 2 to aid in ensuring that finished
The presently used inspection organizations were devel-
products will meet the requirements of the contract doc-
oped from those originally set up years ago by governmental
uments for a specific project; and
agencies to oversee the operations of contractors performing
construction for the agency as the owner. Such inspection Represent governmental bodies (licensing boards, and
would sometimes deteriorate into an adversaria1 relationship building-permit boards) charged with enforcing build-
between the inspector and the contractor’s forces. Recogniz- ing codes and other regulations. In this case, the inspec-
ing that everyone benefits from a job well organized and well tion forces will have responsibility only for ensuring
done, modem-day inspection has developed into a coopera- that the finished structure conforms to requirements of
tive effort between the inspector and the workers’ supervi- the codes or regulations.
sors. In earlier days, inspection would also frequently be so
detailed and intense that it became unnecessary for the con- Inspection organization
tractor to perform any inspection or testing as part of the con- Regardless of classification, an inspection group or team
trol of the operations. In recent years, much emphasis has may consist of a number of individuals or, for very small
been directed toward returning the responsibility for control projects, may be only one individual-even spending only
testing and inspection to the contractor, where it rightfully part-time at an individual project (Fig. 1.3). Inspection (in-
belongs. cluding testing) may be performed by a variety of groups,
such as the following:
Functional classification Inspection force maintained by the owner. Examples
Responsibilities for, and the duties of, inspection as ap- would be permanent or semipermanent forces of gov-
plied to concrete construction have been broadened to the ernmental agencies or large industries with continuing
point where inspection organizations are employed mainly building programs;
for the following purposes: Inspection force maintained by a commercial design
Represent the owner of the structure being built and firm (architect-engineer f m ) for work on projects
provide assurance that the owner receives what is being designed by the firm;
paid for; Inspection force from commercial laboratories who are
Ensure and document compliance with the specifica- employed for testing and for inspection services;
tions and drawings; Inspection force trained and maintained by a contractor
Represent the contractor (the builder), function as part to provide quality-control (in-process) inspection for
of the construction team, and provide in-process evalua- the firm on projects it constructs; and

INSPECTION AND THE INSPECTOR 3
Inspection force trained and maintained by a concrete specially by the Contractor. In some construction contracts,
material and product manufacturing and fabricating particularly those with some government agencies, the con-
firm for its own in-house use in quality-control (in-pro- tractor is required to provide a specified amount of such in-
cess) inspection and testing. spection and testing as part of a required formai quality-
control program. Even when not contractually required,
Responsibiiities many contractors maintain a quality-control program that in-
1. Inspection for the owner (acceptance inspection). AC1 cludes inspection and testing forces separate from the line of
3 11.4R was prepared to guide architects, engineers, and own- supervision. These forces report directly to management.
ers in the development of effective inspection organizations The cost is often returned many times over through reduction
and programs. It is concerned with the acceptance-inspection of rejections and savings in replacements and repairs. Some-
program required to assure owners that the requirements of times this inspection work is an informal and automatic part
the contract documents (drawings and specifications) are ful- of the contractor?s operations, performed by regular produc-
filled. It states in part: tion supervisors.
For the protection of the owner and the public, the respon- Inspection performed by or for the contractor, particularly
sibility for inspection should be vested in the designer as a when contractually required, will often be much more de-
continuing function of design responsibility. The responsi- tailed than is the usual present-day practice for acceptance
bility of the designer for inspection maybe discharged di- inspection. The contractor?s forces will make a much more
rectly, or through employees, or may be delegated to an detailed inspection of form alignment, positioning of embed-
inspection organization selected by the designer. In those ments and reinforcing bars and general placement practices.
cases in which the owner provides the engineering service, Even if not required by the contract documents, the contrac-
the owner should select the inspection organization. The fee tor often uses his own quality-control inspection to ensure
for inspection should be a separate and distinct item and against later rejection of work that would be very costly to
should be paid by the owner directly to the designer or to the replace or correct. If such items are not covered by a formal
inspection organization. Inasmuch as final responsibility for quality-control inspection team, they should be covered by
inspection rests with the designer, close surveillance should the contractor?s supervisory personnel.
be maintained over whoever is carrying out the details of in- When the contract documents require extensive quality-
spection. At no time should acceptance inspection or testing control inspection and testing by the contractor, the owner
be made a function of the construction contractor, except should not reduce or eliminate his own acceptance-inspec-
when required by law or applicable regulations or when the tion. The contractor?s quality-control inspection program
owner considers that its interest is best served by such an ar- then becomes the owner?s acceptance-inspection program
rangement. The practice of materials testing laboratories and nullifies the system. The objections are exactly as stated
providing adjunct services for the construction company on previously against the practice of having the contractor hire
the same constniction project should not be allowed because and pay an inspection force to perform acceptance testing for
this practice poses potential conflict of interest. Further- the owner. When the owner requires the contractor to have a
more, as a professional service, the selection of inspection quality-control program, the owner should maintain formal
services should be based on qualifications. oversight of quality acceptance to provide assurance that the
The guide further states that the designer should avoid the quality-control program achieves its objectives.
undesirable practice of arranging payment for acceptance in- 3. Inspection by the manufacturer or fabricator. These
spection and testing services through the contractor. Such programs should parallel the contractor?s programs and can
practice is not in the owner?s interest. Impartial service is be as varied, depending on contractual requirements and on
difficult under such circumstances, and the cost is eventually the manufacturer?squality control.
paid by the owner in any case. 4. Inspection by governmental enforcing agencies. This
When construction is performed under a normal construc- type of inspection is generally performed by permanent in-
tion contract, the inspection forces representing the owner
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spection forces maintained by the agency. The amount of in-

have no responsibility or authority to manage the contrac- spection is often less than required by other programs. One
tor?s forces. The owner?s inspection forces are responsible inspector may handle a large number of projects, visiting the
for, and can only be involved with, determining that materi- smaller ones only once or reviewing the inspection per-
als, procedures, and end products conform to the require- formed by others.
ments of the contract documents or to generally accepted
standards of the industry. There should be no question about Duties of inspection force
requiring the contractor to meet all requirements of the con- Although the basic approach will be the same, detailed du-
tract documents. For the inspector to accept less than re- ties and emphasis may vary for the numerous inspection forc-
quired is shortchanging the owner, whereas requiring more es involved on a project. The owner?s inspection forces will
than called for in the contract documents may place an im- often place emphasis on inspection of the finished structure,
proper burden on the contractor. inspection of concrete materials as they are delivered to the
2. Inspection by the contractor. Inspection and testing, mixer, and testing of the unhardened and hardened concrete.
variously referred to as quality-control inspection or in-pro- On the other hand, the contractor?squality-control inspection
cess inspection, is performed by forces maintained or hired forces will emphasize inspection of materials production pro-

S T 3 W A C I Si'--Z.-ENGL 1774 B UltbE'7'i'l 115Y0152 593 =
undergo a period of on-the-job training under the supervision

of more experienced individuals before working alone.
Increasing attention to control of quality and to refine-
ments of concrete construction often calls for higher stan-
dards of materials and workmanship than were formerly
accepted. Sophisticated design methods place more reliance
on the assurance of uniformly high-quality concrete. Superi-
or concrete can be produced without excessive cost if its pro-
ducers are vigilant and aware of its requirements.
Inspectors, to be effective, should have sufficient support
from management. Inspectors must be observant, able to
evaluate the relative importance of various work items, and
provide greater attention to the important matters. Above all,
inspectors must be completely familiar with all acceptance
criteria of the contract documents. Inspectors should always
promptly document and report nonconformances to the con-
tractors and their own supervision.
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Education and certification of inspectors
Properly trained inspectors are much more effective than
those without training. Inspectors can get initial technical ed-
ucation at junior colleges, trade schools, and similar educa-
Fig. 1.4-Building design accented with vertical patterns
and joints; quality constructionprovides a highly functional tional institutions but should continually improve their
and aesthetic workplace. technical training. It is well worthwhile for employers to en-
courage this effort and provide assistance. The employer
cesses, setting of formwork, and the concreting processes, should provide periodic training courses to make certain that
with reliance on the owner for inspection of the finished struc- the.inspectors receive up-to-date knowledge and training.
ture. These are the most frequently encountered assignments: Certification of inspectors and technicians is becoming the
1. Identification, examination, and acceptance of materials. norm and should be mandatory. It provides third party assur-
This will include verification of quality based on certifications ance that the inspector or technician possesses at least the ba-
and test results from producers and suppliers, as well as the sic skills and knowledge to perform the job. Some states
sampling and testing of materials delivered to the job site. directly require certification, but in most cases the requirement
2. Control of batching and mixture proportioning and ad- is placed in industry standards and then specified in the build-
justment, tests for consistency, air content, temperature, and ing codes. The following industry standards, for example, con-
density of concrete. tain a certification requirement or recommendation for
3. Examination of the foundation, forms, reinforcing steel certification: AC1 301, AC1 31 1.4R, AC1 31 lSR, AC1 349,
and embedded items, cleanup, and other work preparatory to ASTM C 39, ASTM C 78, ASTM C 94, ASTM C 685, ASTM
concreting. C 1077, and ASTM E 329.
4. Inspection of the mixing, conveying, placing, consoli- AC1 provides programs for the certification of 1) Con-
dating, finishing, curing, and protection of concrete. crete Field Testing Technician, Grade I; 2) Concrete Labora-
tory Testing Technician, Grade I and Grade II; 3) Concrete
5. Preparation of any required concrete specimens for lab-
Strength Testing Technician; 4) Concrete Transportation
oratory tests, and curing and protecting these specimens.
Construction Inspector; 5 ) Aggregate Testing Technician;
6 . General observation of contractor's plant and equip- and 6 ) Concrete Flatwork Technician and Flatwork Finisher.
ment, working conditions, weather, and other items affecting Additional programs may also be initiated.
the concrete or other related parts of the structures.
7. Evaluation of test results and performance charts. Authority of the inspector
8. Verification that unacceptable items and procedures are It is imperative that the inspector's supervisor, at the start
corrected. of each job, explain clearly and in detail the authority that the
9. Preparation of records and reports. inspector has, as well as action to be taken in various situa-
tions that may be encountered. It is recommended that the du-
THE INSPECTOR ties and responsibilities be provided to the inspector in written
Qualifications of the inspector form. An inspector may be authorized to do the following:
Inspectors must be persons of integrity who have both 1. Refuse approval to commence placement of concrete
practical experience and a technical understanding of the until the preliminary conditions (such as preparation of
principles involved in the assigned construction. They forms and construction joints and the placing of reinforce-
should know how and why the work is to be done in a certain ment) are satisfactory and accepted, and until inspection per-
way. Inexperienced but technically trained persons should sonnel are available for the actual concreting operations.

Fig. 1.5-A certified inspector monitors the installation of Fig. 1.6-A cert$ed inspector and a contractor discuss
an auger-cast precast pile. project concreting operations.
2. Refuse to accept the use of materials, equipment, or work- promptly when requested. Conditions that will apparently
manship that does not conform to the contract documents, or lead to unsatisfactory work should be anticipated whenever
that will cause improper construction relative to the contract possible, and should be pointed out to the contractor at the
documents. earliest opportunity to avoid waste of materials, time, and la-
In the previous two cases, the inspector is usually autho- bor. The inspector should not delay the contractor unneces-
rized to take direct action with the contractor’s supervisory sarily, nor interfere with the contractor’s methods unless it is
personnel, reporting immediately thereafter to his own super- evident that acceptable work will not be produced (Fig. 1.5).
visor. The inspector should stop work only as a last resort, Demands should never be made on the contractor that are not
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when it is evident that unsatisfactory concrete will result from in accordance with the contract documents. If the contract
continuing operations, and only after obtaining the approval documents permit a choice of methods, the inspector may
of the inspector’s supervisor. On minor points not covered by suggest one of the methods specified but not demand that it
instructions or acceptance criteria, it will be necessary for the be the method employed.
inspector to exercise personal judgment and to make deci- The inspector should maintain an impersonal, agreeable,
sions, thereby settling as many problems on the job as possi- and helpful attitude toward contractors and their employees
ble. Matters of general policy or major points not specifically (Fig. 1h).Familiarity should be avoided, and no personal fa-
covered by instructions, however, should be brought immedi- vors should ever be accepted from contractors or any of their
ately to the attention of the inspector’s supervisor. employees. By dealing fairly and recognizing and commend-
The quality-assurance/quality-control duties and respon- ing good work, the inspector can usually secure the respect
sibilities of the owner, engineer, contractor, and supplier and cooperation of the contractor’s supervisors and workers.
need to be clearly detailed in the contract documents and The inspector should particularly refrain from criticizing the
thoroughly understood by all parties. Preferably, these du- contractor’s organization or workers, and from boasting of
ties and responsibilities should be reviewed at a preconstruc- mistakes discovered.
tion or concrete preplacement meeting. The purpose of Instructions should be given only to the authorized repre-
clearly defining each party’s authorities and responsibilities sentatives of the contractor. Preferably, instructions should
before concrete is placed is to avoid the need to ascertain be given in the form of a caution that the faulty work will not
who is liable after the concrete is placed. be acceptable under the contract documents. Matters involv-
ing a potential change in cost, time of completion, or other
Relations with the contractor, supervisors, and factors of a significant nature should be documented by writ-
workers ten communication to the authorized representative of the
1. Inspectors representing the owner-If the requirements contractor. A clear line of communication should be estab-
of the contract documents are fulfilled, the contractor is en- lished. Instructions that may be subject to controversy should
titled to complete the work at the lowest possible cost. By preferably be issued in writing. The inspector may inadvert-
cooperating with the contractor in every way consistent with ently waive the owner’s rights by telling the contractor how
the owner’s interests, the inspector may contribute to reduc- to do a certain piece of work. This should be avoided unless
ing the cost of construction and doing so should secure the the owner agrees, as liability for that portion of construction
contractor’s cooperation. Inspections should be made may thus automatically be assigned to the owner or the own-

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Fig. 1.8-The inspector must be alert to unwarranted
changes by other trades. The plumber who cut this rein-
Fig. 1.7-A reference library is helpful to the concrete forcement to make space for his pipe probably did not real-
inspectox ize that safety hangs in the balance.
er’s representative. The inspector should not attempt to “run relationships must be explained in detail in instructions given
the job” but should watch the various operations carefully. to inspectors by the contractor’s management.
The inspector usually deals directly with subcontractors’
supervisors. If the inspector’s instructions are disregarded, REFERENCE LIBRARY
In addition to the contract documents, and other docu-
the matters requiring correction should be immediately re-
ments referenced therein, the concrete inspection force
ferred to the general contractor who is legally responsible.
should have at hand a working reference library (Fig. 1.7).
A good start is important; an incorrect method is corrected As a minimum, the following should be readily available in
more easily the first time it is practiced than after it has been addition to this manual:
in use. Because hasty and unsatisfactory work is most likely AC1 SP-15; Placing Reinforcing Burs (CRSI 1997a); AC1
to occur at the beginning or end of construction, the inspector 318; Concrete Manual (USBR 1981); Design and Control of
should be on the job during those times. The inspector should Concrete Mixtures (PCA 1994); and AC1 311.4R and AC1
be on the job at all times while concrete is being placed, fin- 31 1.5R (both of which are reprinted in the Appendix of this
ished, and repaired. manual).
An important item not often understood properly is that Additional references may be selected for specific jobs or
samples should be taken in a random manner. Inspection of the subjects, as suggested by the lists of references and standards
various details and operations should be at irregular intervals. at the end of this manual.
A most frequent and important difference of opinion be-
MEASUREMENT AND TOLERANCES
tween the inspector and the placing crew concerns the slump A common and erroneous assumption is that specified tol-
of the concrete. The placing crew may want a high slump (for erances for lines, grades, dimensions, and surface finsh ap-
example, a wet mixture with possibly 6 to 8 in. slump) be- ply to the setting of forms, screeds, and grade strips. This,
cause it will flow into place with practically no shoveling or however, is not the case. Tolerances apply only to the com-
other effort. With the use of modem superplasticizers, how- pleted concrete. Forms, screeds, and grade strips should be
ever, this problem has a practical solution. Instead of adding set at the exact position indicated on the drawings insofar as
water, which increases the w/cm and reduces strength, a su- possible, so the finished concrete will conform to the re-
perplasticizer can be used to greatly increase slump and pro- quired measurements.
duce allowable concrete without reduction in strength. With Usually the governing measurements of line, grade, and di-
modem placing equipment and vibrators, lower-slump con- mensions are made by the designer. The inspector checks the
crete can, however, be placed and consolidated without un- alignment of forms and screeds, as well as positioning of rein-
due expense to the contractor. The inspector should insist forcement and embedded items, and makes determinations of
that concrete be placed within the specified slump range, un- length, volume, and weight as required to ensure that the quan-
less otherwise authorized by the designer in writing. tities of materials and finished work meet all requirements.
2. Inspectors employed by the contractor-The basic ap- Recognizing that even the most careful measurement can nev-
proach to inspection and the inspector’s relations with work er be exact, the inspector should exercise judgment as to the
crews, as discussed previously for inspectors representing the tolerance to be permitted in specific cases if the contract doc-
owner, also applies to inspectors employed by the contractor. uments do not state limiting values or permissible tolerances
In many instances, however, they will have a different ap- (Fig. 1.8). Measurements must be evaluated in a reasonable
proach to their relationship with the supervisors and the work manner that will withstand questioning and review by higher
crews, as they are all employed by the contractor. The actual authority. It is obvious that forms and reinforcing steel cannot

STi)*ACI SF'..Z-ENGI- ï197'1 BI Ol~b27Y"?U 5 4 F i L S 5 29L! PI
be aligned to the nearest hundredth of an inch; hence, permis- have a definite effect on the performance of the inspector. To
sible deviation from exact value should be governed by the ef- ignore safety aspects will imperil the inspector's own job and
fect that such deviation will have on the structurai action or on subsequent responsibility. All unsafe conditions should be
the appearance of the structure. For example, a displacement immediately reported to the contractor or other proper au-
of reinforcing bars of 112 in. might be of no consequence in a thority and to the inspector's supervisor. Safe working prac-
foundation, but could seriously weaken a thin slab, or impair
tices should be encouraged by pointing out dangerous
protection of the bars from corrosion. Standards for tolerances
not covered by the contract documents should be established conditions or other possible sources of danger. Inspectors
early in the construction period. representing the owner or designer, however, may be prohib-
ited from pointing out safety violations to the contractor be-
SAFETY cause doing so may result in an unintended assumption of
The inspector should be aware of safety regulations and liability by the inspector's employer. Inspectors should con-
requirements at all times, keeping informed of local and sult their supervisor for guidance on whether and how to be
OSHA requirements that often change. This knowledge will involved in safety matters.
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STD.ACI SP-2-ENGL. m q m GLWIVI o w u i L~ L m
~
CHAPTER 2-STATISTICAL CONCEPTS FOR QUALITY ASSURANCE

(QUALITY CONTROL AND QUALITY ACCEPTANCE)
Quality assurance, as used herein, refers to all of the pro- Specification limit
grams and functions involved in obtaining the quality of con-
crete materials and concrete itself that will provide
satisfactory service of the desired concrete structures. It in-
cludes design, production, sampling, testing, and decision
criteria. The two functions that make up quality assurance are
quality control, primarily a function of the contractor, and
quality acceptance, primarily a function of the owner or the
owner’s representative. Known distribution d one lot
In the past, to a large extent, the owner has been assured of
quality primarily through the combined skills and experience
I
of the designer and the contractor involved. Properly applied,
such an approach has produced concrete structures of satis-
I
50
Robability I
.50
Foil part
factory quality. Modern concrete construction, however, has
attained a rate such that the approach used in the past has of- I
ReBompla I
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ten been unable to keep pace. In addition, the work load of

skilled designers has increased to the point that many activi-
I
ties and decisions have been delegated to individuals whose
I
50
Probability I
50
Fail PO%
skills and experience often are inadequate for on-the-spot de- í.25)-
FoiI
Ovemll p r o b a b i l i t y d ( . 2 5 ) + (50) = (.75)
Pm
cisions made previously by the skilled designer. Further
OVERALL PROBABILITY
complicating the problem are legal requirements for docu- PPssin9 + +
.50 ( 5 0 x 5 0 ) = 5 0 .25 * .7ti
mentary evidence of satisfactory compliance. Failing 5 0 x .50 = .25
Fig. 2.I-Probability of acceptance when resumpling.

TRADITIONAL QUALITY ASSURANCE
Many specifications for concrete used in the past (and still pletely acceptable under the control practices used (California
being used) are recipes or prescription-type specifications Department of Transportation 1968).
rather than end-product specifications. Some also spell out, When a failing test is encountered, retesting without up-
in detail, the operations of the contractor and the equipment grading the material being tested is not an appropriate action
to be used in the production of concrete. Such specifications (unless the original test has been performed improperly, in
were developed because adequate quality definitions and test which case the entire test should be voided). Even if the results
methods, and their evaluation, pertaining to the quality of the of the two tests (original test and retest) are averaged, there is
end product were lacking. Attempts to define required a built-in bias because the second test is taken only if the first
end-product quality and the values used were usually based test fails, not if it passes. For example, consider a material that
on experience and judgment rather than any rational concept. has a 50% chance of passing the specification limit and a 50%
These specifications, combined with the skills of experi- chance of failing. For each test on a certain lot, there is always
enced designers and the cooperation of experienced contrac- a 50% chance that the result will pass and a 50% chance that
tors with skilled workers, have produced good concrete it will fail. When a test is made and the result fails, however,
structures. Sometimes, the resulting structures, however, if it is decided to retest the same lot, the retest also has a 50%
have been of less-than-desired quality. chance of passing and a 50% chance of failing. But, because a
Under the previous procedure, a random, supposedly repre- second test is made only if the original test fails, this second
sentative, sample is usually taken. This sample is tested and the test has biased the original test so that the overall situation ac-
result compared with the specified value of the particular char- tually becomes a 75% pass, 25% fail probability. This is illus-
acteristic. If the test result is within the specified tolerances, the trated graphically in Fig. 2.1 (Pennsylvania State University,
material passes and is accepted. If not, the materialfails to pass. College of Engineering 1974).
Engineering judgment must then be applied and a decision
ma& as to whether the material may be said to substantially STATISTICAL CONCEPTS IN QUALITY ASSURANCE
comply, and thus be accepted, whether the material truly fails The science of statistics is a versatile tool. Its use permits de-
and must be rejected, or whether the material should be retest- cisions to be made with an established degree of confidence.
ed. Substantial compliance is not defined, and can vary from Contract documents can be written using statistical con-
person to person and job to job, creating confusion and dis- cepts to express quality requirements as target values for
putes. Actual research has shown that as much as 30% of some contractors, and to express compliance requirements as plus
construction controlled by traditional methods has been outside or minus tolerances. Tolerances for the target value, pre-
the stated limits when closely examined by statistical methods scribed by design needs, can be based on statistical analyses
using random sampling, even though it was considered com- of the variations in materials, processes, sampling, and test-

STLACI w-z-Eiw isqq m oLwi1ici n s w ~ wo u ï 9
STATISTICAL CONCEPTS FOR QUALITY ASSURANCE 9
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Table 2.1-Types of sampling
Does not require
Protects against Protects against Protects against Low inhereni
known defects unknown defects cvcles and uattems risk
JUDGEMENT SAMPLING J X ? ?
(based soley on judement of sampler)
QUGïA SAMPLING
(making judgment distribution of sample by J X J ?
time of day, location, etc., according to
disiribution of facts) I I 1 I
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
(selecting successive observations at constant
intervals in a seouence) 1 ,
I I l I
STRATIFIED SAMPLING
(selecting each of two or more parts J J J J ~ f
independently from a corresponding pan)
RANDOM SAMPLING
(selecting sample in such a manner that each
individual has the same chance of being chosen)
J J J r‘
‘ ! l J l J
ing existing in traditional construction practices. Tolerances 1 in this chapter. Presently, hand-held calculators and per-
derived in this manner can be both realistic and enforceable. sonal computers are available that will generate pseudo-ran-
They take into account all of the normal causes of variation dom numbers meeting all statistical tests. A discussion of the
and allow for the expected distribution of test results around preparation of sampling plans is presented in ASTM E 105.
the mean. Provisions can be made both for control to the Sampling programs commonly used are listed below. Table
stated level and for control of the variation from this level. 2.1 shows the advantages and disadvantages of these pro-
In addition to indicating the acceptable and unacceptable grams (McMilIan and Tuthill 1987). Normally, no one type
material in construction, it is also common in highway con- of sampling is used alone.
struction to use statistical methods to indicate “gray areas” 1. Judgment sumpling is sampling that is based solely on
where the test results show that the material is not completely the judgment of the sampler with no other restrictions. The
in compliance with the requirements but can be accepted if sampler decides when and where a sample should be taken.
and when permitted by the contract documents. 2. Quota sampling is a type of judgmental sampling based
Contract documents based on statistical concepts are widely on time of day, geographic areas, etc., according to the
used and becoming more common. Public agencies, particularly known distribution of facts.
the various state highway departments, use these concepts 3. Systematic sampling involves the selection of succes-
often because statistical concepts are particularly appropri- sive observations in a sequence of time, area, etc., at constant
ate and valuable for use on projects involving high rates of intervals.
production and large volumes of concrete or other materials, 4. Stratified sampling involves dividing a given quantity of
such as highway paving projects, large dams, and airfield material into independent parts, each to be sampled separately.
paving. Use of statistical concepts has proved not only fea- Stratified sampling is inherent in any acceptance sampling
sible but very effective and efficient where properly applied. based on use of sublots.
5. Random sampling involves the selection of a sample in
BASIC STATISTICAL PROCEDURES AS APPLIED such a manner that each increment comprising the lot has the
TO CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION same chance of being chosen for the sample (California De-
Statistical procedures for quality assurance are based on partment of Transportation 1968).
the laws of probability; consequently, these laws must be al- Examples of sampling by random numbers, using the typ-
lowed to function. The major requirement for proper func- ical table of random numbers, are given in Appendix 1 in this
tioning is that the data be collected by rundum sampling. A chapter (Pennsylvania State University, College of Engi-
true random sample is one in which all parts of the whole neering i 974).
have an equal chance of being chosen. Without true random In addition to randomness, the luts concept is also essential
samples, statistical procedures give false results. to the proper application of statistics to assurance sampling of
Randomness is obtained only by positive action; a random construction. The importance of this method cannot be over-
selection is not merely a haphazard selection, nor one de- emphasized. A lot can be considered as a prescribed and de-
clared to be without bias. Selection by the proper use of a fined quantity of material (whether it be by volume, area,
standard table of random numbers is acceptable. It is possi- tonnage, time of production, units, etc.) that is produced from
ble and feasible to adapt the use of random numbers to the the same process for the same purpose. This is the quantity
laboratory, to the field, and to the factory. Mechanical ran- that is offered for acceptance as a unit. All sampling and test-
domizing devices (dice, and spinning wheel) are sometimes ing requirements are defined in relation to and are applied to
used, but no device is acceptable as random in the absence that quantity. Only by establishing the size of the lot can we
of passing certain statistical tests. The difficulties in attain- select the proper sampling location and frequency to deter-
ing randomness are greater than generally known. Applica- mine the quantity of material that is within the specified lim-
tions of a table of random numbers are shown in Appendix its. Under the concept of lot-by-lot sampling and testing, the

STDOACI SP-2-EMGL 1777 = Obb2749 U5YBL58 T T L
3-b rniles-~
h l l o n d cement concrete
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Diide projecl
into lots
XI =&O" x*=snS' X,W" x4'8.15" X5.8.l0"

Theresu ofalldîhe.meaauremankiso
sample orpavement thickness of size n=5for lot I .
Fig. 2.2-Designation of lots and sublots.

-
Sample Increment Samgle Increment
I
(average of 2) (average of21
process of concrete construction may be thought of as the pro- B I
duction of a succession of lots that are each presented to the ûne sompk of Me n.5
designer for acceptance or rejection. This is illustrated for
Fig. 2.3-Definition of test portion, sample increment, and
concrete pavement in Fig. 2.2 (CRSI, 1997b). To implement sampie.
the acceptance plan, each lot is considered to be made up of
subdivisions of equal sizes called sublots. Sampling locations
are randomized within the boundaries of each sublot. An ad- generally group around the average in a symmetrical pat-
vantage of this concept is to stratify or separate the lot into tern, thereby allowing the use of statistics based on the fa-
smaller components. Although it should not be a principal ob- miliar bell-shaped normal distribution curve. Although
jective, this better ensures that the sampling and testing crews slight variation from the symmetricalcurve may occur, espe-
will have their work spaced out so that they are busy most of cially when the number of test results is small, the error in as-
the time and not excessively overloaded at any time. Some in- suming n o m l distribution is usually not large. The
efficiency of the testing forces, however, will have to be ac- assumption of a normal distribution permits the use of estab-
cepted. It also ensures that there will be no excessive periods lished relationships of mean (average) and standard devia-
without any sampling and testing, which is particularly im- tion to establish realistic contract document tolerances for
portant during startups-both project starts and daily starts. selected sample sizes. Such tolerances can be established by
A sample is that portion of the lot that is taken to represent statistical analysis, together with engineeringjudgment.
the whole. The term sample is used in a statistical sense. The A typical distribution of results of compressive strength
term is not to be confused with the individual test portions or tests made on concrete of one specific mixture (Fig. 2.4) is
sample increments that make up the sample. Fig. 2.3 illus- given in AC1 214. Superimposed on these plotted results is
trates the relationships between test portions, sample incre- a normal (bell-shaped) distribution curve computed from
ments and the sample (CSRI 1997). (Note: In discussions of test results. This particular set of test results and distribu-
sampling and testing of materials or concrete in other chap- tion curve would be considered a reasonably good fit. All
ters, the term "sample" generally refers to each individual statistical control procedures for concrete construction, in-
quantity of material taken for test.) cluding control charts, assume the distribution of test re-
Normally, it is desirable for each sample to be made up of sults (regardless of concrete or material quality) will
four or five sample increments (in other words, there should approximate such a normal curve.
be four or five sublots per lot). The average of the test values
of sublots in a lot, however, will have a range smaller than Definitions
the range of the values of the individual test portions in the Symbols and terms used in this chapter are defined below.
entire lot. The following definitions are commonly used in statistical
assurance programs for concrete and are primarily obtained
BASIC STATISTICAL CONCEPTS from AC1 214.
Research has shown that test results of construction ma-
terials and operations form a definite pattern grouping n = number of tests in sample
around a central value called the mean. The measurements The total number of test results or values under consideration.

11
X = individual test result

Separate test results (may be written X1,X2,X,,etc. to indi-
cate specific test results).
r=average, specifically, sample average, called "bar X'

This is the arithmetic mean of all test results; the sum'of all
test result values divided by n, the number of values.
x = x,+ x, + x,n + ... + x,

s = sample standard deviation
The sample standard deviation is the square root of the aver- 01 o O 1 0 o io
o o lo
age obtained by dividing the sum of the squares of the nu- 0 ' 0
0 ( 0 0 0 0
merical differences of each test result from the sample I I
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L.oa .wo t*m mm >Coo *.m Mw ,w .o00 +cm ..Ca UI
average by one less than the number of tests. C O M P R E S S I V E STRENSTR PS I
Fig. 2.4-Frequency distribution of strength datu und corre-

2
(X,-X) + ( X 2 J ) * . +, .(X,& sponding normal distribution.
n- 1
are inevitable, but an occasional low test should not be of
major concern provided the result is not too low (more than
A simpler and more adaptable form for many desk calculators is
500 psi below the specified strength) or the low test does not
represent a portion or member of the structure deemed criti-
cal by the designer. On the other hand, a few tests falling
above the specified strength is not necessarily proof of ade-
quate-quality concrete throughout the entire structure, as it is
quite possible that lower-strength concrete was placed some-
where n = number of values; where in the structure but has not been included in the tests.
ZXi = sum of n values; and What is of concern is that the quantity of standard cylinder
&x:> = sum of squares of n values. test results falling below fi is not more than allowed by the
contract documents. Typically, the contract documents re-
V = coefficient of variation quire that the average of all sets of three consecutive test re-
This is the sample standard deviation expressed as a percent- sults equal or exceed the specified strength. If the test results
age of the average. do not meet this criterion, changes to the mixture proportions
or improvement of quality-control procedures must be made.
100s Further, if the test result is more than 500 psi below the spec-
v=-
x ified strength, the in-place concrete is in question and appro-
priate actions must be taken. See the chapter on criteria in
AC1 318.
R = sample range
The numerical difference between the largest observed val- Although not pertinent to statistical evaluation as such,
ue (highest test result) and the smallest observed value (low- tests of standard concrete control specimens during construc-
est test result). tion provide the basis for evaluation of the potential strength
of the concrete delivered to the placing site. Placing, consol-
ff = specified compressive strength of concrete idation, and curing techniques will affect the quality of the
hardened concrete in the structure.
Usually 28-day strength, but can be specified at any age.
The quality of concrete can best be evaluated by analysis
f,, = required average strength of concrete of at least 30 standard tests from a given mixture.
Ensures that no more than the permissible proportion of test
results will fall below the specified strength. STATISTICAL TOOLS
Results of concrete compressive strength tests are plotted to
Normal distribution curves form a histogram, or frequency distribution, for which the nor-
See Appendix 2 in this chapter for examples and discussion. mal distribution curve can be computed. More importantly,
the results are tabulated and and s computed, to provide
Application of normal distribution curves to background data to use in selecting a required average strength
concrete compressive strength f,, for future concrete construction. This required average
In concrete construction, frequently too much emphasis is strength must be selected so as to provide actual concrete
placed on the results of individual cylinder tests. Low tests strength test results that will meet the specified concrete

S T D = A C I SP-Z-ENGL 1777 E ObLZSLiri 05LiAlb0 b 5 T
Standards for concrete control

Class of operation Excellent I Very good I Good I
Fair I Poor
Below 400 400 to 500 500 to 600 600 to 700 Above 700
A* conshuction testing (below 28.1) (28.1 to 35.2) (35.2 to 42.2) (42.2 to 49.2) (above 49.2)
B. batches Below 200 200 to 250 250 to 300 300 to 350 Above 350
(below 14.1) (14.1 to 17.6) (17.6 to 21.1) (21.1 to 24.6) (above 24.6)
Within-test variation, coefficient of variation,%
A. Fieldcontrol testing IBelow 3.0 I3.0 to4.0 I
4.0 to5.0 5.0 to6.0 I I Above6.0
B. Laboratory triai batches I Below 2.0 I 2.0 to3.0 I 3.0 to4.0 I 4.0 to 5.0 I Above5.0
strengthfc within certain specified tolerances. This strength is s = standard deviation, psi (modified if less than 30 tests
statistically computed, based on the average and the standard x are used to determine the sample standard deviation)
deviation s of the past results. Appendix 3 of this chapter (McMillan and Tuthill 1987).
shows examples of how to compute s andfc, for given data. All of these required levels of overdesign are based on sta-
Normally, the concrete inspector will not be concerned tistical assumption so that the concrete produced for the new
with plotting frequency distribution curves for concrete construction can be expected to meet specification require-
strength tests. The inspector can determine the mean value ments when concrete control cylinders are tested during con-
and the standard deviation, or coefficient of variation, for a set struction. These levels of overdesign are also based on the
of concrete test results from previous construction records, assumption that specification requirements are the same as
without plotting the curve. those contained in the AC1 318 Building Code, which re-
quire that the average of all sets of three consecutive strength
Usually a technician employed by the concrete producer or
tests equals or exceeds the requiredx and that no individual
contractor will determine the required average concrete strength
strength test (average of two cylinders) falls below the re-
fc, and proportion the mixture to meet this requirement. An av- quiredfi by more than 500 psi.
erage strength higher than the required minimum strength is
needed to ensure that the in-place concrete will be accepted Actually, the standard deviation of results of tests for com-
when results of concrete control tests on the upcoming job are pressive strength of concrete, or any other test results, is made
compared with the criteria of the contract documents. up of components that are standard deviations of several sub-
items. The main components are deviations due to sampling
If the concrete inspector is required to check thef,, value errors, deviations due to testing errors, and deviations due to
computed by the contractor or concrete producer, the inspec- actual variation in the material itself. A chart showing the re-
tor must use data computed from previous testing of concrete lationships among these subitems on several different con-
produced by the same concrete plant or contractor, particu- crete projects is shown in Fig. 2.5. Note that these items are
larly the standard deviation. not additive; instead the relationship consists of
The criteria most commonly referenced in contract docu-
ments are those of AC1 3 18. The AC1 Building Code requires
that, where a concrete production facility has a previous
record based on at least* consecutive strength tests that rep-
resent similar materials and conditions to those expected in where so is the overall standard deviation, s, is the standard de-
viation of sampling, st is the standard deviation of testing, and
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the new work, the concrete mixture shall be proportioned for

a required average compressive strength f,. which shall be ,s is the standard deviation of the actual material properties.
the larger of the values computed by the following formulas Typical values for standard deviation of concrete strength
tests, for various standards of control and for typeof testing, are
shown in Table 2.2. Refer to AC1 214 for possible revisions.
f c r 2 f : + 1.34s
Control charts
f,,2f: + 2.33s - 500 Although frequency distributions themselves are used pri-
marily to establish a proposed average compressive strength
of concrete before commencing work, control charts are the
where primary statistical tools used for evaluation of test results on
= specified compressive strength of concrete, psi; the concrete and concrete materials during construction.
Control charts are, in essence, horizontal line charts. The
f c ~required average compressive strength of concrete,
horizontal lines (for single test result or for “average” type
psi; and
charts) generally consist of a central line at the specified av-
erage and an upper line at the specified upper acceptance
*.&hvnnce for using as few as 15 consecutive strength results by using factors that limit and a lower line at the lower acceptance limit (if both
increase the sample siandard deviation used in the above equations. These factors are:
1.16 for 15 tests, 1.08 for 20 iests, 1.O3for 25 tests, and 1.00 for 30 or more tests. are applicable)-for an “acceptance” control chart. A true

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1777 Clbb2941 D5481bL 57b D
__ -
Pmiect No
I r*3
Upper oction limit
Structures
Uppar warninq limit
I c+2
2
füvemenls
I
L M r m r n i n g limit
W r action limit
I 2 3 4 5 6 f û 9 i û . . . N
Test cumber
O 200 QÒO 6ÒO 8bO lo00 i~M
Cainponnh d the miance-psi Fig. 2.4-Statistical control chart.
Fig. 2.5-Portland cement concrete components of standard
deviation, compressive strength.
“control” chart (one used for actual process control) will

usually have the center “average” line plus two lower lines
and two upper lines. The upper and lower lines closest to the
average are termed “warning limits,” or some similar name,
and the next lines are termed “action limits,” or some similar
name. These warning and action limit lines are placed at
some multiple of s, the sample standard deviation, above and
below the average value. For the case of concrete tests, only
the “below” limits are of concern with the warning line at
fi (orfc! - 1.34s) I/ Operational control -1

I I I I l l I 1
3 1 8
/i i’z lb i4
Moving mroga No
ib i6 i5 18
and the “action” line at The decision lo accept loi 16 IS based on the avemge of lest results
i2 through 16 For 101 17 lhe average of I3ihroughl7 would bewed.etc
f f - 500 (orf,,- 2.33s + 500) Fig. 2.7-Typical horizontal line control charts.
specified period. These, again, are horizontal line charts, but

There are standard statistical procedures for picking the lo-
normally have only a lower and an upper control limit (or
cation of these lines, but the inspector will not be involved
only an upper or lower limit).
with this because the limits will be contained in the contract
documents. A blank sample of a typical actual process con-
Control charts for results of tests on concrete
trol chart is shown in Fig. 2.6 (Pennsylvania State Universi- Typical control charts for results of strength test of con-
ty, College of Engineering 1974).Note how the control lines crete are shown in Fig. 2.8 from AC1 214. Control charts are
are related to a standard distribution curve (shown lying on commonly required to be maintained for results of tests for
its side to the left). Also note that the s referred to in this air content of concrete. A typical example of such a control
paragraph comes from tests made over short periods of time chart is shown in Fig. 2.9 (Pennsylvania State University,
when the process is “in control.” College of Engineering 1974).
Generally, procedures for using actual process control charts Control charts are sometimes maintained for results of
require that, when a point (test result value) falls on or outside slump tests, and a typical one is shown in Fig. 2.10 (Califor-
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
either warning line, the producer should examine its operation nia Department of Transportation 1968). Often these are not
to determine what has caused this variation and attempt to cor- required, however, because any batch of concrete whose
rect it. When a point falls on or outside the action line, the pro- slump is outside of contract document tolerances should be
ducer must stop its operation and make adjustments necessary rejected on the spot.
to bring the operation under control. Control charts can only in-
dicate that a problem exists, not where it is located. Control charts for concrete materials
This type of horizontal line control chart is used to plot Normally, the only concrete material quality for which
both single test results and running averages of a specified control charts are maintained is aggregate gradation, usually
number of consecutive test results. Typical charts of this for only a few of the sieve sizes. Where aggregate quality is
type are shown in Fig. 2.7 (Pennsylvania State University, particularly important, however, charts may be maintained
College of Engineering 1974). on results of certain quality tests, although statistically this
In addition to control charts for single test results and av- may be an improper application. Control charts for aggregate
erages, it is common to use control charts to record the vari- gradation and quality are also shown in Fig. 2.10, Typical
ability, or range, of test results, either from a lot or over some control charts for aggregate gradation for individual tests,

4000
-
E
I
d 3WO
f Operational control
Ò A 6 h i6 2'0 i4 i8 & $6 4b 4'4 4k

Sample numbers
Fig. 2.8-Quality control charts for concrete. Oprationai control I
.-i 85
g? 80
PP
5: 75
70
Fig. 2.10-Concrete control chart.
4.81 - the lot size is a day's production, that five sublots are re-
4.4- - - quired from each lot, and that one sample increment per
4.0 1
I
1
I
1 1 1
I
1
I I
1 1
I
1
I
1
I
1 1
I
1
I
1
1
1 sublot must be obtained. The plant operates for 9 h (from
7:30 a.m. to 4:30 p.m.) to accomplish one day's production.
Assume that the plant is running continuously through the
lunch period. (Alternatively, one might assume a sampling
time to coincide with the actual hours of production.)
range, and sand-equivalenttest results are shown in Appen-
dix 4 of this chapter. Soliation:
1. Lot size-The lot size is a day's production of 9 h be-
cause the plant starts at 7:30 a.m. and stops at 4:30 p.m.
CONCLUSION
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
This chapter gives a background of the underlying con- 2. Sublot size-Divide the lot into five equal sublots by se-
cepts for use of statistics in quality-assurance programs for lecting Five equal time intervals during the 9 h that the plant
concrete constmction, together with examples of the proce- is operating. The time interval for each sublot is
dures the inspector is likely to encounter. The inspector
should study the references noted in this chapter for detailed sublot time interval =
(9 h per lot) (60min per h)
instruction in the more refined phases of the use of statistics 5 sublots per lot
if he or she is involved with them.
This chapter, however, gives only background information = 108 min per sublot
and typical uses. The inspector must always follow the re-
quirements of the contract documents. The division of the 9 h of production time into five equal
sublots is shown diagrammatically in Fig. Al-1, which in-
APPENDIX 1-SAMPLING BY RANDOM NUMBERS dicates that Sublot No. 1 begins at 7:30 a.m. and ends at
Example l-Sampling by time sequence 9: 18 a.m. Sublot No. 2 begins at 9: 18 a.m. and ends at 11:06
Sampling will be done at the place of manufacture. (For ex- a.m., etc.
ample, the manufacture of aggregate, concrete, or precast 3. Sample increments-Until now, nothing has been ran-
products.) The task is to select the sample increments by domized. One sample increment per sublot is required but the
means of a stratified random sampling plan to distribute the exact time within each sublot when the sample increment
sampling over a half or full day,whichever is more applicable. should be taken is unknown. The times when the sample inm-
The contract documents will define the lot size, number of ments are to be obtained must be selected on a random basis.
sublots per lot, and the number of sample increments per lot. Use the table of random numbers (Table Al-1) to randomize
For this example, assume the contract documents state that the timing of sample increments. Choose consecutive random

S T D D A C I SP-2-ENGL. 1779 IObb2447 OS481b3 3b7
Sublot 1 sublot 2 Sublot 3 SuMot 4 Sublot 5 Table Al-1-Table of random numbers

Random uositions in decimal fractions. four daces
X Y X Y
2. I 0.6936 I L0.3182 1 52. 1 0.3410 I L 0.5636

3. 1 0.6112 1 R0.2909 1 53. 1 0.5937 I R 0.3727
4. I 0.7930 1 R0.8908 1 54. 1 0.6912 I R 0.4545
R 0.7272
R 0.8090
0.0167 L 0.3727 0.6893 R 1.0000
Lot - Day‘s production

IO. 0.8010
R 0.7817
R 0.8090
L0.8362 60. 0.0166 ROS909
Fig. A l -I-Relationship between lot and sublots, time interval. 11. 0.3027 L 0.3454 61. 0.4609 L 0.4000
12. 0.9831 L0.2364 62. 0.0893 L 0.9726
numbers from either the X or Y columns. The particular col-
umn to use may be specified by the inspector’s supervisor.
For this example, use Column X to obtain the timing of
five sample increments. Note that Column Y could have
been used instead and that any five consecutive values could
be selected by starting at any point in the table.
Choosing the first five numbers from Column X, the num-
bers areO.471,0.6936,0.6112,0.7930,and0.0652.Torandom-
ize the sampling time within each sublot, use the time interval
(108 min) computed in Step 2. This time interval is multiplied
22. 1 0.2471 1 L0.3182 I 72. 1 0.6718 I L 0.6454
by each of the five random numbers selected previously. 23. 1 0.5693 I LOS636 I 73. 1 0.5567 I LO.1818
24. 1 0.8583 I R0.4545 I 74. 1 0.0481 I L 0.2636
25. 1 0.3093 1 R0.1818 1 75. 1 0.4266 1 L 0.9454
Sublot No. 1: 0.4721 x 108 = 51 min
26. 0.9144 R0.9181 76. 0.3941 R 0.5636
Sublot No. 2: 0.6936 x 108 = 75 min 27. 0.7944 L 0.5909 77. 0.9876 L 0.7545
Sublot No. 3: 0.6112 x 108 = 66min 28. 0.8725 R0.2636 78. 0.6313 R 0.1272
Sublot No. 4: 0.7930 x i08 = 86min 29. 0.0135 R0.8908 79. 0.6803 R 0.3182
SublotNo. 5: 0.0652 x 108 = 7 min
The computed times are added to the starting times for

each sublot. This results in the randomized time at which the
sample increment is to be obtained. The sampling times can
be summarized as follows:
Sublot No, Samqling time

1 7:30a.m. + 51 min 8:21 a.m.
39. 0.7609 R 0.2091 89. 0.9411 L 0.5636
2 9:18 a.m. + 75 min 10:33 a.m.
40. 0.5957 LO.1000 90. 0.0571 R 1.oooO
3 11:06 a.m. + 66 min 12:12 p.m.
41. 0.3115 R 0.4000 91. 0.4797 R 0.9454
4 1254p.m. + 86min 2:20p.m. 42. 0.3377 R0.8362 92. 0.0866 R 0.4272
5 2:42p.m. + 7 min 2:49p.m. 43. 0.5651 L0.1545 93. 0.2889 R O. 1273
44. 0.4742 R0.6727 94. 0.4783 L 0.7000
The first sample increment is obtained from Sublot No. 1 45. 0.9483 LO.4000 95. 0.0304 R 0.9181
at 8:21 a.m. The second sample increment is not drawn until 46. 0.2951 R 0.6451 96. 0.8945 R 0.45 15
10:33 a.m., when Sublot No. 2 is in production. The remain- 47. 0.0441 L0.1273 97. 0.4499 R 0.2081
ing sample increments are obtained during the time when 48. 0.9143 L0.1273 98. 0.9209 L 0.9454
each of the last three sublots is in production. 49. 0.5723 L0.8362 99. 0.5827 L 0.5636
The five sample incrementsconstitute a sample of size n = 5, 50. 1 0.6069 1 R0.4000 1 LOO. 1 0.4560 1 L 0.8908
taken from five sublots of a day’s production (that is, the lot).
Note:
Each increment of this sample of size n = 5 must be tested. The X = decimal fraction of total length measured along road from starting point (or deci-
data would be employed to estimate the properties of the lot. In mal fraction of other units).
Y = decimal fraction of road from outside edge toward centerline (or decimal fraction
other words, the average, the sample standard deviation s, the of other units).
R = measurementfrom right edge.
coefficientof variation V,or any other statisticcan be computed L = measurement from left edge.
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1779 M Obb2747 05481b4 2 T 5
Sublot 1 sublot 2 Sublot 3 Sublot 4 sublot 5 3 0.9181 600 551st

4 0.8362 600 502nd
5 0.2364 600 142nd
Fig. A l -2-Relationship between lot and sublots quantity Sublot no. 1: 109th ton
interval. Sublot no. 2: 600 + 534 = 1134thton
Sublot no. 3: 1200 + 551 = 1751stton
to reflect the statistical property of the lot when it is offered by Sublot no. 4: 1800 + 502 = 2302nd ton
the contractor or material supplier for acceptable sampling. Sublot no. 5: 2400 + 142 = 2542ndton
Example 2-Sampling by material weight In actual practice when sampling the sublot, the hauling
Assume that the contract documents specifj a lot size of units containing the 109th ton, 1134th ton, 1751st ton, etc.,
3000 tons with five sublots per lot and that one sample incre- would be sampled.
ment per sublot must be obtained. in addition, assume that the to-
tal tonnage required for the project is 15,000 tons. The sampling Example 3-Sampling depth of concrete pavement
will be done from the hauling units at the manufacturing source. The depth of concrete pavement in a roadway must be sam-
pled for acceptance purposes. Assume that the contract docu-
Solution: ments require a lot size of 5000 lin ft, each lot divided into five
This solution follows the same basic pattern as the solution sublots, and one sample increment per sublot. In addition, as-
given for the previous example. First identify the lot size and sume that the pavement width is 12 ft and the project begins at
then determine the number of lots, sublot size, and finally the Station 100 + O0 and ends at Station 300 + 00.
point at which to obtain the sample increments.
1. Lot size andnumber oflots-Because there are 15,000tons Solution:
required for the project and the lot size is 3000 tons, the total 1. Lot size and number of lots.
number of lots is:
Lot size = 5000 lin ft
15,000 tons = 5 lots
Number of lots =
3000 tons per lot The distance from Station 100 + O0 to Station 300 + O0 is
20,000 ft. The number of lots is:
2. Sublot size-The sublot size is:
Number of lots = 20*000* = 4 lots
5000 ft per lot
Sublot size = 3000 tons per lot = 600 tons per sublot
5 sublots per lot
2. Sublot size-The first lot begins at station 100 + O0 and
ends at Station 150 + OO. Divide the distance between these
The relationship between lot and sublot size is shown in stations into five equal sublots.
Fig. A1-2.
3. Sample increments-The contract documents require
one sample increment per sublot, but which load should be Sublot size = 5000 ft per lot = 1000 ft per sublot
5 sublots per lot
sampled is unknown because the sample increments have not
been randomized yet. Refemng to Table Al-1, choose five
random numbers from Column Y starting with Number 17 Fig. A1-3 indicates how this lot is divided.
for this randomizationprocess. These numbers are then mul- (Note that random numbers starting somewhere else in the
tiplied by each of the five sublots as follows: table, either list X or list Y, could have been used. The inspec-
tor should select the starting point at random to avoid making
the time or location of the sample increment predictable.)
Sublot no. Random number Sublot size, tons Ton to be sampled 3. Sample increments-The point at which each sample in-
1 0.1818 600 109th crement will be obtained must be randomized in both the lon-
2 0.8908 600 534th gitudinal (X) direction and the transverse (Y) direction. This
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1997 Ubb29Y9 OCi.IALb5 131
[
Sublot 1 Sublot 2
8 8 8 8 8
+ + + + +
s
r( 3 E! 3 3
Fig. A l -3-Relationship between lots and sublots, distance
,
interval. I
-3sb -3s, +3s, +3Cb
sublot
Fig. A2-I-Coordinate system for paved sublot.
Fig. Al-4-Coordinate system for paved sublot.
location by X-Y coordinates is illustrated in Fig. Al-4, in

which both the station and the offset are chosen in separate Fig. A2-2-Quite different distributions may have the same
randomizing operations. average.
Refemng to the table of random numbers (Table Al-l),
Sublot NO. 2 X = 1474.2 Y = 3.9
use five consecutive random numbers from Column X and
five from Column Y starting with number 43. Multiply these Sublot NO. 3 X = 2948.3 Y = 7.2
X numbers by the length of each sublot, and multiply the Y Sublot NO. 4 X = 3295.1 Y = 4.3
numbers by the 12 ft width of the roadway wearing surface. Sublot NO. 5 X = 4044.1 Y = 10.5
Sample location,
Sublot Longitudinal Sublot size, ft, from start of Sample location, APPENDIX 2-NORMAL DISTRIBUTIONCURVES
No. random number length, ft sublot ft, from start of lot
Fig. A2- 1, A2-2, A2-3, and A 2 4 show examples of normal
1 0.565 1 lo00 565.1 565.1
distribution curves and how they vary but are interrelated.
2 0.4742 lo00 474.2 1474.2
3 0.9483 1O00 948.3 2948.3
The sample standard deviation s and the related term V, co-
4 0.2951 1O 0 0 295. i 3295.1
efficient of variation, are measures of the scatter or variability
5 0.0441 1000 44.1 4044.1
of data. As illustrated in Fig. A2- 1 through A2-4, when the fre-
Sublot Transverse Sublot size, Location of sample, ft, from edge of
quency distribution is long and flat, s (or V ) is large, indicating
no. random number width, ft roadway wide variation. When the variability is small, s (or V) is small
1 L 0.1545 12 1.8 from left edge and the data are closely packed. Fig. A2-4 also shows that a
2 I R0.6727 I 12 I 8.1 from rieht edge high value off,, is required when the variation is wide.
3 L 0.4000 12 4.8 from left edge Fig. A2-5 illustrates the proportion of the total area under a
4 R0.6451 12 7.7 from right edge standard normal distribution curve for each successive step of
5 L0.1273 12 1.5 from left edge distance s from the average (mean). These proportional areas
for deviations of Is, 2s, and 3s form the basis for statistically
Coordinates from beginning of lot and from right edge of based tolerances for test values. For a standard normal distri-
roadway are: bution, approximately 68% of all test values fall within one
standard deviation (1s) on each side of the average. More im-
Sublot NO. 1 X = 565.1 ft Y = 10.2 ft portantly, approximately 95% of all test values will be within
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

18
Examples of calculating deviation s

Lower
specified
limit
I Ispecified
Upper
limit Example 1-Compute s by Eq. (la)
Comuressive strength tests of concrete cylinders
Mean ok
scatter (SI ok Test no. 1 Xvalue, psi 1 p
1 3315 10,989,255?
2 3090 9,548,100
3 I 3510 I 12.320.100
4 2900 8,410,000
Mean ok 5 I 3690 I 13,616,100
scatter (SI too iarge ~~
6 I 3310 I 10.956.100
7 3100 9,610,000
8 3490 12,180,100
9 3295 10,857,025
10 3500 12,250.000
11 2910 8,468,l O0
12 3700 13,690,000
Mean too low
for amount of 13 3110 9,672,100
scatter ís) 14 3790 14,364,100
15 3300 10.890,OOO
16 3290 10,824,100
17 3105 9,641,025
u
18 2800 7,840,00
~
19 I ~
3305 I 10.923.025
Mean too high 20 3495 i 2,215,025
?Althoughsquared values have been written herein for illustration,ibis is unnecessary

if calculator permits each squared number summed in memory as computed.
Fig. A2-3-Process control related to specification limits.
n = 20 (number of test results)
2s of the average, and almost no test values (less than 0.3%)
will be found outside the 3s limits.
APPENDIX 3-COMPUTING STANDARD

DEVIATION AND REQUIRED AVERAGE
CONCRETE STRENGTH
The sample standard deviation s is defined as the ?root
mean square deviation? of test results from their average and
is computed by the following equation:
-
- 219,264,225 - 217,833,000
= i?x, - X f + (X,-xf...+ (X,+ XI2 19
(1)
n- 1
s=7
d
- = 274psi
where XI, X , X, are individual strength test values. Or, in a
simpler form: Calculation of required average strength fer
After the standard deviation has been computed, valuable in-
formation is available based on the theoretical normal probabil-
ity curve. Fig. A3-2 shows a typical theo~ticalbell-shaped
curve with the values fors indicated graphically. Regardless of
the shape of the theoretical curve and the value of s,the area un-
where Z ( X t ) is the sum of the squares of all individual tests,

der the curve between (x+
s) and (E-s) will always be 68.2%
of the total area under the curve, and the area under the cume
and (mi),is the square of the sum of all individual tests. (x
between + 2s) and (E+ 2s) will be equal to 95.4% of the to-
Note that (n- 1) is used here rather thanthe theoretical value tal. Considering only the half of the curve representing values
n, which is applicable for an unlimited number of tests. The x
less than bar, 34.1% of the total area will fall between and
reason is that (n - 1) increases the value of s and tends to com- (x - s), and that leaves 15.9% of the area under the curve for
pensate for the lesser reliability of a small number of tests. values less than (X- s).
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1777 M Obb2747 05481b7 TO9
2
I
25 95.4% 2s
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k
I
1-
I
4I Required average
strengthf,,
Percent of low
tests
Required average
strengthf,,
Percent of low
tests
682%
.
I
I
I
1
I
-1 ! I I y= 13.2%
I
~ ~ 4 6 4I
f,’+ 0.1s
” _
.f.‘+ 0.2s
fC’+0.3s
I
1
I
46.0
42. i
38.2
1
I
f.‘+ 1.6s
” _
.f,.’+ 1.7s
f,’+ 1.8s
I
I
1
5.5
4.5
3.6
!
fc‘+ 0.4s f,‘ + 1.9s
f,‘ + 0.5s f,’ + 2.0s
f,’ + 0.6s 27.4 A.’+ 2.1s
f,‘ + 0.7s 24.2 f,.‘ + 2.2s
f,’ + 0.8s 21.2 .f,.’+ 2.3s
f,’ + 0.9s f,’+ 2.4s
Compressive strenqih, psi
f;‘+ s f:+ 2.5s
Fig. A3-I-Normal frequency distribution of test results. f,’+ 1.1s 13.6 fc’+ 2.6s 0.45
f,’+ 1.2s 11.5 f,’+ 2.7s 0.35
f,’+ 1.3s f,’+ 2.8s 0.25
f,.’+ 1.4s I 8.1 1 f,’+2.9s 1 0.19
f,’+ 1.5s I 6.7 I f,.‘+ 3.0s 1 0.13
P = 41.89 3‘ Lirnil.
R=Ji8 UCL* * %.e3
n = 2 LCLi ~32.15
Fig. A3-2-Division of the area under the normal fre-

quency distribution cume based on deviations from “bar
X ” in multiples of s.
These same percentages will apply for the number of tests
involved, as well as for an area. Therefore,
-
15.9% of the tests
... . .. . . ~~
for any normal curve will fall below ( X - s).

Table A3-1 is an adaptation of a table from a math handbook Fig.A4-l-ControE chartfor average ( X ) 3/8 in. sieve, %passing.
(the normal probability integral) altered to show the percentage
of concrete strength tests falling below f,‘ as a function of the = 3 0 0 + 1.65(560)
required average strength f,,. For example, just as Fig. A3-2
shows that 15.9%of the tests will fall below - s), Table (x = 3000 + 925 = 3925 psi
A3-1 shows that if
APPENDIX 4-CONTROL CHARTS ON CONCRETE
f,, = ff +s MATERIALS
Normally the only concrete material property for which
then 15.9%of the tests will fall below f,‘. control charts are maintained is aggregate gradation, usually
Table A3-1 is useful in establishing the required average for only a few of the sieve sizes. Where aggregate quality is
strength and also in determining the probability of low tests particularly important, however, charts may be maintained
occurring when s is known. With s computed from project on results of certain quality tests although statistically this
data and f,’ established, Table A3- I can be used to compute may be an improper application. Typical control charts for
the required average strengthL.f;.,.
For example, assume that a aggregate gradation for individual tests and for range are
designer would like to limit the probability of tests falling shown in Fig. A4-1 and A4-2 (Pennsylvania State Universi-
below 3000 psi to 5% and the expected standard deviation of ty, College of Engineering 1974). Plot gradation in individu-
the concrete is 560 psi. What average strength should the al percent retained on the particular sieve.
concrete be designed for?
Example calculations and control charts for moving average
(five tests) for sand-equivalenttest results and for coarse aggre-
From Table A3-1 for 5% low tests:
gate material passing the 1-in. sieve are shown in Examples 1
and 2, which are taken from California Department of Transpor-
f,, = f,‘ + 1.65s (by interpolation) tation Highway Research Report No. M&R631133 (1968).

S T D - A C 1 SP-Z-ENGL 1999 = Obb29Li9 05481b8 940
MANUAL OF CONCRETE INSPECTION
20
ua,
lA= &ez J
à
gà à ò
I
60 I
O 5 10 15 20 25 30 40
A Cubic yaids- Hundreds
Fig. A4-3-Control chart of moving avemgesfor sand equivalent.

W Jun July
Fig. A4-2-Control chartfor range (R) 3/23 in. sieve, %passing. 38
34
Examule 1 calculations
1 8-11-91 791: - -
2 8-14-91 85 164 i 2 = 82.0 82
I I I I I
3 8-16-91 84 247 + 3 = 82.7 83 I
I
4 8-18-91 72 320 i 4 = 80.0 80
Waived and accepted by engineer
18
5 18-22-91 80 I I 400+5=80.0 I 80
6 18-24-91 1 75 1 396+5=79.2 1 80
7 16-25-91 I 74 I 385+5=77.0 I 77 .14.
8 18-28-91 68 I I 369+5=73.8 I - o 5 io 2b 30 40 50 6b
Tons -Thousands
Materials rejected and results not shown on control charts.
Operation discontinued and significant steps taken by contractor to correct
deficiencv before additional material acceoted. Fig.A 4 - & C m l chartfor moving avemgesfor g d i n g analysis
I
~~
9 18-29-91 79 ~
- -
Example 2 Calculations
11 I 9-5-91 I 81 I 240+3=80.0 I 80
I I I 1
~
12 9-7-91 83 323+4=80.7 81
'Results rounded up to next whole number using same number of significant figures
as in individual test result.
+Sumof five most recent individual test results,including current test result. Testno. Date 40%)
*Show test as first value on moving average conml chart. 1 I
6-5-91 I
27* - I I -
2 6-6-91 24 51 + 2 = 2 5 . 5 26
3 6-8-91 28 79 i 3 = 26.3 26
Example 1-Calculations to determine moving 4 6-12-91 29 108 + 4 = 27.0 27
averages for sand-equivalent test (See Fig. A4-3
for plot of data) - I 6-14-91 I 35 I 1 4 3 + 5 = 2 8 . 6 I 29
Assume the contract documents require an individual test - 6-16-91 1 1
34 150+5=30.0 1 30 1
of not less than 73 and a moving average not less than 75. - I 6-20-91 I 42 I 1 6 8 + 5 = 3 3 . 6 I 34
Waived and acceoted bv eneineer
The caution zone for this example was arbitrarily set between
8 6-22-91 38 178 + 5 = 35.6 36
75 and 80. The data tabulation and calculation are shown be-
9 6-26-91 40 189 + 5 = 37.8 38
low. The operation was discontinued and significant steps
10 6-27-91 42 196 i 5 = 29.3 -
were taken by the contractor to correct the deficiency before
Materials rejected and results not shown on control charts.
additional material was accepted. Operation discontinued and significant steps taken by contractor to correct
deficiency before additional material accepted.
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Example 2-Calculations to determine moving 'Results rounded up to next whole number using same number of significant figures
as in individual test result.
averages for 1-1/2 x 3/4 in. concrete aggregate 'Sum of five most recent individual test results, including current test result.
(maximum variation of percentage of material *Show test as fust value on moving average control chart.
passing 1 in. sieve) (See Fig. A# for plot of data)
The contractor's proposed average (job formula) is 26%
passing the 1 in. sieve. Assume that the contract documents tractor. The caution zone for this example was arbitrarily set
allow an individual test variation of 14% and a moving aver- between 4% higher than the lower limit and 4% lower than
age variation of 12% from the average submitted by the con- the upper limit. Data tabulation and calculations follow.

S T D = A C I SP-2-ENGL 1 9 9 9 IObb2749 05481b9 887 W
INSPECTION AND TESTING OF MATERIALS 21
CHAPTER 3-INSPECTION AND TESTING OF MATERIALS
Materials are inspected and tested to see that they meet Class N-Natural materials such as diatomaceous earth and
contract document requirements and that they are properly certain clays and shales, either calcined or not.
stored, handled, and used in the work. If materials are in- Class F-Normal fly ashes usually produced by burning bi-
spected for acceptance before being shipped to the job, their tuminous coals.
condition should be checked for degradation that may have Class C-High-lime fly ashes that are partially cementitious,
occurred during shipment and storage. The contractor’s usually produced from burning lignite or sub-bituminous
records pertaining to shipments and quality of materials coals.
should be made available to the inspector. Standard methods
of testing concrete are discussed in Chapter 19. Optional requirements
ASTM C 150 contains additional optional requirements
CEMENT for “low-alkali,” “false-set,” 28-day compressive strength,
Five standard types of portland cement are used in con- heat of hydration, and sulfate resistance, to be applied at the
crete as specified in ASTM C 150 ( U S . Federal Specifica- option of the purchaser.
tion SS-C-192): When the aggregates to be used contain elements known to
Type I-A cement for general use when the special proper- be destructively reactive with sodium or potassium oxides,
ties of other cements are not needed. the minor alkalies found in cements, then the durability and
Type II-A cement for general use that has moderate sulfate serviceability of concrete are better ensured if low-alkali ce-
resistance and moderate heat of hydration. ment or an acceptable pozzolan is used. The use of low-alkali
Type III-A cement for use when high early strength is de- cement will often, but not always, ensure that concrete will be
sired. free of objectionable alkali-silica expansion. By definition,
Type IV-A cement for use when low heat of hydration is low-alkali cement contains not more than 0.60% of these ox-
necessary, such as for mass concrete. ides computed as sodium oxide. Petrographic examination of
Type V-A cement for use when sulfate resistance is re- the aggregate is a reliable method of identifying reactive ag-
quired, such as for structures in contact with soils or ground gregate (ASTM C 295). An indication of the potential alkali
water having a high sulfate content and for concrete in con- reactivity of cement-aggregate combinations can be deter-
tact with concentrated domestic sewage. mined by the mortar bar test (ASTM C 227) and, less reliably,
ASTM C 150 also includes specifications for air-entrain- by the quick chemical method (ASTM C 289). Low alkali
ing cement, that is, cement containing an air-entraining content will not render a cement sulfate-resisting as is some-
agent. Some users prefer this arrangement for introducing times thought. AC1 116R defines false set as “the rapid devel-
the agent into the concrete; others find that they are able to opment of rigidity in a freshly mixed portland-cement paste,
control air content of concrete better by adding the air-en- mortar, or concrete without the evolution of much heat, which
training agent at the mixer. (See discussion in Chapters 6 and rigidity can be dispelled and plasticity regained by further
19.) ASTM C 150 specifies three types of air-entraining ce- mixing without addition of water. ...” Flash set (or quick set)
ment-Types IA, IIA, and IIIA, corresponding to Types I, is defined as “the rapid development of rigidity in a freshly
II, and III listed earlier. mixed portland-cement paste, mortar, or concrete, usually
with the evolution of considerable heat, which rigidity cannot
Other cements be dispelled nor can the plasticity be regained by further mix-
Other cements, both blended and unblended, are available ing without the addition of water. ...” The presence of false set
in certain localities. These are generally used for economic and flash set may be determined by ASTM C 359 (mortar
reasons. Such cements include: slag cement; portland method) or ASTM C 45 1 (paste method).
blast-furnace slag cement; portland pozzolan cement, and Although both of these properties are objectionable, flash
others as given in ASTM C 595. set is the most detrimental. Considerable water must be added
Pozzolans are often used to replace a portion of the port- to regain plasticity, with consequent loss in strength and
land cement in the mixture. These materials react with the greatly increased plastic and drying-shrinkage cracking. Ce-
free lime always present as a product of the hydration of ment with flash-set properties will usually fail the require-
portland cement to form cementitious compounds of slow ments for time of set in ASTM C 150. Flash-setting cement
strength gain. Pozzolans are often used for economic rea- should not be used in typical concrete construction. False set-
sons in areas where they are cheaper than portland cement. ting of cement will generally have no deleterious effects on
Most pozzolans, used as partial replacement of the port- the quality of concrete, particularly when transit mixing is
land cement, will produce a concrete mixture with less heat employed, as the longer mixing time will restore the plasticity
generation (of great advantage in massive structures): pre- without water addition (and often without personnel being
vent or minimize alkali-aggregate reaction: and, except for aware that false set has occurred). With short mixing times,
Class C, will usually produce a more sulfate-resistant con- however, severe false setting may require addition of slightly
crete. The three general classes of pozzolans covered by more mixing water, and consequent reduction of strength and
ASTM C 618 are as follows: increased drying shrinkage. With very short mixing times,
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

S T D * A C I SP-2-ENGL 1999 W Obb27‘47 05‘4B170 5 T 7 W
false set may occur after the concrete has been dumped from
the mixer, in this case causing considerable difficulty.
Job delays and too much time from mixing to placing are
the causes of most slump loss problems. They can, however,
be aggravated by fast-setting cement, cement-admixture in-
compatibility (particularly in hot weather), cement having
false-setting tendencies, loss of water caused by high temper-
atures of fresh concrete, loss of water to unusually absorptive
aggregates or subgrade, or loss of water to drying in sun and
wind. In cold weather, a fast set may be caused by overheat-
ing of materials or by too much calcium chloride.
So-called “hot cement” (cement delivered from the mill
before it has cooled to approximately atmospheric tempera-
ture) is considered the cause of false set due to driving off
some of the water molecules in the gypsum that is added to Fig. 3.1-Lightweight chert can cause popouts.
control the set.
AGGREGATES
In general, inspection consists of examining and testing
Sampling and testing aggregates for acceptability, making necessary control tests,
Testing cement for acceptance is essentially a laboratory seeing that the aggregates are properly stored and handled,
matter. It is discussed briefly herein. Usually the cement is and checking the operations of batching. Minimizing varia-
sampled and tested by the mill, which then issues mill test re- tion in the aggregates as batched is important.
sults and certifications. Cement remaining in bulk storage at
the mill, prior to shipment,for more than 6 months after com- Specif ications
pletion of tests should be retested as indicated in ASTM C Standard specifications for aggregates include ordinary
150. Large users, such as state highway departments,will of- aggregates (ASTM C 33), recommended stock sizes of ag-
ten either engage an independent laboratory or perform the gregate for highway construction (ASTM D 448),and light-
work of sampling and testing each silo themselves. Many weight aggregates (ASTM C 330 and C 332). In general,
other owners will obtain samples from incoming shipments aggregatesmust be clean, hard, sound, and durable, and sizes
and have the cement tested by an independent laboratory as of particles must be graded within stated limits. Recent spec-
they feel necessary. The field inspector checks incoming ifications usually require that the chosen grading of fine ag-
shipments against the notices of acceptance, and examines gregate be maintained reasonably uniform by restrictions on
the cement for any signs of loss, contamination, or exposure the range of fineness modulus (see the following discussion
to moisture during the shipment. Inspectors should be sure under “Tests for Grading”) of various shipments. Various
that seals on bulk shipment cars are unbroken. deleterious substances are restricted to small percentages.
If the cement is sampled at the job, secure a representative The following is a list of deleterious substances listed in
sample of the portion in question in accordance with ASTM ASTM C 33, showing the reason for restricting amounts of
C 183. Take samples for testing of at least 10 lb each (or at the material in the final aggregate product.
least 5 lb each when they are to be combined into a 10 lb sam- Clay lumps and friable particles-Unsound particles in
ple). If the cement is in bags, take a small quantity from one the concrete; may increase water demand if they break down
bag for each 100 bags or fraction thereof; mix these amounts during mixing.
weil and choose a sample with a sample splitter or by the Materialfiner than No. 200 (75 pin) sieve-Increases the
quartering method. mixture water demand.
Coal and lignite-Detrimental to surface appearance and
If the cement is shipped in bulk, take samples either: 1) with cause difficulty in air entrainment.
a slotted sampling tube; or 2) by drawing off a considerable
Sojl particles-Reduce performance of heavy-duty floors
quantity of cement at the discharge opening. From the quantity
and other concrete where surface hardness is required.
secured, blend a composite sample as described previously.
Lightweight chert (with specijìc gravity less than 2.40)-
Place the cement sample in a clean, dry waterproof con- Reduces durability of concrete and is a cause of “popouts”
tainer, and close the cover tightly to exclude air and moisture. (Fig. 3.1).
Duct tape around the seam of a slipcover can make an excel-
lent seal. Completely identify the sample both inside and out- Sampling
side the can, giving the date, name of job, name of inspector, Select samples of processed aggregate for testing that are
car or lot number, brand of cement, quantity represented by representative of the run of the material as it will be when
sample, part of work in which cement is used, temperature batched; that is, from bins that discharge directly into the
when sampled, authority or reason for sampling, and tests de- mixer. Use sampling methods conforming to the require-
sired. ments of ASTM D 75. In quality concrete production, aggre-
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1999 IObb2947 0 5 4 B L i i L 435
Fig. 3.2-Fine aggregate stockpile. Fig. 3.3-Where access is convenient and safe, material
may be sampled from hopper or bin outlet.
gate sampling may be the weakest link; therefore, it should Such samples are most representative when it is possible to
receive close attention. quarter them from material taken from the first, middle, and
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Expect some local variation in the aggregate source and last of the material to be tested.
select samples so that the effects of local variations are nei- Make up samples taken from surface aggregate in a bin, car,
ther over- nor under-emphasized. In judging test results, barge, or stockpile by taking portions at several separated
consideration may be given to the statistical distribution of points. Avoid an excess of unrepresentative material such as
the amount of undesirable material and the quality-control fines in the center, coarse sizes toward the edges, and surface
charts of previous samplings (Chapter 2). For example, a materials wetter or drier than average. All material, however,
single clay lump in one sample does not in itself justify re- should be properly represented in the sample. Sometimes a
jection of an entire carload of aggregate, unless the sample sample from under the surface is obtained by using a board
is obviously representative and is supported by a degrada- held in the surface of sloping material to prevent it from run-
tion trend. In judging test results, accept or reject aggregate ning down.
in accordance with the contract documents for the project. When possible, take fine aggregate samples from damp
Samples may be taken from conveyors, bins, cars, barges, material to avoid the segregation that occurs in dry sand. Se-
or stockpiles (Fig. 3.2). Methods of sampling from belts, lect samples from below the surface, preferably by means of
bins, and stockpiles are outlined in Chapter 19. Preferably, a sampling tube driven into the sand at several separated
sampling should be from conveyors or from the discharge points. When sampling for moisture content, allow for non-
opening of bins (Fig. 3.3). Stockpiles are most difficult to uniform moisture distribution. For example, a mass of wet
sample properly and should be avoided if possible. ASTM D sand will be wetter toward the bottom a few hours after water
75 does not recommend sampling stockpiles, but if it is nec- has been applied.
essary, take samples at three or four points along the length If two or more types of sand or coarse aggregate are to be
and about mid-elevation of the pile. See the Appendix of batched separately and blended in the mixer to produce a spec-
ASTM D 75 for additional guidance. Avoid segregated sur- ified grading, sample and test each type separately and com-
face material. A satisfactory method of sampling stockpiles pute the results for the blended aggregate from the proportions
is to use a front-end loader to scoop material from the stock- of each type. If necessary, adjust the proportions to obtain the
pile and then remove sample material from the front of the required grading. The computation method for combining two
scoop. Select a quantity greater than the desired sample at such aggregates into a desired grading is identical with that il-
various intervals or at various places, and then blend these lustrated in Table 3.1, even though that table illustrates the
quantities thoroughly. Obtain the sample from this total overall grading of fine and coarse aggregates.
quantity as described later. The size of sample depends on the type and number of
The most representative sample possible is that from a con- tests to be made. Samples of fine aggregate should contain
veyor belt. For fine aggregate, take scoopfuls as the belt goes not less than 25 lb, and samples of coarse aggregate of max-
by until a bucketful is obtained from which the test sample can imum size up to 1 in. should contain not less than 165 Ib. Re-
be split or quartered (ASTM C 702). For coarse aggregate, quirements for sieving of samples are discussed as follows
take samples from the belt only if it is practicable to stop it under “Tests for Grading.”
while all material on a short length of belt is removed. If ar- Some federal specifications for airport pavements require
rangements cannot be made to stop the belt, or if there are no much tighter limits on the amount of deleterious substances
belt conveyors on the job, other means must be used. The next in fine and coarse aggregates than those of ASTM C 33. Such
best method is to take the entire momentary discharge of tighter restrictions may range from O. 1% for soft particles
coarse aggregate from a chute or bingate. Take at least several and chert to 0.5% for material passing the No. 200 (75 pm)
ft3 of material and quarter the test sample from this amount. sieve. To provide meaningful results and achieve statistical

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1797 m Obb2949 0 5 4 8 1 i 2 371 =
Table 3.1-TLpical computations of fineness modulus coarse aggregates to determine proportions of each type re-
quired to produce a combination most nearly having the de-
sired grading.
Select the amount of the test sample to use for a sieve
analysis in accordance with ASTM C 136. To avoid segre-
gation, reduce the sample of fine aggregate to the desired
~~
i-inin. I - I 3 I 2
size before drying. Separate the sample into the various siz-
314 in. - 49 29
es with the specified series of sieves, preferably mounted
318 in. - II 46
on a mechanical shaker. Use a combined lateral and vertical
No.413/16in.) I 4 I 96 I 59
motion of the sieve, accompanied by a jarring action that
No. 8 (3132 in.) 15 100 66
keeps the sample moving continuously over the surface of
No. 16 (3164 in.) 31 100 15
the sieve. Do not manipulate fragments on the sieves by hand.
No. 30 (31128 in.) 62 100 85
Do not add slugs to the sieves as sieving aids. Keep sieves,
No. 50 (31256 in.) I 85 100 94
particularly the small sizes, clean and unblinded by use of a
No. 100 (3/512 in.) I 98 100 99
good quality brush.
Total I 301 1 725 1 555
The fineness modulus is an index number that is roughly
~
Fineness modulus I 3.01 I 7.25 1 5.55
proportional to the average size of particles in a given aggre-
'0.40 x 96 of sand plus 0.60x % of coarse aggregate.
gate; that is, the coarser the aggregate, the higher the fineness
control of tests (Chapter 2) for compliance with these tight modulus. It is computed by adding the cumulativepercentag-
specifications, take much larger size samples. To obtain a es coarser than each of the following U.S. standard sieves and
representative sample of aggregate from a large sample for dividing the sum by 100: 3,l-1/2,3/4, and 3/8 in.; and No. 4,
test, use either a sample splitter or the method of quartering 8, 16, 30, 50, and 100, as shown in Table 3.1. Although it
gives no idea of grading and does not distinguish between a
(ASTM C 702).
Unless the particular test calls for an exact amount of ma- single-size aggregate and a graded aggregate having the same
terial, take the nearest approximate amount resulting from average size, it does indicate whether one graded aggregateis
quartering or from the use of the sample splitter. Adjusting finer or coarser than another. It is used for specification and
the amount to obtain exactly some arbitrary quantity by add- record purposes and finds particular use as a means for con-
ing or removing material may change the average character- trolling grading and uniformity, It is used in one computation
istics of the sample and should never be done except when method of proportioning aggregates (PCA 1994). ASTM
specifically required by the test method. specifications require that the fineness modulus of a shipment
If samples are to be shipped to a laboratory for test, use a of fine aggregateshall not vary more than a certain amount (in
clean container because even a small amount of some materials some cases, 0.20) either way from the fineness modulus of an
(such as sugar or fertilizer) may cause serious contamination. acceptably representative preliminary sample.
Close the container tightly to prevent either contamination or Perform a sieve analysis only with standard sieves as deñned
loss of fines. Identify the sample clearly, inside and outside the by ASTM C 136. With the aid of a conversion chart, it is pos-
container, including the date,kind of aggregate, quantity repre- sible to convert a sieve analysis made using one series of sieves
sented by sample, location and other conditions of sampling, to an analysis using another series of sieves (perhaps having
authority or reason for test, and kind of test desired. round instead of square openings, or the reverse). However, the
conversion is only approximate, and in case of dispute, use
Principal tests on aggregates only the actual sieves required by the contract document.
Concrete inspection is concerned with three types of test Aggregates, particularly coarse aggregates, vary consider-
on aggregates: ably within stockpiles and bins; hence, any single test is of
1. Initial laboratory acceptance tests for suitability as to limited significance. Average each new test with at least two
grading, cleanness (silt and organic impurities), soundness immediately preceding tests on the same material to obtain a
and durability, abrasion resistance, deleterious materials, for- more representative analysis of its general run and use the
eign substances, and mineral composition. average to adjust the mixture proportioning or to determine
2. Secondary laboratoq tests on approved samples to deter- if grading requirements are met.
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mine physical properties used in mixture proportioning, such The number of sieve analysis to be made for acceptance of
as absorption, specific gravity, density, voids, and bulking. aggregatesdepends chiefly on the homogeneity of the supply
3. Field tests for secondary acceptance or control, such as and to some extent on the quantity being used and the ship-
grading, cleanness, deleterious materials, and moisture content. ping units. In general, on a job of moderate size, make a sieve
The significance of the various tests on aggregate is dis- analysis once or twice each day, and at any other time when
cussed in ASTM STP 169-C (1994). it appears that changes in grading have occurred.
Tests for grading (ASTM C 136) Tests for material finer than No. 200 sieve
Sieve analysis of aggregates provide the basis on which The extremely fine mineral material (clay, silt, dust, or
gradation is controlled and by which compliance with speci- loam) occurring in most aggregates requires relatively large
fied grading requirements is checked. Use sieve analysis of increases in the amounts of mixing water; it tends to work to

S T D = A C I SP-2-ENGL 1777 = Obb2747 OcLi8173 208
the surface of concrete and to cause checking due to shrink- A color comparison test for the presence and approximate
age upon drying. If the fines adhere to the larger aggregate amount of organic material is described in detail in ASTM C 40.
particles, they also tend to interfere with bond between the Use a slightly damp sample for test because an excess of surface
aggregate particles and cement-water paste. Specifications moisture weakens the testing solution, and because dried aggre-
limit the amount of such material to a small percentage. gate may lose some of the organic material in handling or by
For specification and test purposes, material finer than burning off. Immerse the sample in a 3% (by weight) solu-
the No. 200 sieve was formerly termed “silt.” The test for tion of sodium hydroxide in a clear glass bottle. After vigor-
percentage of fines in aggregate is described in Chapter 19 ous shaking, allow the sample to stand for 24 h. Note the
and in ASTM C 117. Wash the fine material through sieves color of the supernatant liquid and compare it with a standard
from a weighed sample of oven-dry aggregate. Oven-dry color solution prepared according to ASTM C 40. If the so-
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the remaining aggregate again and weigh it to find the lution is clear or lighter than the standard solution, the fine
amount of fines removed. See ASTM D 2419 for a standard aggregate is satisfactorily free from organic matter. If the so-
field test for fine mineral material in sand. lution is darker than the standard solution, the presence of or-
A simpler sedimentation test for the approximate amount of ganic impurities is indicated and it may then be necessary to
fines in sand is often used in the field as follows (USBR, make comparison strength tests of mortar containing the fine
1981). Do not dry the test sample because drying may result in aggregate with and without the organic impurities in accor-
loss of fines. Fill a clear glass jar or bottle, preferably a 32 oz dance with ASTM C 87. Coal or lignite particles in fine ag-
graduated prescription bottle, approximately half full with the gregate may indicate a dark color in the color comparison
sand. Add clear water until the contents reach a level approxi- test; however, such particles are permissible in fine aggre-
mately twice that of the inundated sand. gates, provided the amounts do not exceed the allowable lim-
Vigorously shake the container and allow the contents to its in ASTM C 33.
settle for 1 h. Measure the depth of the layer of fines on top The frequency of testing for organic matter depends on the
of the sand, and if this exceeds a permissible percentage of condition and homogeneity of the fine aggregate and on the
the depth of the sand and fines, test the sand by the more ac- requirements of statistical evaluation (Chapter 2). The color
curate method specified. Roughly 2% by volume (depth) is comparison test may be made daily, although for washed
the equivalent of 1% by weight. fine aggregate with a satisfactory record, it maybe made as
Determine the amount of clay lumps or other friable parti- infrequently as once each week. Make additional determina-
cles by the methods of ASTh4 C 142. As described in Chapter tions if the amount of organic matter is near the permissible
19, this method uses the material retained on the No. 16 sieve limit, or if the supply is changed, or if at any time the con-
of the ASTM C 117 test. For fine aggregate, dry the material, crete hardens more slowly than normal.
soak it in distilled water for 24 h, and then break the friable par-
ticles by squeezing and rolling between the thumb and forefin- Tests for moisture and absorption
ger. In the case of coarse aggregate, dry the material and Make tests for moisture content and absorption of aggre-
separate it into the four sizes from No. 4 to 1 in. Then soak gates for these reasons:
the different sizes for 24 h in distilled water and break the 1. To determine the amount of water contributed to, or ab-
friable particles as for fine aggregate. Separate the residue sorbed from, a concrete mixture by the aggregates. An in-
from each sample by wet-sieving over prescribed sieve siz- crease of 1% in moisture content of fine aggregate, for
es, and compute the amount of friable material as percentage example from 4 to 5%, if not compensated, will increase
of the sample weight. slump of concrete as much as 1 in. and decrease the compres-
In coarse aggregate, fine minerals or crusher dust in objec- sive strength of concrete as much as 300 psi.
tionable quantities is usually clearly apparent to the eye. 2. To determine the necessary adjustment in weight or vol-
ASTM C 33 limits materials passing the No. 200 sieve to 1 % ume to secure uniform quantities of equivalent saturated,
by weight. This limit is increased to 1.5%if the fine material surface-dry aggregates in the batches. If measurement is by
does not consist of clay or shale materials. Other criteria also volume, the bulking factor must be known.
apply as specified in ASTM C 33. With regard to moisture, aggregates may be in any of four
Make routine tests (perhaps once each day or so) for mate- states, as shown by Fig. 3.4:
rial finer than a No. 200 sieve when statistical analysis is de- Oven-dry, that is, completely dry and fully absorbent;
sired and at any other time when there is reason to believe, Air-dry, that is, dry at the surface but containing some
from the appearance or from the sieve analysis, that the per- interior moisture less than the amount required to satu-
missible amount of fine materials k being exceeded. rate the particles (called the “absorption capacity”), and
hence somewhat absorbent;
Tests for organic impurities in fine aggregate Saturated and surface-dry, an ideal condition in which
A small amount of some kinds of organic material in fine ag- the aggregate neither contributes water to, nor absorbs
gregate may delay or prevent hardening of concrete, and may water from, the paste; or
drastically reduce concrete strength. Organic matter in sand Moist, containing an excess of moisture on the surface
usually occurs in the form of decayed vegetable matter. Tannic of the particles.
acid from certain pine tree roots in certain locations occurs as A clear understanding of these definitions is necessary for
deposits on the particle surfaces and is not removed by washing. proper proportioning and batching of the aggregates.

26
S T D O A C I SP-2-ENGL 1779 = Obb2747 05LiB174
MANUAL OF CONCRETE INSPECTION
144 =
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TOTAL MOIST= NOH€ LMTW EQüALTO GR€ARPlHAH

AZBSORPTION ABSORPTIOH ABSORPTION
CAPACITY CAPACtTY CAWCIN
Fig. 3.4-Range of moisture content in aggregate.
Base all computations on aggregate in a saturated, sur-

face-dry condition. It is impracticable to secure aggregates
for construction in this ideal condition; but by simple arith-
metic the measurements on damp or dry aggregates may be
converted into terms of the equivalent amounts of saturated,
surface-dry aggregate. It is necessary only to know the total
moisture content and the absorption capacity of the aggre-
Fig. 3.5-Drying sand on hot plate to determine total moisture.
gate. The relationship is given by this equation:
Surface or free moisture = total moisture - absorption capacity

Determine fine aggregate absorption by using ASTM C 128
with deletion of the use of the flask if specific gravity is not
If the total moisture is less than the absorption capacity (as in measured. Bring a damp sample to the saturated and sur-
the case of air-dry aggregate), the surface moisture wili be neg- face-dry condition, weigh it, oven-dry it, and reweigh it. De-
ative, and the aggregate will absorb some of the mixing water. termine the surface-dry condition using the cone test described
Tests for the determination of moisture content and absorp- in ASTM C 128, as follows:
tion of aggregates are described in detail in Design and Con-
From time to time, lightly tamp a portion of the fine aggre-
trol of Concrete Mixtures ( K A , 1994) and in ASTM C 70, C
gate that is being dried (by evaporation or a gentle current of
127, C 128, and C 566. The significance of these tests is dis-
warm air) into a small conical mold open at top and bottom,
cussed in ASTM STP 169-C (1994). For laboratory purposes,
then lift the mold vertically. If the pile of fine aggregate re-
make the tests with a precision that will yield results accurate
tains the shape of the mold, surface moisture is present. At
to the nearest 0.1%. Base the percentages on the oven-dry
the point in the series of tests when the pile begins to slump,
weight rather than on the saturated, surface-dry weight or
the sand is saturated and surface-dry.
air-dry weight; however, the percentages of moisture and ab-
sorption generally are so small that these differences in bases Another indication of the point at which drying sand be-
make little difference in the numerical results. comes saturated and surface-dry is whenit just ceases to adhere
For job determinations of moisture content of fine aggre- to a clean glass rod or jar. Neither of the tests for the saturated
gate, speed is more important than refinement of test and re- surface-dry condition is fully satisfactory for very coarse fine
sults. Unless information on changes in moisture content is aggregate or for certain very angular fine aggregate.
available in time to make appropriate adjustments in batching, Moisture-The surface moisture in fine aggregate can be
the tests serve little purpose. Electrical and nuclear equipment determined by means of the Chapman flask (ASTM C 70).
for indicating moisture is available that immediately reflects For this test, the specific gravity of saturated, surface-dry ag-
significant changes in moisture content of fine aggregate. gregate must be known.
Absorption-For practical purposes, the total absorption ca- For either fine or coarse aggregate, determine surface
pacity of a given aggregate does not vary. In hard, dense natu- moisture directly by weighing a damp sample, air-drying it
ral aggregates, it usually amounts to 1% or less of the weight to the saturated and surface-dry condition as previously de-
of aggregate, but this amount may be exceeded with some nat- scribed in the case of absorption, and reweighing. A more
urai aggregates. For blast-fumace slag, it may be as much as rapid method described in Chapter 19 and in ASTM C 566
5%. For a given type of aggregate on small jobs, the value of consists of weighing the damp sample, drying it by means of
absorption is often assumed, but, where careful control is de- heat, and reweighing (Fig. 3.5). The loss in weight represents
sired, the absorption should be accurately determined. the total moisture from which the absorption capacity is sub-
Determine the coarse aggregate absorption using the pro- tracted to obtain the surface moisture. Aggregates that ap-
cedure in ASTM C 127 with deletion of the weighing under pear to contain no surface moisture should be tested by this
water if specific gravity is not to be determined also. To mea- method of heating because the surface "moisture" in this
sure absorption, bring a damp sample to the saturated and case is either zero or negative (indicating that the aggregate
surface-dry condition, weigh it, completely dry it by heating, will absorb mixing water). other common methods of deter-
and reweigh it. The loss in weight after heating represents the mining surface moisture involve weighing the aggregate in
absorption capacity. Obtain the surface-dry condition by air and then under water, or the use of a pycnometer. These
wiping the particles with absorbent cloth. methods are described in Concrete Manual (USBR 1981).

S T D O A C I SP-2-ENGL 1777 = Obb2749 0540375 O ô 0
The frequency of testing for moisture content depends on termining specific gravity are described in Design und
the uniformity of the supply and the requirements for statis- Control of Concrete Mixtures (PCA 1994).
tical analysis (Chapter 2). Test twice a day ordinarily, and For use with saturated, surface-dry aggregates, base the spe-
make additional tests, particularly of fine aggregates, when- cific gravity on the surface-dry condition; for materials that will
ever conditions change appreciably. To minimize the effect be batched on an oven-dry basis, base the specific gravity on the
of inaccuracies in sampling and weighing, use as large a oven-dry condition. For aggregates containing other than these
sample for moisture test as can be conveniently handled two quantities of moisture, express the aggregate weight in
within the time available. terms of either of these given conditions (plus excess water),
From experience with fine aggregate and routine moisture and use the corresponding dry or saturated, surface-dry specific
tests, and by observing the concrete slump and workability, gravity. Many engineers prefer to base recommended mixture
the inspector should soon be able to judge with reasonable proportions on saturated, surface-dry aggregates. AC1 21 1.1
accuracy any significant changes that may occur between uses the oven-dry basis for determination of the dry-rodded vol-
tests, and make appropriate adjustments in the batch. ume of coarse aggregate. Convert the dry volume to weight with
the measured, dry-rodded density, and obtain the saturated, sur-
Tests for specific gravity face-dry weight of coarse aggregate by adding the mount of
To convert a given weight of aggregate into terms of solid water absorbed in 24 h (ASTM C 127) (see Chapter 6).
volume for computing yield, or to convert solid volume to
weight for purposes of batching, it is necessary to know the Tests for voids
specific gravity of the aggregate. Specific gravity is the ratio
of the weight of a given solid volume of the material to the
weight of an equal volume of water. The specific gravity of percentage of voids = 100 ( 1 -weight, lb/ft3
most aggregates is approximately 2.65, although limestone specific gravity x 62.4
may have a specific gravity as low as 2.50 or less, and tra-
prock may have a specific gravity of 2.75 or greater. For a The percentage of voids in aggregate is usually computed
given aggregate, the value is substantially constant, and for from the specific gravity and density, as follows:
most purposes it may be taken as constant without serious Always state the condition of the aggregate regarding
error. As a routine check, make determinations of specific moisture content and compactness when reporting the
gravity about once each week to detect any change or to con- amount of voids. For dry-rodded aggregate, the method of
firm that there has been none. determining voids is described in ASTM C 29. A formerly
Perform a test to determine specific gravity of coarse ag- used method of determining voids by measuring the amount
gregate (ASTM C 127) by weighing a saturated, surface-dry of water required to fill a container of aggregate is subject to
sample in air, weighing the aggregate under water (by plac- error caused by entrapped air.
ing the sample in a wire basket that is suspended from a scale
and immersed in water), oven-drying the sample, and re- Tests for density
weighing it. The sample should weigh in pounds at least 10 The weight per unit volume of aggregates is used in com-
times the maximum size in inches; therefore, a 5 lb sample puting the amount of voids in aggregate, in computing pro-
would be the minimum required for 1/2 in. aggregate. portions of materials, and for conversion of bulk volume
quantities to weight, or vice versa.
Solid (bulk) saturated, surface-@ specific gravity = B/(B - C) The density of a given type of aggregate as used in the
work varies with the degree of compaction and with the
Solid (bulk) oven-dry specific gravity = A/(B - C ) moisture content. In fine aggregate, the “bulking” or fluffing
apart of particles by films of surface moisture may lessen the
in which density as much as 25%.
A = oven-dry weight of sample; To provide a uniformly reproducible basis of measurement
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B = saturated, surface-dry weight of sample; and of ordinary aggregates, ASTM has adopted a standard method
C = immersed weight of saturated sample. of test for density of aggregate (ASTM C 29). This test con-
sists of compacting the dry aggregate into a cylindrical con-
Perform a test (ASTM C 128) to determine the specific tainer and weighing the aggregate. In one method of
gravity of fine aggregate by weighing a water-filled calibrated compaction, fill the container in three layers, rod each layer 25
flask, weighing the same flask filled with water and a known times, then strike off the excess aggregate level with the top of
weight of saturated, surface-dry fine aggregate, drying the ag- the container. The standard sizes of container are as follows:
gregate sample with heat, and reweighing the dried sample. Container
The specific gravity of fine aggregate may also be determined Maximum size of
by weighing it in air and then in water as described for coarse
aggregate. A special device developed by the U.S. Bureau of 1 in. or less
Reclamation is convenient for tests to determine moisture, ab- 1-1/2 in.
sorption, and specific gravity. This and other methods of de- 4 in. 14.0 11.2

S T D - A C 1 SP-Z-ENGL 1999 Obb2749 05LidL7b T L 7 H
For aggregate of maximum size greater than 1-1/2 in., ASTM C 33 limits such chert to 3 to 8%, depending on ex-
compact the layers of aggregate by jigging the container in- posure conditions. Fiat or elongated particles, which are con-
stead of by rodding. Although not specifically stated in the sidered undesirable under some conditions, likewise can be
standard method, the term ‘‘dry‘’ should be interpreted as ei- sorted out of a sample and weighed to determine the percent-
ther saturated, surface-dry or oven-dry, depending on which age. Petrographic examination will also identify elements
basis of mixture computation is employed. that occur in some aggregates and that are undesirably reac-
ASTM C 29 also provides for measurement of the densi- tive with alkalies in cement. Some of these elements are opal,
ty of dry loose or damp loose aggregate. Determine such chalcedony, tridymite, and acid or intermediate volcanic
density by filling the standard container heaping full in one glasses. Lightweight materials that, along with soft and weak
layer. Then strike off the excess aggregate level with the materials, usually detract from concrete strength and quality
top of the container without downward pressure, and may be quickly separated by flotation in a heavy liquid as de-
weigh the aggregate. scribed in ASTM C 123. Deleterious substances adversely
Determine lightweight aggregate’s density only by the affecting the chemical activity (setting) of the cement are
shoveling procedure in ASTM C 29. Test the aggregate in an usually organic and can be detected by means of the colori-
oven-dry condition. Although density tests may be made with metric test.
greater accuracy, values of density of aggregates are generally
considered to be accurate only within 1 or perhaps 0.5%. WATER
Test for density of aggregate when mixture proportions are Potable water is usually satisfactory for mixing water and
made on the density basis, and whenever it is observed that is the quality criterion usually specified. Ordinarily, the pres-
the type or grading of the aggregate has changed. ence of harmful impurities such as alkalies, acids, decayed
vegetable matter, oil, sewage, or excessive amounts of silt
Bulking will be known. Submit water of doubtful quality for labora-
Except when using volumetric batching and mixing equip- tory analysis; or, if time is available, test specimens of con-
ment conforming to ASTM C 685, avoid batching of aggre- crete or mortar made with the doubtful water for comparative
gates by volume whenever possible, because of the large strength and durability with respect to control specimens
fluctuations that occur (PCA 1994). When volume batching made with water known to be satisfactory. ASTM C 94 al-
is unavoidable, contract documents should state whether the lows the use of mixer wash water in subsequentbatches if the
basis of measurement is damp loose, dry loose, or dry-rodded quantity can be measured accurately.
volume. To compute the number of ft3 of damp loose aggre-
gate corresponding to 1 ft3 of dry-rodded aggregate (a ratio ADMIXTURES
called the “bulking factor”), determine the density under The standard specification for chemical admixtures (wa-
both conditions and determine the moisture content of the ter-reducing, retarding, and accelerating) for concrete is
damp aggregate. Then: ASTM C 494. This specification considers seven types of
admixtures with various purposes as follows:
density of surface-@ Type A-Water-reducing admixtures
rodded aggregate Type B-Retarding admixtures
bulking factor = density weight weight of surface Type C-Accelerating admixtures
of damp loose - moisture in unit Type D-Water-reducing and retarding admixtures
aggregate volume of damp
loose aggregate Type E-Water-reducing and accelerating admixtures
Type F-Water-reducing, high-range admixtures
Type G-Water-reducing, high-range, and retarding admixtures
Undesirable substances and properties of
aggregates Also, ASTM C 1017 covers “Chemical Admixtures for Use
ASTM tests for undesirable substances and properties, in Producing Flowing Concrete.”
which may be required by contract documents for aggregate, The standard specification for &-entraining admixtures is
are: C 123 (Note: include coals and lignite), C 142, C 88, C 13 1, ASTM C 260. These standards provide methods of testing in the
C 535, C 295, C 227, C 289, C 586, C 666, and C 40. laboratory, but the tests are not intended to simulatejob condi-
Substances in aggregate that have a deleterious effect on tions. The inspector should verify that admixtures used on the
quality concrete are discussed in detail in ASTM STP 169-C job comply with all requirements of the contract documents and
(1994). Cherts, “chocolate bars,” and clayey limestones, are that proper storage and dispensing are provided on the job.
subject to considerable changes in volume during wetting AC1 116R defines an admixture as “a material other than
and drying or freezing and thawing. Spalling can be detected water, aggregates, hydraulic cement, and fiber reinforce-
by petrographic examination supplemented by visual inspec- ment, used as an ingredient of concrete or mortar, and added
tion, sorting, and weighing. These materials also often cause to the batch immediately before or during its mixing.” Con-
high losses in the sodium or magnesium sulfate soundness tract documents may require or permit an admixture to be
test and in the freezing and thawing tests. used in concrete for one or more of the following purposes:
Lightweightchert in coarse aggregate (specific gravity less 1. To increase workability without increasing water con-
than 2.40) contributes to “popouts” at concrete surfaces. tent or to decrease the water content at the same workability;
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S T D * A C I SP-Z-ENGL 1779 m Obb2999 O598177 953 m
INSPECTIONAND TESTING OF MATERIALS 29
2. To accelerate the rate of strength development at cessively rusted. If at any time it appears that the reinforce-
early stages; ment does not meet the contract document requirements, it is
3. To increase the strength; recommended to send samples to a laboratory for check
4. To either retard or accelerate initial setting; tests. A light film of red rust is not objectionable on ordinary
5. To retard or reduce heat evolution; reinforcement (in fact, its roughness improves the bond), but
6. To modify the rate of, or capacity for, bleeding, or both; a heavy coating consisting of flakes or scales that fly off
7. To increase durability or resistance to severe conditions when the bar is bent or is struck with a hammer should be re-
of exposure, including application of ice-removal salts; moved. Reinforcement should be clean, and oil or nonadher-
8. To control expansion caused by reaction of alkalies ent mortar that has been spilled on it should be cleaned off.
with certain aggregate constituents; Epoxy-coated reinforcement should be produced and in-
9. To decrease capillary flow of water; stalled as provided by ASTM A 775.
10. To decrease the permeability to liquids; Occasionally, high-strength reinforcement of Grade 60 or
11. To produce cellular concrete; 75 is cracked or broken, especially in cold weather. Of
12. To improve penetration and pumpability of grouts and course, cracked and broken reinforcement must be rejected.
pumpability of concrete; Inspection of cutting, bending, storing, handling, and placing
13. To reduce or prevent settlement, or to create slight ex- reinforcement is described in Chapter 8.
pansion, in concrete or mortar used for filling blockouts or
other machinery, column or girder spaces, or for filling post- CURING COMPOUNDS FOR CONCRETE
tensioning cable ducts or voids in preplaced aggregate; Membrane-forming concrete curing compounds are often
14. To increase bond of concrete to steel; specified in place of water curing or to provide final curing
15. To increase bond between old and new concrete; following a short period of water curing. Curing compounds
16.To produce colored concrete or mortar; include clear (with or without a fugitive dye) and white or
17. To produce fungicidal, germicidal, and insecticidal gray pigmented materials. ASTM C 309 provides standard
properties in concrete or mortars; specifications and references for testing methods for curing
18. To inhibit corrosion of embedded corrodible metal; and compounds.
19. To decrease the unit cost of concrete. Base acceptance of curing compounds on certification by
See AC1 212.3R and AC1 212.4R for more detailed information. reliable manufacturers or on laboratory testing, to ensure
As a part of acceptance of admixtures, either perform a compliance with contract documents. Inspection consists of
laboratory analysis or rely on the manufacturer’s statements. seeing that the material is properly labeled and is not contam-
Inspection of admixtures includes seeing that they conform inated, diluted, or altered in any way before application; that
to appropriate specifications; that they are stored without the compound is mixed thoroughly before and during appli-
contamination or deterioration; that they are accurately mea- cation; that it is applied when concrete surfaces are still damp
sured; that they are introduced into the batch as specified; and full of moisture; that formed concrete is saturated with
and that they perform as expected so far as can be deter- water before application; that the specified coverage rate is
mined from the concrete as mixed and tested. For example, attained; and that the compound film remains unbroken for
contract documents should require that calcium chloride (if the specified length of curing. See further discussion of cur-
allowed) be dissolved before being added to the batch, to ening in Chapters 10 and 12.
sure uniform distribution and uniform acceleration of hydra-
tion throughout the mixture. JOINT MATERIALS
If at all possible, make routine quality-control tests of ad- Joints create openings that usually must be filled or sealed
mixtures for specific gravity and solids (residue by drying). to prevent intrusion of dirt, water, or other unwanted sub-
stances. For many years, oil-based mastics or bituminous
STEEL REINFORCEMENT compounds and metallic materials were the only joint seal-
Steel for concrete reinforcement is usually purchased un- ants available. Fillers available were resilient materials such
der one of the ASTM specifications listed in Chapter 22. as fiber board, wood, rubber, or cork. All of these materials
(See Chapter 17 for discussion of prestressing steel.) Stan- are still used in some instances.
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dard practice with regard to purchase and handling of rein- To overcome the drawbacks of the traditional joint sealants,
forcement is given in the Manual of Standard Practice many new materials of the elastomeric type have been devel-
(CRSI 1997b). In general, purchase specifications cover the oped in recent years. The behavior of these materials is largely
method of manufacture, certain chemical requirements, tests elastic rather than plastic, and they are flexible rather than rig-
in tension and in bending, finish of surface, coating for cor- id at normal service temperatures. Elastomeric materials may
rosion protection, marking (for size, grade, and point of ori- be either field-molded or preformed. The inspector must be-
gin), and permissible variations in weight. Usually, the come familiar with the description and detailed use of such
reinforcement is inspected for acceptance at the mill, and is materials provided in AC1 504R. This reference lists the many
shipped to the job in bundles marked with tags. The inspec- types of elastomeric materials and their properties.
tor should check each shipment to see that it has been cov- Test and approve joint materials before they are shipped
ered by mill inspection, that the specified grade has been to the job, where the inspector will check shipments to see
delivered, and that the reinforcement is not damaged or ex- that the material is not damaged or contaminated, and that

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1999 Obb2949 0548378 89T
it is properly labeled, stored, prepared, and installed. If lab- struction and preparation of the joint to receive the sealant
oratory testing is required, prepare representative samples requires careful workmanship and thorough inspection.
before shipping to the laboratory. The contract documents for the work should state the type
Instructions for sampling liquid and dry components of a of sealant, the method of installation, and special features
job-mixed mastic joint filler are given in the Concrete Mun- required in construction and preparation of the joint to re-
uul (USBR 1981). Thoroughly mix the liquid component ceive it. Inspection of each joint for cleanness and dryness
before a sample is taken because it is susceptible to separa- is essential prior to placing back-up materials, primers, or
tion. Obtain a sample of dry component by using a sample sealants. Check joint widths and concrete temperatures
splitter or by “quartering.” Refer to ASTM C 702 for pro- against the design assumptions if they are stated in the con-
cedures. Ship samples in tightly sealed containers. tract documents. In the absence of specified restsictions
The successful performance of any joint sealant will de- with respect to temperature, avoid installation at above 90
pend greatly on proper installation. Each step in the con- F and below 40 F.
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S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1999 m Obb2949 0548179 72b m
HANDLING AND STORAGE OF MATERIALS 31
CHAPTER &HANDLING AND STORAGE OF MATERIALS
The quality of concrete produced depends on the quality

of the ingredients used. Contaminated, poorly graded ag-
gregates or old cements contribute to poor-quality con-
crete. Problems such as high or low yield, low strength, and
deterioration can often be traced to poor handling and stor-
age of materials. Comprehensive recommendations for
transporting and handling are found in AC1 304R.
CEMENT HANDLING AND STORAGE

Bulk storage of cement
For storage of bulk cement, weatherproof and properly Fig. 4.1-Aggregate piles must be kept clean and separate.
ventilate the bin to prevent moisture accumulation. Use a Minimize segregation.
bin with smooth interiors shaped to allow removal of all ce-
ment. Inverted truncated cones at the bottom are preferred.
Air-diffuser flow pads, installed before filling, are an ex- Cement with lumps that do not break down easily should be
cellent means of loosening cement that has settled tightly tested prior to use.
in a silo. Avoid clogged bin vents. Incorrect weights may
be indicated on the cement scale if a tanker is transferring AGGREGATE HANDLING AND STORAGE
cement and pressurizing the bin during batching. Keep the grading and moisture content of aggregates as
Equip each bin or compartment with a gate and conveyer uniform as possible and protect them from contamination.
system for batching. Isolate the conveyor system from the Recommendations for handling and measuring materials
elements. are given in AC1 304R and illustrated in Figs. 4.1,4.2,4.3,
and 4.4.
On large jobs, empty the silos periodically and inspect
them for a buildup of cement, which must be removed be-
Avoiding contaminants in vehicles
fore refilling. Make this inspection whenever a new suppli-
Vehicles used for transporting aggregate must be tight.
er's cement or a new type of cement is put into an existing
Do not use straw, hay, sacks, or large pieces of aggregate to
silo.
patch vehicles for aggregate shipment. Thoroughly clean
At all times, expose the cement as little as practical to air and wash the vehicles to rid them of all contaminants be-
because moisture in the air causes partial hydration. If ce- fore hauling aggregates.
ment becomes slightly lumpy during storage, its use may
be permitted if most lumps are sufficiently soft to be Aggregate stock piles
crushed between the thumb and fingers. If harder lumps ex- If aggregates are stored in piles on the ground, either
ist, they should be removed by screening, provided that this pave the area, lay planks, or leave a bottom layer of aggre-
is not prohibited by the contract documents. If an excessive gate, several inches deep, undisturbed. Regardless of the
number of lumps are encountered, the cement should be method used, level and roll the ground first. Do not allow a
tested. crane bucket containing other aggregates or materials to
swing over the aggregate pile. Build up piles of coarse ag-
Bulk hauling of cement gregate in layers to prevent segregation of sizes and reclaim
Cement is typically transported in bulk tanker trucks, rail in such a manner that aggregate does not run down the
cars, or barges. The equipment used to haul cement should slopes at the edge of the pile. Excessive handling will cause
be maintained leakproof and containment free. The loading segregation and degradation. Definitely separate adjacent
chutes of boots for loading the transport vehicles should be piles, either by ample space or by substantial partitions. Do
regularly inspected. The boot should extend into the truck not mix or store aggregates from different sources in the
or compartment to minimize loss of cement. same pile, because this practice may cause objectionable
variation in the concrete. Use each aggregate until it is
Bagged cement gone, and make appropriate adjustment in proportions for
Bagged cement normally is used only on relatively small the next aggregate if required. Separate batching is much
jobs. If bagged cement is used, protect it from both ground preferred over attempts to blend materials by means of
moisture and the elements. The preferred method of storage clam buckets or bulldozers. Results by the latter methods
is in an enclosed building and on pallets above the floor. If are seldom sufficiently consistent and dependable.
exterior storage is used, all coverings must be watertight. Do not allow aggregate to fall from a height so that larger
When removing bagged cement from storage, use the oldest particles will be thrown beyond the smaller particles, or that
cement first. If the cement has developed warehouse set, the the sizes will be separated by wind. If the height of drop of ag-
bags should be rolled on a hard surface to regain flowability. gregate is great, use baffles or rock ladders (Fig. 4.2) to break
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

S T D * A C I SP-2-ENGL 1991 Obb2949 0548380 Li118
PREFERABLE OBJECTIW8LE
C M E OR OTHER MEANS OF nETmDS WHICH PEWIT THE

RACING FUTERIAL I N PILE IN AGGREUTE TO ROLL THE
UNITS NOT LARGER THAN A TRUCK- SLOPE AS I T IS ADDED TO THE
Lop9 YHICH REMAIN HIERE PLACED PILE OR PEWIT HAULING
ANO W NOT RVI W U W SLOPE. EWIRIENT TO OPERATE OVER THE
SAüE LEVEL REPEATEDLY.
LIMITED ACCEPTABILITY--GENERALLY OBJECTIONABLE

PILE BUILT W I A L L I I N BULLWZER STACKING
HORIZDNTK LAYERS BY PROGRESSIVE LAYLRS ON SLOPE
BULLDOZERMRKINGFnm N M FLATTER THAN 3:l.
MTERIMS AS DROPPED FROII UNLESS IUTERIALS STRONGLY
CONVEYOR BELT. A ROCK RESIST BREAME, THESE
LADDER IIRY BE NEEDED I N METHODS ARE 1150
SENP. OBJECTIONABLE.
+
.
.-.
"$ Fig. 4.3-Variations in consistency are minimized when
coarse aggregate is jìnish-screened at the batching plant
and undersize aggregate is removed by means of horizon-
CORRECT tally operating vibrating screens.
CHIMNEY SURROUNDING FUTERIAL
FALLING FROn END OF CONVEYMI
BELT TO PREVENT YIN0 FROEI
SEPARATING FINE AND COARSE
FUTERIALS. OPENINGS PROVIOEO
Aî REQUIRED TO DISCHARGE
FUTERIALS AT VARIOUS
ELEVATIMIS ON THE PILE.
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
WEN STNKPILING LARGE-SIZED
INCORRECT AGGREGATES FRMI ELEVATED
CONVEYORS, BREAKAGE 15
FREE FALL OF I T E R I A L FRM Hioi MINIMIZED BY USE OF A ROCK
EMTI OF STACKER PEMITTING YINO LADDER.
TO SEPARATE FINE FROn CMRSE
ITERIAL.
IJNFINISIIED DR FINE AGGMWITE FINISHED AüGREGATE STORAGE

STOPAGE ( M Y ITERIALS) Fig. 4.4-Concrete mixing plant and aggregate storage.
Bins contain diferent size aggregates.
NOTE: IF EXCESSIVE FINES CANNOT BE AVOIDED I N COARSE W E G A T E FRACTIONS
BY STOCKPILIN6 WETHOOS USED, FINISH SCREENING PRIOR TO TRANSFER TO BATCH
PLM YILL BE REWIRED. will then be mo= consistent because the separation of secondary
screens will vary somewhat h m that of the primary screens.
Fig. 4.2-Correct and incorrect methods of handling and
storing aggregates.
Bin storage of aggregate
the fail and prevent excessive segregation and breakage. Seg- Provide bin bottoms shaped to facilitate a uniform dis-
regation of fine aggregate that is dry enough to be free-flowing charge. When filling the bin, drop the aggregate vertically
can be reduced by dampening. into the middle of the bin. If segregation occurs, use a baf-
fle, splitter or rock ladder. Keep the bin as full as practica-
ble at all times.
Finish screening
Finish screening of aggregate removes excessivefines that may Sand and lightweight aggregates
Allow washed sand to drain as long as necessary to reach
be present and helps provide assurance of continuously consistent
a practically uniform moisture content in accordance with
grading and thus uniform production of concrete. It is recom-
AC1 304R.
mended for at least dl larger projects. If finish screens are in- The requirements for stockpiling of lightweight aggre-
stalled in batching plants, many of the concerns with accurate gates are the same as for normalweight aggregates, except
primary Screening, handling, and stockpilingcan be eliminated.If that care must be exercised to ensure that crushing of the
s p y bars are included, the effects of contamination are mini- aggregates does not occur. Because of the possible high
mized. With finish screens,feed roughly proportionate amounts absorption of lightweight aggregate and its effect on slump
of each size of aggregate to the screens rather ihan a single size at loss, it may be necessary to soak the stockpiles before use
a time. The grading of each size of aggregate in the storage bins or to add a spray bar on the charging chutes.

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1997 Dbb2147 0598181 389 =
HANDLING AND STORAGE OF MATERIALS 33
STORAGE AND HANDLING OF POZZOLANIC ADMIXTURE STORAGE AND HANDLING

MATERIALS
Handle and store pozzolans and other cementitious ma- Liquid admixtures should be stored in watertight drums
terials in essentially the same manner as cement. Many or tanks and protected from freezing. Detailed recommen-
pozzolans require tighter storage facilities to prevent leak- dations for storage and handling of admixtures are given in
age but are not as susceptible to deterioration as is cement. AC1 212.3R.
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER 5-FUNDAMENTALS OF CONCRETE
The inspector should “know concrete,” that is, one should

know why as well as how things are done. This chapter pre-
A G G R E G A T E ( F I N E A N D COARSE)
70 X
Fium-4
I
sents some of the basic features of concrete that affect the +-PA~w&~NERT MINERAL
work of inspection. For detailed study of principles and prac-

Fig. 5.1-Volumes of components of typical concrete mix-
tice, see Manual of Standard Practice (CRSI 1997b), ASTM ture containing an air-entraining admixture.
STP 169-C (1994), Concrete ConstructionHandbook (Wad-
dell), USACE Manual No. 1110-2-2000 (1994), and AC1
ded in and separated by this paste. The paste is a mixture of
224.1R.
cement, air, and water, as shown in Fig. 5.1. The volume of
the whole mixture is equal to the solid volume of the cement,
GENERAL CLASSIFICATIONS OF CONCRETE water, and aggregate, plus the volume of the entrained or en-
CONSTRUCTION
Most concrete construction can be divided into formed trapped air, or both. The concrete may or may not contain
work, slabs on grade, and mass concrete. Within these general one or more admixtures.
divisions, subdivisions can be made, and later chapters will de- All concrete will contain some air, known as “entrapped
tail inspection requirements for these subdivisions. The funda- air,” no matter how thoroughly the concrete is consolidated
mentals of concrete, however, apply to all types of during placing. The amount of entrapped air in thoroughly
construction, and the three general divisions will suffice for consolidated, normalweight concrete is usually less than 2%
presentation of the common fundamentals. Formed work such by volume. With the mixture proportions and aggregate
as beams, columns, walls, arches, and some tunnel linings is characteristics fixed, the entrapped-air content is greater
usually reinforced; the space for placing concrete is restricted; with stiffer consistency and with smaller aggregate. The air
and, for some, a surface treatment may come after the forms entrapped in concrete normally exists as scattered voids, usu-
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
are removed. Pavement and floor slabs have a relatively large, ally having sizes comparable with the larger grains of sand.
exposed horizontal surface that must be finished and protected Such voids are characteristic of concrete, and their occur-
soon after placing. Mass concrete in dams, piers, and founda- rence is neither harmful nor avoidable.
tions has relatively low surface-to-volume ratio, but the bond In addition to entrapped air, concrete may contain voids in-
between different lifts and the rise in temperature due to heat troduced intentionally by means of an air-entraining admix-
of hydration of the cement must be considered. ture. Such admixtures cause the formation of a large number
of small spherical voids within the cement paste during mix-
CONCRETE REQUIREMENTS ing. These voids are comparable in size with the larger cement
The principal requirements of hardened concrete are that grains and the finer sizes of sands.
its constituents be evenly dispersed; that it have the required Air voids aid the paste in making the mixture workable.
strength; that it be watertight and resistant to weather, wear, The surface tension and the surface-active agent absorbed at
and other destructive agents to which it might be exposed; the void boundaries of entrained-air voids impart added
and that it not shrink excessively on cooling or drying. The “body” and cohesiveness to the paste. Entrained air, as pro-
hardened concrete may be required to have a particular archi- duced by an air-entraining admixture, is essential to obtain
tectural finish or appearance. It may be required to have high freeze-thaw resistance where the hardened concrete is highly
resistance to abrasion, high resistance to aggressive chemi- saturated and has little opportunity to dry out before being
cals, or impermeability to water or other liquids. For some exposed to freezing temperatures. Entrained air in concrete
uses, concrete must meet special requirements; it may be re- will also substantially increase the resistance to the effects of
quired to be f i e resistant, or to be light in weight, or to be es- freezing and thawing, reduce surface scaling of pavements,
pecially smooth, or to have a purposely textured surface add to the workability and cohesiveness, slightly increase re-
finish. Fundamental knowledge of the essentials of concrete sistance to sulfate attack by reducing permeability, and re-
enables the designer to fulfill the requirements so far as pos- duce segregation and bleeding. Recommended practices
sible and better enables the inspector to see that these re- regarding the use of air-entrained concrete are given
quirements are obtained. throughout this manual.
NATURE OF CONCRETE Settlement

In freshly mixed concrete, ail of the granular solids, in- In undisturbed, newly placed, and consolidated concrete,
cluding cement, are temporarily separated by thin layers of the solids will slowly settle through the fluid portion of the
water. This separation of the particles and the lubricating ef- concrete, usually leaving a layer of clear water at the surface.
fect of the water layers, together with certain inter-particle This is known as bleeding or water gain. As a result of settle-
forces, make the mixture workable. ment, the solids at the bottom of the concrete member be-
It is convenient to think of concrete in terms of its two ma- come more closely packed. During the process, the
jor components: paste (or binder) and a mineral aggregate, compacted zone gradually increases in thickness until it ex-
with the individual particles of the aggregate being embed- tends to the surface, or until settlement is stopped by the set-

FUNDAMENTALSOF CONCRETE 35
WAT€R-C€M€NT RATIO, BY WEIGHT
Fig. 5.3-Concrete of lower water-cementious materials

ratio (wlcm) is stronger and more nearly watertight. For
illustration only, to show trends; values will difer with
Fig. 5.2-Concrete cmss section displays aggregate settlement. materials and conditions of test.
ting of the cement paste. In the latter case, the upper part of continues to bleed to form a thin layer of water under the
the concrete remains less compact than the lower part; that hardened surface. When placing flatwork under conditions
is, its water and void content remains higher. Because of this of severe drying, apply either plastic sheeting or a fine spray
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
settlement and resultant bleeding, the space occupied by the from fog nozzles to prevent the surface from hardening faster
hardened concrete is slightly less than when it was freshly than the interior, and delay finishing as long as possible. This
placed. (In estimating yardage from a batch count, this same problem can also occur in cold weather when a con-
should be taken into consideration.) The amount of settle- crete slab is placed on extremely cold subgrade while the sur-
ment and resultant bleeding is influenced by friction against face is subjected to artificial heating.
the forms, by temperature, and by handling, and is influ-
enced greatly by the mixture proportions, air entrainment, Composition of paste
consistency, and the consolidation procedures. Correctly Because the paste surrounds and separates the individual
proportioned mixtures and those with low slump settle less aggregate particles, the strength of the concrete is limited by
than incorrectly proportioned or high-slump mixtures. the weakest o f
When entrained air is present, the process of settlement is The strength of the paste;
altered, and the rate and amount of settlement is usually ma- The strength of the aggregate; and
terially reduced (Fig. 5.2). The strength of the bond developed between paste and
During hot, dry weather, bleeding may aid in prevention aggregate.
of excessive surface drying and plastic shrinkage, but ordi- With the paste between, aggregate interlocking does not
narily the elimination of bleeding is desirable. Bleeding de- contribute appreciably to the compressive strength of hard-
lays proper finishing, because floating and troweling ened concrete. It does contribute to flexural strength, which is
operations should not be performed on a wet surface. Unless important in pavements. With satisfactory aggregates, perco-
the concrete is revibrated just before it sets, bleeding is likely lating water must act on or pass through the paste. Some of the
to form layers of water and fissures under the aggregate par- constituents of the hardened paste are water soluble, and the
ticles and reinforcing steel, and result in losses in strength rate of leaching of these soluble constituents is greatly dimin-
and impermeability. Although, theoretically, bleeding re- ished with denser paste. Hence, it is desirable that the paste be
duces the w/cm, which should improve concrete quality, the dense and have a low w/cm when the concrete will have pro-
foregoing considerations suggest that bleeding is not advan- longed contact with soft water or with water that contains ag-
tageous. Air entrainment will often reduce bleeding by ap- gressive chemicals such as chlorides, sulfates, or acids.
proximately half. Use of other cementitious materials or The strength and density of the paste depend primarily on
pozzolans, such as silica fume, also reduces bleeding appre- w/cm (Fig. 5.3), and on the extent to which the cement be-
ciably and has other effects on the concrete, depending on comes hydrated. Upper limits on w/cm and ample curing are
the product used. required to ensure a sufficient degree of cement hydration.
Under severe drying conditions, bleeding may continue See Chapter 6 for a discussion of cementitious materials
below the surface of flatwork, because the surface stiffens
sufficiently from drying to permit floating and troweling be- Hardening process
fore the lower concrete has hardened. Under such condi- The principal reaction product of the hardening process has
tions, the surface may later scale if the lower plastic concrete a gel configuration, formed from water and there acted con-

8 0 ,
& I
HIQH.EARLY-STRENQTH CEMENT TYPE III
-1
-
I \:
I t 1 I I
I I I AND SULFATE RESISTANCE. TYPEn

6000 At 28days -41.4
-
-
.-
5000 - 34.5 -
z 8
z lo-- -
5-4000
CI, -27.6 o- t ! I lI I
c c1,
c
e c
2
v> c
.-2 3000 -- A
- 20,7 *a2 Fig. 5.5-Temperature rise of concrete when no heat is lost,
u3 .-w for various types of cement; 376 lb cement per yd3.
v>
x
b o o 0 -- At I day
rr-- -13.8 the gain in strength is due to an increase in the degree of ce-
8 LfO
s ment hydration, drying impedes the development of strength
-- Jf‘
,
as it does the progress of hydration. In cold seasons, however,
I O00 0 - 6.9 after lengthy water curing, some drying before exposure will
8; I be advantageous because saturated concrete is damaged more
O readily by freezing.
I I 1 I
Increasing the ambient temperature increasesthe rate of hydra-
tion and modifies the physical chawkrktics of thehydration prod-
ucts. The higher the ambient tempemtm, the greater the
Fig. 5.4-One-day strength increases with increasing curing modificaton, particularly at early ages. The modifcation of the gel
temperature, but 28-day strength decreases with increasing produced by early high tempemíum will lower the ultimate
curing temperature. Reference: “Structural and Physical strength of the concrete (Fig. 5.4, adapted h m ACI 308-92,Fig. 2).
Properties of Cement Pastes, (Verbeck and Helmuth, Pro- I’
ceedings, Fifth International Symposium on the Chemistry

of Cement, K 3, 1968, p . 9). Heat of hydration
The reaction between the constituents of portland cement
and water is accompanied by liberation of heat. Part of this
stituents of the cement grains. This process of hydration of ce- heat escapes through the surface of the concrete, but some is
ment and formation of gel continues at a diminishing rate as retained and the concrete gets warmer. Excessive tempera-
long as moisture is available. If the paste is not kept moist, ce- ture rise is undesirable because it may reduce the strength
ment hydration ceases when the evaporative water escapes and it produces stresses that may cause cracks as the temper-
from the paste, showing the impoMce of adequate curing. ature drops later. This is particularly true where temperature
After adequate initial curing, the time during which hydra- differentials exist between parts of the mass and where it is
tion of cement will continue varies with the ambient temper- partially restrained. In most concrete structures, temperature
ature, and the accessibility of an external water supply. When rise is small and of little consequence. In heavy mass con-
concrete of the type commonly used is cured for 1 month un- crete where the heat escapes slowly, the temperaturerise will
der moist laboratory conditions, more than 80%of the cement be somewhat as shown in Fig. 5.5. As shown, the tempera-
will become hydrated. The percentage of hydration is infiu- ture rise depends on the type of cement. Also, it is roughly
enced by the grind of the cement with the finer cements reach- proportional to the cement content of the concrete.
ing more complete hydration. Under field conditions, To control the temperatures in mass concrete, various
however, the concrete in thin sections and surface concrete measures have been adopted, such as using a lean mixture,
may become partially dry within a few days. Thereafter, the using a low-heat type of cement, replacing some of the ce-
cement may have an opportunity for continued hydration only ment with a pozzolan (see ASTM C 618), using a water-re-
by slow migration of water from any subgrade contact or from ducing admixture to further reduce cement requirements,
moisture obtained during rainy periods or other wetting con- precooling materials, or replacing a portion of mixing water
ditions. Therefore, only under favorable moisture conditions with ice. Other measures include scheduling placements dur-
will the hydration of cement continue for many years. ing cooler periods of the day or during cooler seasons, sched-
Rates of strength development are somewhat different uling the placement so as to allow one layer to cool before
from, but related to, rates of hydration. At normal tempera- placing the next, and removing heat by means of embedded
ture, the earliest stages of hydration produce relatively little pipes through which cool water is circulated.
strength. Under standard laboratory conditions, about
one-half of the ultimate compressive strength of concrete Curing and protection
will be reached during the first week, and about three-fourths The period of positive curing provided for in the contract
during the first month, when Type I cement is used. Because documents is required to ensure attainment of potential
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

S T D - A C 1 SP-Z-ENGL 27'74 Obb27V7 05YBL85 T 2 T D
FUNDAMENTALS OF CONCRETE 37
strength and to prevent surface crack formation. This crack- side in contact with moist earth and the other in contact with
ing is caused by rapid loss of water and resultant shrinkage air generally is not in a water-saturated state, because during
while the concrete is still low in tensile strength and unable most of the time the rate of evaporation exceeds the rate of re-
to resist the shrinkage stresses. Hydration of cement in plenishment of moisture. The lower the porosity of the paste,
thin-section beams, columns, and slabs, not in contact with the greater the freeze-thaw resistance of the concrete.
moist earth or water, is reduced so as to become insignificant
at and near the surface soon after termination of curing. Protection by entrained air
If a member is sheltered from rain or other free water, hy- Because the paste in concrete normally contains freezable
dration can proceed at significant rates (in the portion of con- water, it cannot long withstand the action of freezing after it
crete that has dried) only when the relative humidity of becomes saturated. If the paste has a large number of small,
ambient air is well above 80%. On the other hand, members closely-spaced air voids produced by an air-entraining admix-
with thin sections in contact with moist earth or other free wa- ture, however, freezing does not damage the paste, even
ter, such as retaining walls and pavement slabs, will continue though the paste surrounding the voids is water saturated.
hydration at a significant rate. The principal purpose of spec- To be effective, the induced voids must be so numerous that
ified curing is to prevent rapid early removal of water by ini- the calculated spacing factor of air voids is a maximum of
tially dry subgrades or by sun and wind, so as to ensure the 0.008 in.
early attainment of specified strength and to reduce the effects
Such spacing does not normally occur naturally and must be
of shrinkage. Hydration of cement beyond that needed for
produced by use of air-entraining agents. In general, the
specified strength is highly desirable for the added margin of
amount of air-entraining admixture required for concrete sub-
quality it produces.
ject to severe exposure is that which will produce the following
Self-desiccation (removal of available water in the con-
total percentage of air (ali based on achieving the previously
crete by hydration of the cement) of very rich mixtures may
mentioned spacing of voids).
become important when curing formed concrete by means of
commercial membrane-forming curing compounds. The
compounds available only retard the water loss. They do not Coarse aneregate, maximum size. in./ Total air. %
provide perfect seals, nor do they supply water. When ap- 318 I 7-112 f 1-112
plied promptly and properly to mixtures of ordinary propor- 314 6 f 1-112
tions, however, they may retain the evaporable water 1-1/2 I 5-112 * 1-112
sufficiently long for the concrete to reach its specified 3 I 4-112 + 1-1/2
strength within an acceptable period, but little more. 6 4 f 1-112
More detailed information on curing is provided in Chap-
ter 10. That chapter also provides information on the neces- AC1 318 and AC1 301 permit a 1%-point reduction for
sary protection of concrete during cold, normal, and hot concrete over SO00 psi. Refer to Chapters 6 and 7 for discus-
weather conditions. sion of other aspects of air entrainment.
FREEZE-THAW RESISTANCE SHRINKAGE AND SWELLING

Among the natural agencies that can disintegrate exposed
Concrete shrinks when it dries and expands when it is
concrete structures, the action of freezing and thawing is the
moistened. When concrete is kept continuously damp, it
most common, particularly if the concrete is saturated at the
slowly expands for several years, but both the total amount
time of freezing. Under some circumstances, both the hard-
and the rate of expansion are normally so small that the vol-
ened cement paste and the aggregate particles are vulnerable.
ume is considered to remain constant. Usually concrete is not
kept continuously damp and hence is subject to water loss
Nature of freeze-thaw damage
and subsequent shrinkage rather than expansion. Also, some
Normal cement paste is vulnerable because, when saturated,
of the shrinkage on initial drying is irreversible; hence, under
expansion of its freezable water content produces a volume in-
ordinary conditions, the volume when initially hardened is
crease in the paste exceeding the amount of expansion that the
paste can withstand without damage. Some aggregate particles the largest that will occur during the life of the concrete.
with pore sizes large enough to allow slow entrance of water, After concrete has dried to constant water content under
but not large enough to allow rapid exit and pressure relief ordinary atmospheric conditions, a drop in humidity will
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
when freezing commences, can contain more freezable water cause it to lose water or an increase will cause it to gain water
than they can accommodate when freezing occurs. Even aggre- because hardened cement paste is hygroscopic. The paste
gate particles not otherwise affected by freezing can have water and the concrete of which it is a part will shrink or swell with
virtually sealed into the pores of the aggregate by the surround- each such change in water content.
ing dense cement paste so that freezable water in the particles On changing from a saturated to a dry state [SO% relative
must either burst the stones or paste, or both, and will cause humidity (RH) or less], an average concrete will shrink ap-
damage if freezing occurs while pores are full or nearly so. proximately 2/3 in. per 100 ft, or approximately 0.06%. This
Under most conditions, exposed concrete does not remain is approximately the amount of contraction caused by a tem-
saturated. For example, a pavement or retaining wall with one perature drop of 100 F.

S T D * A C I SP-Z-ENGL aL999 E Obb29q3 05YAL@Jb9bb
If a concrete member is restrained against shrinkage by the

subgrade, reinforcement, or structural connections with other
members, it will tend to crack as a result of drying shrinkage
or the combined effects of thermal and drying changes. Fur-
ther, when the surface of the hardened concrete in a structural
member dries more rapidly than the interior, differential
stresses are set up that may cause the formation of a network
of shallow cracks on the surface. Unequal drying of opposite
surfaces of thin slabs with little or no reinforcement, such as
pavements, may cause them to “curl,” most noticeably at edg-
es and corners. Curling is sometimes described as “warping,”
but the latter term is more properly used to express similar dis-
placements caused by subgrade movements.
Although drying shrinkage is a primary cause of cracking,
other factors such as tensile strength, stress-strain-time char-
$ 1
0 0
I acteristics, and moisture-diffusion characteristics of the con-
crete must be considered along with shrinkageto account for
377 400 sp 6pO 7PO 750 differences in cracking of different concrete structures.
Volume changes of concrete due to temperature changes
POUNDS CEMENT PER CUBIC YARD
are as important to the behavior of structures as is drying
shrinkage. The relative magnitudes are previously given (100
Fig. 5.6-Interrelation of shrinkage, cement content, water- F temperature drop causes approximately same contraction as
cementitious materials ratio (wlcm), and water content of drying from saturated to dry state). Restraint of thermal con-
concrete. For illustration only, to show trends: values will
difler with materials and drying conditions. traction may cause cracking in structural members or in slabs.
Therefore, measures must be taken to minimize thermal
cracking. In reinforced concrete construction, the reinforce-
Many different factors (such as the particular cement or ag- ment used for load resistance will generally do this. In slabs
gregate or porosity in the concretej influence the amount of with light or no reinforcement, however, joints of proper
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Shrinkage under given drying conditions, but the most impor- spacing and depth must be formed or sawed into the slabs to
tant factor is the total amount of water in the original mixture. provide stress relief at planned locations and to prevent un-
A good correlation between total water content of fresh con- controlled cracking. In members requiring no stnictural rein-
crete and drying shrinkage of hardened concrete has been forcement, light “temperature steel” is often designed simply
found (Fig. 5.6) for different mixtures made with the same to control thermal cracking by producing many small insig-
materials. Note that the effect of total water content is large. nificant cracks instead of a few large objectionable cracks.

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1‘199 m Obb29Y9 05Y0387 8 T 2 =
CONCRETE MIXTURES 39
CHAPTER 6-CONCRETE MIXTURES: PROPORTIONING AND CONTROL
It is necessary to consider a number of items in propor- I

--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
tioning concrete mixtures. Durability and strength (com-

pressive or flexural) as required in the contract documents,
will set the w/cm for given materials. Durability require-
ments will also indicate the need for air entrainment or extra-
high-strength and dense concrete. Placeability (workability
and consistency) will be dictated to a great extent by the pro-
posed concrete placing methods (buckets, buggies, pumps,
and conveyors), the placing conditions (form depth and di-
mension, reinforcement, and accessibility), and the method
of consolidation (spading, internal or external vibration).
Appearance, such as that of architectural concrete, may re-
quire consideration of color and type of the coarse aggre-
gate, type of cement, and fine-to-coarse aggregate,
particularly in the case of exposed aggregate concrete.
Adjustments of the concrete’s setting characteristics or
water requirement may require chemical admixtures for wa-
ter reduction or for retardation or acceleration of set. Other Fig. 6.I-Concrete inspector viewing mixture proportions.
cementitious materials (pozzolans such as fly ash or silica
fume, and ground, granulated blast-furnace slag) may also
be required or permitted in addition to portland cement and
blended cements.
The required properties of the concrete are governed by its
use. Such properties are often, but not always, reflected in the
contract documents for the job. A discussion of the factors to
be taken into consideration and certain general principles em-
ployed when proportioning concrete mixtures will be present-
ed in this chapter. Detailed mixture proportioning procedures
arecoveredinACI211.1,ACI211.2,andACI211.3. Propor-
tioning of concrete mixtures containing one or more admix-
tures is discussed in AC1 212.4 R. Lightweight concrete
mixture proportioning is also discussed in Chapter 16 of this
manual.
METHODS OF SPECIFYING CONCRETE

PROPORTIONS
Generally, contract documents require that the concrete Fig. 6.2-Concrete inspector inspecting the batch plant
develop a certain strength at a given age within a limiting weight scale area.
range of consistency (slump). A maximum w/cm or mini-
mum cement content is often specified as an additional pre- below the specified (design) strength. The recommended
caution to ensure the necessary durability, impermeability, consideration of occasional low strengths is discussed in de-
or workability. tail in Chapter 2 of this manual and in AC1 3 18 and AC1 301.
Because of variability in concrete, as well as variability in
Strength specification test specimens and in test results (see AC1 214), it is neces-
Often the specified strength is designated as a “minimum sary to proportion concrete for an average strength far
strength,” and literal interpretation leads to confusion and enough above the specifiedf,‘ that all but a small proportion
argument over the occasional low-strength tests that can oc- of the concrete will equal or exceedf,‘. The amount of “over-
cur even though satisfactory concrete mixture proportions design” for strength in trial mixtures should be statistically
are used. Such argument may result in unnecessary modifi- based on the previous record of concrete production. Some
cations to the mixture proportions or increased test require- contract documents require up to 1500 psi overdesign when
ments. The evaluation of the results of strength tests of the data from previous records indicate extreme variability in
concrete takes into consideration that the production of con- production or when no previous data are available. In the ab-
crete is susceptible to variations of ingredients, variations in sence of such contract document requirements, prepare the
batching, and testing. Modern codes for structural design design as discussed in Chapter 2. As a history of field
permit occasional lower individual tests as much as 500 psi strengths is accumulated using the established mixture pro-

portions, and proper control of field operations is attained, it 7. Other characteristics of the aggregate, such as particle
may be possible to adjust mixture proportions. shape and surface texture; and
The same approach is used for pavement concrete except 8. Rate of strength gain desired.
that, in this case, concrete strength may be evaluated as flex-
ural strength of standard test beams instead of compressive CONCRETE WITH POZZOLAN AND OTHER
strengîh. CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS
The use of pozzolans as additions or as replacement of a
Proportion specification certain portion of the portland cement in concrete is not a
A specification may govern the proportions of materials by new development. Pozzolans have been widely used in mas-
one of the following methods: sive structures such as dams since the late 1940s. Since that
1. A fixed or a minimum amount of cement (and admix- time, pozzolans (particularly fly ash) have also found consid-
ture, if specified) per volume of concrete; erable use in structural concrete. Pozzolans can improve
2. A fixed or a maximum w/cm; workability (Fig. 6.5), reduce heat of hydration, decrease
3. Fixed proportions of cementitious materials, fine aggre- permeability, improve sulfate resistance and reduce expan-
gate, coarse aggregate, and admixtures; and sions caused by reaction between certain aggregates and the
4. Limits on the proportion of fine-to-total aggregate, for aikalis in cement. Importantly, the use of pozzolans can re-
example, 35 to 50%. sult in greater economy of concrete, particularly if compres-
Requirements 1and 2 are often combined and are more typ- sive strength is specified at ages greater than 28 days.
ical than Requirements 3 and 4. The consistency (slump) is In the 1980s, an ultra-fine pozzolan called silica fume gained
also typically specified. For air-entrained concrete, it is usual attention as a mineral admixture, contributing to the develop-
to specify the range of total air in the concrete mixture. If the ment of a new generation of high-strength concretes, ranging
specified slump range cannot be obtained with the minimum upward h m 12,000 psi in strength. Silica fume, a byproduct
cementitious materials content and maximum w/cm specified, of the industrial manufacture of ferrosilicon and metallic sili-
several changes will remedy the situation. For example, the con, has particles approximately MOO the size of portland ce-
cementitious materials content can be increased, the aggre- ment grains. Consult AC1 234R for detailed information.
gate types can be changed (angular to rounded), or the relative The use of pozzolans generally reduces the rate of early
proportions of fine-to-coarse aggregate can be changed. The strength development so that concrete strengths at early ages
desired slump may also be achieved by using a water-reduc- may be less than those of comparable mixtures with only
ing admixture. When using Requirements 1,2, and 4 together, portland cement, but strengths at later ages will be nearly
specify values, including strength, that are consistent with re- equal or higher. Class N pozzolans may increase mixing wa-
spect to each other. Specify a range for slump. ter requirements, and thus, at least theoretically, drying
shrinkage, but no difference is evident in field structures.
METHOD OF PROPORTIONING FOR SPECIFIED Class F (fly ash) pozzolan reduces mixing water requirements
STRENGTH OR WATER-CEMENTITIOUS more often than it increases them. To properly assess the ad-
MATERIALS RATIO (w/cm)
Cement vantages and disadvantages of using pozzolans, conduct lab-
The type of cement to be used is usually stated in the con- oratory studies of proposed concretes using actual job
tract documents. For ordinary uses, employ a normal portland materials. When the aggregates are potentially reactive, alka-
cement (ASTM C 150, Type I) or a blended cement (ASTM C lis in the pozzolans as well as those in the cement should be
595); for special cases, use moderate heat (Type II), high ear- considered in evaluating the cement-pozzolan combination.
ly-strength (Type III), or sulfate-resisting (Type V) cements. The concrete color may vary depending on the color of the
When other than Type I or Type III is used, a choice of type pozzolans. Detailed information on the use of pozzolans in
will usually be dictated by considerations other than strength. concrete is given in Concrete Manual (USBR 1981), USACE
However, even under such conditions, a minimum concrete Manual NO. 1110-2-2000 (1994), and AC1 SP-132 (1992).
strength at each specified age is usually required. (See dis-
cussion on cement in Chapter 3.) Materials
Whatever the type of cement to be used, proportioning de- ASTM C 618 provides requirements for three classes of
termines the quantity of cement for a unit volume of concrete pozzolans as follows:
that will produce hardened concrete of specified strength and CZass N-Raw or calcined natural pozzolans, such as some
durability if proper curing occurs. The quantity of cement diatomaceous earths, opaline cherts, shales, tuffs, volcanic
needed depends on the following factors: ashes or pumicites, and some clays and shales.
1. Type and quality of cement; Class F-F'ly ash that is a finely divided residue resulting
2. Quantity and quality of pozzolan or other cementitious from the combustion of ground or powered anthracite or bi-
material; tuminous coal.
3. Maximum w/cm or water-cement ratio (w/c); Class C-Fly ash produced from burning lignite or sub-
4.Consistency of mixture; bituminous coal and generally having sufficient lime con-
5 . Use of admixtures, including air-entraining admixtures tent to have some cementitious properties.
singly or in combination; Requirements for ground granulated blast-furnace slag
6. Maximum size and grading of the aggregate; (GGBF) are provided in ASTM C 989. GGBF slag is classi-
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fied by that specification as either Grade 120, 100, or 80, Table 6.1-Relationships between water-cemen-
based on compressive strength results of the slag activity in- titious materials ratio (w/cm)and compressive
dex test with portland cement. strength of concrete
Requirements for silica fume are provided in ASTM C 1240. Water-cementitious materiais ratio, by weight
Compressive strength at Non-air-entrained I
28 days, psi* I concrete 1 Air-entrained concrete
Mixture proportioning and control -
Follow the recommendations of AC1 21 1.1 for trial mixture 6000 I 0.4 1 I
5000 0.48 0.40
proportioning of concrete containing pozzolans and other ce-
4000 0.57 0.48
mentitious materials using the established specific gravity of
each material in appropriate calculations. 3000 I 0.68 I 0.59
2000 I 0.82 I 0.74
Carefully identify batching and storage equipment to dif- ~ ~~~
‘Values are estimated average strengths for concrete containing not more than the
ferentiate between portland cement and fly ash, as the color percentage of air shown in Table 5.3.3. of AC1 21 I . I . For constant w k m , sirength of
concrete is reduced as air content is increased. Strength is based on 6 x 12 in. cylin-
of these may be nearly the same. ders moist-cured for 28 days. in accordance with Section 7.3 of ASTM C 31.
The dry weights of portland cement, pozzolans, and other Note: Relationship assumes maximum size of aggregate = 3/4 to 1 in.; for a given
source, strength produced for given d c m will increase (as will cement content) as
cementitious materials are generally combined to determine maximum size of aggregates decreases. See Section 3.4 and 5.3.2 of AC1 21 1.1.
the total cementitious content of a mixture, and subsequent-
ly, the w/cm. imum size of aggregate should be the largest that is econom-
Silica fume is sometimes combined with water in a slurry ically available and consistent with the dimensions of the
solution to facilitate handling and batching during mixing structural elements and placing conditions. When high-
operations. The amount of water added to the batch as part strength concrete (more than 6000 psi) is desired, best results
of a slurry solution must be determined and properly ac- may be obtained with reduced maximum aggregate sizes,
counted for in calculating the w/cm. usually 3/4 or 1/2 in., because concretes with these aggregates
Because selection of pozzolans and other cementitious normally have higher strengths at a given w/cm. Smaller ag-
materials is often based on the desire to create concrete hav- gregate, however, will require more water and thus more ce-
mentitious material.
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ing unique or enhanced properties before use, it is desirable
to test resulting mixtures for these properties. Whenever mixture proportioning studies and concrete
tests are made for evaluation of materials, use each material
Water-cementitious materials ratio (w/cm) to the best advantage. Best results from each aggregate are
If aggregate of approximately the same grading and likely to be obtained with different gradings, especially the
maximum size and from the same source is used, and other proportion of fine-to-coarse aggregate. Keep the amount of
materials remain the same, the potential compressive pea gravel or flat and elongated small coarse aggregate at a
strength of concrete is nearly constant when the w/cm is minimum to enhance finishability and pumpability. Never-
held constant. For a desired slump and strength, however, theless, whatever aggregates are selected, determine the
the necessary w/cm will vary somewhat for different aggre- most favorable combination of fine with coarse aggregate to
gates and for different gradings (particularly in regard to provide the required concrete properties. Generally, keep the
maximum size of aggregate) and may be modified substan- percentage of sand as low as practical but still provide the
tially with the use of one or more admixtures. Neverthe- needed fine sizes for good workability and minimum bleed-
less, average relationships of w/cm and strength are usually ing. Low sand content usually minimizes the water require-
sufficiently representative for proportioning a trial or start- ment of the concrete and gives the most economical
ing mixture. Estimate the necessary w/cm from a published proportions provided a gap-grading doesn’t occur due to lack
table of w/cms and corresponding strength values. of intermediate sizes. Water requirement, however, increases
Table 6.1 (adapted from AC1 21 1.1) gives approximate only by approximately 1% for each percentage point in-
strengths for different wkm, using average aggregates with crease in the sand-aggregate ratio. A strict minimization of
and without an air-entraining admixture. Strengths obtained the proportion of fine aggregate is not always advisable, par-
from these w/cm will generally be on the conservative side. If ticularly if concrete with more fine aggregate is noticeably
there is a history of usage of given materials, a review of avail- easier to place, consolidate, and finish. Low sand contents
able test information can provide useful data, particularly as to are desirable in low-slump concrete to maximize strength,
water requirement and strength level of the concrete. but higher sand contents are needed to minimize segregation
in higher-slump concretes.
Aggregate Other factors being the same, aggregates composed of an-
The nominal maximum size of aggregate usually is speci- gular particles require more paste than equal proportions of
fied, or limited by the placing conditions, dimensions of struc- smooth, rounded particles. When concrete strength is the cri-
tural member, and reinforcing steel spacing. Well-graded terion, however, the rounded aggregates are not always pref-
aggregate of large maximum size has less total volume of erable because crushed aggregates normally give higher
voids than smaller-sized aggregate. Therefore, concretes with strengths at a given w/cm. When durability requirements do
the larger-sized aggregates that are properly graded require not govern the w/cm, it is sometimes permissible, on the ba-
less mortar, and thus less water, per unit volume of concrete. sis of test data, to use a w/cm higher with crushed material
Generally, and for “average” strength requirements, the max- than would be required for rounded material. In other words,

cement content), use of air entrainment with consequent reduc-

tion in w/cm may actually increase compressive strength.
Quality of cementitious material

Concretes containing equal amounts of cement from differ-
ent sources (or perhaps the same source at different times) will
not necessarily have the same strength. If high-strength con-
crete is required, use portland cement meeting the optional
physical requirements given in Table 4 of ASTM C 150. The
same considerations apply to blended cements and other ce-
mentitious materials. Further, do not use air-entraining cement
unless it is needed for durability. As stated in Chapter 3, ce-
ment remaining in bulk storage at the mill for more than 6
months after completion of tests should be retested as indicat-
ed in ASTM C 150.
Quantity of paste
With given materials, the optimum mixture proportions use
Fig. 6.3-The larger the maximum size of graded aggre-
grate, the smaller the amount of paste required to make the the least amount of total water per unit volume of concrete to
concrete workable. w/cm = 0.58 by weight, medium consis- obtain the required slump and workability. With a fixed w/cm,
tency (3 to 5 in. slump); natural sand and gravel. Non-air- material costs are reduced by using mixtures having the least
entrained concrete; air content shown is entrapped ail: paste. The cementitious material in the paste is typicaily the
most costly ingredient of the concrete; therefore, using more
with a different aggregate, a different w/cm may sometimes paste than required adds unnecessarily to the cost of the con-
be used to achieve the same strength. For concrete designed crete. When using extremely high-priced aggregates, however,
on the basis of flexural strength for pavements, angular ag- balance the cost of paste against the aggregate cost.
gregates are usually preferable if available. Also, minimizing the paste is desirable because water in
After determining the w/cm, the next step is to find the ag- the paste is the primary cause of shrinkage as the concrete
gregate proportions that will provide a workable mixture hardens and dries. The more water (that is, the more paste),
with a minimum amount of paste. Whenever possible, the the greater the drying shrinkage. Also, cement produces heat
mixture should be based on trial mixtures using job materi- as it hydrates. Therefore, high cement contents may produce
als. All mixtures must be workable. The data to be obtained undesirable temperature rise and crack-producing tempera-
from trial batches are strength (flexural or compressive), ture differentials. The quantity of paste required in a unit vol-
slump, % air,and density. ume of concrete depends on the following factors:
1. w/cm of the paste;
When these tests cannot be made, use recommendations
2. Consistency of the fresh concrete;
based on experience, such as those of AC1 21 1.1 and 21 1.3
3. Grading of the aggregate (including chemical content,
as well as Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures ( K A
in some cases);
1994). These recommendationsdo not explicitly take into ac-
count differences in strength that may arise from differences 4. Shape and surface texture of the aggregate particles;
in aggregate or cement characteristics; however, they are suf- 5. Amount of entrained air;
ficiently conservative to provide safe results. Adjust the ini- 6. Chemical and mineral admixtures;
tial mixture proportions as necessary based on test results 7. Nominal maximum size aggregate;
and observations during production. 8. Proportion of fine aggregate to total aggregate;
9. Characteristics of the cement; and
Air entrainment 10. Amount, type,and quality of other cementitious materials.
For normal concrete of a given w/cm, without adjustment of Nominal maximum size of well-graded aggregate is the
slump increase, the entrainment of air will reduce strength ap- principal feature that determines paste requirement. A typical
proximately 5% for each percentage point of added air.With air relationship is shown in the following table and in Fig. 6.3.
entrainment, however, less mixing water will be required to
provide the same slump because the small air bubbles provide Nominal maximum size Paste fractionin unit
“lubrication” to the mixture. Therefore, if slump and cement of aggregate, in. volume of concrete Cement, lb/yd3*
content remain constant, a lower w/cm results, which will partly 318 I 0.40 I 750
compensate for the strength loss in ordinary mixtures. Usually, 314 0.30 565
the coarse aggregate proportions are the same for air-entrained 1-1/2 0.26 490
concrete as for non-air-entrained mixtures, but less f i e aggre- 3 I 0.22 I 415
gate is needed because the air increases the volume of mortar 6 I 0.21 I 395
and helps provide workability. With some lean mixtures (low ‘wkm = 0.58 by weight.
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In mass concrete, nominal maximum aggregate sizes up to 6
in. can be used advantageously but sizes larger than 6 in. in-
crease handling difficulties with insufficient compensating ad-
vantages.
Proportion of fine-to-coarse aggregate

ASTM C 33 allows fairly wide limits in the grading of any
particular coarse or fine aggregate. The principal require-
ment of overall grading is that the optimum proportion of
fine-to-coarse aggregate be established for each pair of ag-
gregates to be combined. Optimum is defined as the percent-
age that gives the required workability with the least amount
of water per unit volume of concrete at the selected w/cm. A % S A N D IN MMED AGGQEGAT€, BY WT.
typical effect of varying the percentage of fine aggregate is
shown in Fig. 6.4. Because the curves are relatively flat, and Fig. 6.4-The optimum percentage of $ne aggregates, that
a small percentage deviation from optimum will not result in which requires the least paste, is somewhat smaller for
stiffer consistencies and finer sands. The optimum percent-
significant variations, it is sometimes advisable to use 1 or age offine aggregate is also less for richer mixes and for
2% more fine aggregate than the optimum proportion to en- larger maximum sizes of aggregates. Note: These diagrams
sure adequate workability. are for illustration only, to show trends. The two diagrams
are based on diferent series of tests.
Grading of fine aggregate
For improved finishability and workability, fine aggregate Table 6.2-Maximum permissible w/cm for
needs an adequate percentage of fines. The required percent- concrete subject to severe exposures*
age depends on the quantity and composition of the paste. Structure wet
For high-cement-content concretes, coarsely graded sands continuously or
frequently exposed to Structure exposed to sea
may be satisfactory because the cement helps provide the Type of structure freezing and thawingt water or sulfates
needed fines, but with low-cement-content concretes, the Thin sections (railings,
fine particles are necessary for good workable mixtures. In curbs, sills, ledges, orna-
mental work) and sec- 0.45 0.40$
air-entrained concrete, deficiencies in sand grading affect tions with less than 1 in.
workability less than they do in non-air-entrained concrete. ~
cover over steel
Other cementitious materials also affect the paste character-
istics that contribute to the workability of fresh concrete. 'Based on AC1 201.2R.
'Concrete should also be air entrained.
sulfate-resisting cement (Type II or Type V of ASTM C 150) is used, permissible
PROPORTIONINGFOR RESISTANCE TO VARYING w/cm may be increased by 0.05.
EXPOSURE CONDITIONS and hence the average degree of saturation of the concrete
When resistance to freezing is necessary, include air en-
trainment and exclude unsound aggregates in the concrete. member. Other cementitious materials are helpful in improv-
To judge the degree of soundness, review the service record ing these characteristics and should be considered. They con-
of the aggregate if possible. For critical construction, exam- tribute to producing less permeable paste through long-time,
ination per ASTM C 295 of the proposed aggregates by a slow chemical combination with the free lime present in the
qualified petrographer is advisable because the pore struc- concrete, thus preventing leaching of the lime as well as pro-
ture characteristics of aggregate may affect the freeze-thaw viding cementing properties.
resistance of concretes. The performance of different aggre-
gates in concrete may be compared by the methods of Required air entrainment
ASTM C 666 or ASTM C 682. Air entrainment is necessary to provide resistance to the
effects of freezing of concrete (Fig. 6.5). Aggregate quality,
Quality of paste cement content, w k m , kind and amount of admixture, con-
The quality of the paste is a matter of primary consideration. sistency, consolidation (density), and curing are all impor-
This is controlled by the use of clean mixing water, appropriate tant to concrete quality and durability, but none of these is as
cementitious materials, and the w/cm. Maximum recommend- important in resisting freezing effects as proper amounts and
ed values of w/cm for different conditions of temperature and distribution of entrained air. Chapter 5 gives the desirable
exposure to sulfate environment are given in Table 6.2. For a amounts of entrained air in the section on freeze-thaw resis-
complete discussion on durability, see AC1 201.2R. tance. The greater effectiveness of voids produced by an
Where prolonged exposure to water is expected, a low-wa- air-entraining agent, relative to that of entrapped air voids, is
ter-content paste must be provided to reduce permeability, ab- due to their relative smallness and hence closer spacing in the
sorption, and the effect of leaching. Also, where the rate of paste for a given total amount of air. The function of the
transmission of moisture from the moist-earth side to the ex- air-entraining admixture is to provide a large number of
posed side of the concrete member is of concern, the density small (nearly microscopic) voids in the paste, so that the cal-
of the paste must be such as to reduce this transmission rate, culated spacing factor of air voids is less than 0.008 in. This
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig. 6.5-Examples of scaling of concrete caused byfreeze-thaw effects when there is insujìcient entrained air in the concrete.
Improperjnishing (method or timing) sometimes drives the entrained air out of the top of the su$ace of the concrete.
close spacing allows relief of the pressure developed by the Thus, if the concrete is compacted to remove most en-
moisture in the concrete as it expands during freezing. trapped air, the total volume of the concrete is the sum of the
absolute volumes of the ingredients, including the entrapped
Aggregate proportions air. If entrained air is included in the mixture, the volume of
Adjust the percentage of the fine aggregate in the mixture the total air is included in the sum of absolute volumes.
so that, with the proper amount of entrained air, the cementi- Since it is not practical to batch aggregate, cement, or min-
tious material-paste content is at a minimum for the required eral admixtureby absolute volume directly, convert a desired
consistency. The procedure now generally followed is 1) absolute volume into terms of weight for purposes of batch-
proportion the mixture as would be done without an air-ening. Conversely, convert proportions by weight into terms of
training agent; then 2) allowing for the effect of adding an absolute volume for computing yield (typically yd3 or ft3 of
air-entraining agent, reduce the proportion of fine aggregate fresh concrete). Proportioning concrete by absolute volume
and water sufficiently to produce concrete of the same coarse assumes that the volume of compacted fresh concrete is
aggregate content and consistency as it would have without equal to the sum of the absolute volume of all ingredients.
entrained air. Such a procedure minimizes the effective loss
of compressive strength of the concrete caused by the addi-
Computing absolute volume and percentage of
tion of entrained air. solids
With a mixture proportioned to include the proper amount The absolute volume of a quantity of a material can be
of entrained air, the ability of concrete to resist the effects of computed from its weight and specific gravity. [For aggre-
freezing depends mainly on the quality of the paste and the gate, the same absolute volume will be calculated whether
porosity and pore characteristics of the aggregate particles,
using bulk dry specific gravity or saturated, surface-dry
particularly the coarse aggregate particles. See Chapter 5 for (SSD) specific gravity provided that dry specific gravities
further discussion. are used with dry aggregates and that saturated, surface-dry
specific gravities are used with saturated, surface-dry aggre-
PROPORTIONS BY ABSOLUTE VOLUME gates.] The following examples use the saturated, sur-
If a container is filled exactly to its top with solid material
face-dry specific gravity. Absolute volume (SSD) is
such as gravel, sand, or cement, the volume of the container
generally based on the density of water at 60 F (62.4 ib/ft3).
represents the bulk volume of the material it contains. The
particles piled together in the container do not fit each other
exactly, so there are tiny spaces (voids) between them. Thus 3 weight, lb
absolute volume, ft =
the bulk volume is the sum of the absolute volume of all of specific gravity x 62.4
the particles plus the total volume of the spaces between par-
ticles. Absolute volume is sometimes called solid volume, Thus, 100 lb of cement having a specific gravity 3.15 (an av-
particle volume, or displacement volume. erage value) contains
The actual amount of solid material in a given bulk volume
of aggregate varies with its grading and with its degree of
consolidation. The absolute volume of solid material in a giv- loo = 0.509 ft3 of solid matenal
en weight of aggregate, cement, or mineral admixture de- 3.15 x 62.4
pends on its specific gravity. For water, absolute volume is
the same as bulk volume. If specific gravity and density in lb/ft3 of an aggregate in a
When aggregate, cement, and water are mixed to produce given condition of compaction are known, the percentagesof
a batch of fresh concrete, the cement-water-sand mortar fills solids and voids in the aggregate can be computed as fol-
the spaces between the coarse particles. lows:

S T D * A C I SP-2-ENGL l Ubh294'-i L1CIiAIS3 LITb
Ir797 I
surface dry unit weight, pcf Table 5.3.6 of ACT 2 1 1.1 gives the approximate dry-rodded
% solids =
sDecific gravitv x 62.4
v i
volume of coarse aggregate per yd3 of concrete based on
maximum aggregate size and fineness modulus of fine ag-
then gregate. For the example material, the volume ratio is 0.69
(the volume ratio = 1 - void ratio). Therefore, weight of
percentage of voids = 100 - percentage of solids coarse aggregate equals 0.69 x 96.6 x 27 = 1800 lb/yd3 of
concrete.
Therefore, a saturated and surface-dry rodded aggregate 4. Fine aggregate content is then determined by difference,
weighing 110 lb/ft3 and having SSD specific gravity of 2.65 using
contains
Material Computation ft' per yd3 of concrete
100 x 'lo = 66.5% solids Cement, absolute volume 590/(3.15 x 62.4) 3.00
2.65 x 62.4 Water 295162.4 4.73
Total air content 5% of 27 1.35
100 - 66.5 = 33.5% voids Coarse aggregate 1800/(2.67 x 62.4) 10.80
Total - 19.88 ft3
Example of proportioning by absolute volume Fine aggregate, absolute
27 - 19.88 7.12 ft3
A common method of proportioning concrete mixtures is by volume I I
absolute volume. Weight procedures described in AC1 21 1.1

are also popular. To summarize proportioning procedures, a Therefore, weight of fine aggregate equals 7.12 x 2.62 x
brief example of absolute volume calculations is shown: 62.4 (or 1164) Ib/yd" of concrete
Specification requirements: 5. Mix the materials having the calculated mixture propor-
f,' = 3000psi tions in the laboratory in a laboratory-size batch to verify that
Slump = 2 to 4 in. the estimated proportions give the proper results in terms of
Entrained air content = 4 ~ 6 % water requirement and workability. Fig. 6.6 shows a work-
Exposure conditions - maximum
- sheet that might be used for summarizing the computations
w/cm = 0.50 (Table 6.2)
and estimates made.
Material Data: CONTROL OF CONCRETE PROPORTIONS

On large projects, involving large concrete placements over
Cement: Type I, ASTM C 150, with a specific gravity of several days or months, mixtures are proportioned in central
3.15. laboratories, and the proportions are forwarded to the job as
Fine aggregate: Natural, with specific gravity (SSD) = 2.62; starting mixtures, which may be adjusted slightly as needed af-
and fineness modulus = 2.60. ter trial on the job. Mixtures for many smaller jobs are propor-
Coarse aggregate: Crushed granite, Size No. 57 per ASTM tioned by independent laboratories, with job control provided
C 33; specific gravity, saturated surface-dry (SSD) = 2.67; by the designer, contractor, or by a laboratory responsible to
density, saturated surface-dry, rodded = 96.6 lb/ft3. them. In some cases, contract documents designate the mini-
Admixture: Air-entraining admixture. mum cement content or the maximum w/cm allowable, or both,
and the types and amounts of admixtures to be used.
Trial Mixture Data: (basic procedures from ACT 21 1 . 1 ) Many contract documents for concrete specify either a
1. Estimate water requirement from past experience with definite value of the w/cm or a maximum. In most instances,
materials being used or use approximate value given in Ta- specifying or limiting the w/cm does not permit taking ad-
ble 5.3.3 of AC1 21 l. l. Water content estimate for l in. of vantage of high-quality cement, of favorable types and grad-
nominal maximum size aggregate, air-entrained concrete ings of aggregate, and of admixtures to economize.
with 2 to 4 in. slump is 295 lb/yd3 of concrete. Conservative values of strengths that may be obtained for
2 . The minimum cement content is set because a w/cm of various w/cms are shown in Table 6.1. To allow for field
0.50 by weight is specified: cement content = 295/0.50 = fluctuations and to avoid exceeding a maximum w/cm spec-
590 lb/yd3. ification, prepare trial mixture proportions at the highest per-
Note: From past experience or average w/cm-to-compres- missible slump and temperature. The resulting concrete
sive strength relationship, the maximum w/cm specified should provide a strength that exceeds f,' by the amount
must indicate that the specified compressive strength might specified in ACT 3 18 or AC1 301.
be obtained. In actuality, several trial mixtures should be
proportioned, varying the w/cm (and thus, cement content) Laboratory batch quantities
up to the maximum. The amount of water to be added to the batch is the amount
3. Aggregate quantities are determined by several meth- estimated on a saturated, surface-dry aggregate basis. The
ods. Concrete with satisfactory workability is produced value must be corrected for the free surface moisture con-
when a given volume of coarse aggregate, on a dry-rodded tained on the aggregate. Consider the water content of admix-
(or SSD rodded) basis, is used for a unit volume of concrete. ture solutions as part of the mixing water. Table 6.3 provides
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S T D = A C I SP-Z-ENGt, 2994 flbb27ii9 0548394 TI2
LABORATORY NUMBER:
Fig. 6.6-Sample concrete mixture proportioning worksheet. ,
Table 6.3-Sample computation of batch quantities for an air-entrained
*w/c = 0.50.
tspecific gravity, SSD .
Note: 1) Use of admixtures other than abentraining agent is not considered in this example; 2) the saturated, surface-dry condition is
the percentage of moishire at which the aggregate with neither draw mixing water from the paste nor supply additional mixing water
to the paste; and 3) if surface moishm of aggregates is determined by test, the lines for absorption and totai moisture are omitted.
an example of a laboratory computation of batch quantities of Field batch quantities

an air-entrained concrete mixture, with field corrections. Batch quantities are generally furnished to field jobs in
If the cement content is specified and the w/cm is known, terms of weight of each ingredient. These quantities may be in
quantities of aggregate per yd3 of concrete can be computed terms of proportions relative to a unit proportion of cement, or,
as follows: the total absolute volume of aggregate is equal to
far more often, the amount of each ingredient wiil be stated in
27 ft3 less the volume of water, less the absolute volume of
cement, less the volume of entrained and entrapped air actual weight per yd3 of concrete, assuming the aggregates are
(known or estimated). Use the desired sand-aggregate ratio in a saturated, surface-dry condition. If proportions are provid-
or coarse-aggregatecontent (as shown in the previous exam- ed in terms other than weight, they must be converted to
ple) to determine the fine- and coarse-aggregatequantities. weight quantities before computing batch weights.
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S T B - A C 1 SP-*Z-’ENGL ?i911 D Ubh27Li’i 05’tAU15 777 I
Because of conditions that vary between field and labora-

tory operation, it may be necessary for the laboratory to ad-
just proportions in the field to achieve desired workability,
strength, or cement content.
After any necessary adjustments have been made to ac-
commodate the concrete proportions to other field condi-
tions, adjust batch weights of aggregate and water to take
into account changes in aggregate moisture content from the
saturated surface-dry condition. Table 6.3 illustrates correc-
tions for surface moisture present in aggregates. Such a cor-
rection is not a “one-time’’ adjustment, as aggregate
moisture contents will change, even throughout the day.
Therefore, periodic checks of aggregate moisture contents
and subsequent batch adjustments are required.
Fig. 6.7-When concrete dries too fast or its consistency is
too stig the screeding operation cannot close the su$uce.
Field control of selected proportions
Select concrete proportions to provide necessary work-
ing the use of mineral admixtures, can require an increased
ability (as well as proper strength and durability) for the par-
dosage of the air-entraining agent to maintain a specified air
ticular application. Workability (including satisfactory
content. Chemical admixtures (such as water reducers and
finishing properties) encompasses characteristics loosely
retarders) generally entrain some amount of air; thus, if these
implied by both the terms workability and consistency.
are used in conjunction with an air-entraining agent, less
Workability, according to AC1 116R, is that property of
than normal dosage of the air-entraining agent may be re-
freshly mixed aggregates, % by concrete that determines the
quired. The required dosage of air-entraining agent to main-
ease and homogeneity with which it can be mixed, placed,
compacted, and finished. Consistency is the relative mobili- tain a specified air content increases with increasing
ty or ability of freshly mixed concrete to flow. It is usually temperature and vice versa. It will also increase with the use
measured in terms of slump-the higher the slump, the wet- of low-slump concrete (2 in. or less), high cement contents,
ter the mixture consistency that affects the ease with which and high-early-strength concretes.
the concrete will flow during placement. Air-entraining cements (Types IA, IIA, and IIIA; ASTM
Required workability is dictated by requirements of plac- C iS0) are produced with an interground air-entraining
ing. Because of unavoidable variations in materials, weather, agent. Although convenient for some purposes, the use of
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
and other conditions of the work, consistency changes even if air-entraining portland cement causes a difficult and uncer-
a fixed amount of each constituent material is strictly maintain adjustment of air content to compensate for changes in
tained (Fig. 6.7). Nevertheless, the more uniform the grading aggregate grading, amount of admixture, or temperature. If
and moisture content of the aggregates, the less adjustment re- less air content is desired, the adjustment is likely to be
quired. In practice, the job should be supplied with concrete complex, requiring less cement or a different cement or the
having as nearly a uniform consistency as possible. Make ad- mixing in of a proportion of non-air-entraining cement. Al-
justments in the amounts of water added at the mixer as nec- though adjustments to achieve increased air content can be
essary, in accordance with the procedures called for in the made by the addition of an air-entraining agent, these
contract documents. On projects requiring an inspector to air-entraining cements are quite sensitive to such an addi-
monitor batching and mixing procedures, it is his or her re- tion. Also, the air-entraining capability of such cement de-
sponsibility to ensure that necessary adjustments to batch creases with age, Consequently, control of air content with
weights are made. Make adjustments based on tests for chang- these cements under variable field conditions is difficult.
es in moisture content and, if appropriate, aggregate grading,
so that concrete having nearly uniform consistency will be Moisture content of aggregate as batched, particularly fine
obtained. The concrete should also vary as little as practical aggregate, should be monitored continuously, if possible, by
in w k m , cement content, strength, or basic proportions, in means of moisture meters. Check the moisture content on a
accordance with contract document requirements and good routine basis, several times daily, and whenever there is in-
practice. Therefore, uniform batching weights are most im- dication it has changed. Prescribed aggregate proportions, or
portan t. aggregate quantities for a certain cement content, remain
In air-entrained concrete, keep the air content as nearly uniform only when the aggregate and water batch weights
uniform as practical; otherwise, excessive variation in yield, are adjusted to take into account the amount of water in the
workability, slump, water and cement content, w/cm, aggregate. For example, the aggregate batch weight must be
strength, and durability will result. Conduct tests frequently increased above the specified surface-dry weight to compen-
to verify that the proper air content is present, Adjustment in sate for the weight of surface and free water contained in
the dosage of air-entraining admixtures added at the mixer each aggregate; at the same time, the weight of mixing water
may be required for major changes in grading of aggregates. should be decreased by the same amount. To maintain a
Increases in the amount of fines in the fine aggregate, includ- nearly constant w/cm when water content of aggregate

STDIACI SP*-Z-ENGL. ,2979 E rlbb29Y9 05q819b 805 W
changes, it is necessary to adjust the weights of the aggre- cement content = 2950 x 27A35.0 = 590 ib/yd3 of concrete
gates and also the weight of the mixing water.
The simplified method of making these computations in
COMPUTATIONS FOR YIELD the field is to base the cement content and yield per batch on
Yield is defined in ASTM C 138 as the volume of concrete the actual weight of a sample of the freshly mixed concrete
produced from a mixture of known quantities of the compo- as delivered and batch weights of material used.
nent materials. AC1 116R defines yield as the volume of For any size mixer batch, the yield in ft3 is
freshly mixed concrete produced from a known quantity of
ingredients, or the total weight of ingredients divided by the
total weight of all materials in batch, lb
density of the freshly mixed concrete. Yield is determined by
the density method. The purposes of yield computations are unit weight of concrete, lb/ft3
for computation of actual cement content, or to check
batch-count volume against observed volume in place. If the and the cement content in lb/yd3 is
quantity of total mixing water is obtained, the w/cm can be
determined for verification. 27 x weight of cement per batch x density of concrete
total weight of concrete
Computation of yield by density measurement
Yield by the density method is described in ASTM C 138. or
In this standard method, yield is based on the density of con-
crete determined by weighing a sample of the fresh concrete.
27 x weight of cement per batch
This method automatically takes into account entrapped or
entrained air and is independent of the specific gravity of the yield, ft3 per batch
ingredients. Consolidate concrete in the test container either
by rodding or by vibration, depending on the slump, as des- Note that it is not necessary to know the moisture content
ignated in ASTM C 138, unless a specific method is stated in of the aggregate, because the moist weight of the aggregates
the contract documents. The yield, in ft3 of concrete per and actual weight of added water can be used for calculating
batch, is as follows: total batch weight.
For greater accuracy, determine the density from the aver-
total weight of materials, lb, in batch age of at least three measurements, each taken from a sample
of ample size and the test made in at least a 1/2 ft3 container.
unit weight of concrete, lb/ft3
For projects using large-aggregate mass concrete, determine
density in larger containers, perhaps as large as 5 ft3. In all
The quantity of cement (or other ingredients) per yd3 of con- cases, consolidation should be representative of that per-
crete is then the batch weight of cement multiplied by 271 formed and obtained on the job, noting that it is possible to
(yield in ft3). over-vibrate concrete in a sample container. Take each sam-
Assume, for example, the weights of materials in a typical ple in the manner described in ASTM C 172 and test in ac-
batch are: cordance with ASTM C 138 or ASTM C 567 (lightweight
concrete), as appropriate.
Cement 2950 lb Whatever the method of mixing or type of mixer, or the
Saturated, surface-dry sand 5820 lb method of delivery and placement, the volume of concrete
Saturated, surface-dry coarse aggregate 9000 lb presumably placed in the structure is more than was calcu-
Water 14751b lated from the yield tests and computations and from the
Total 19,245 lb computed theoretical volume within the forms. Some in-
crease in required volume or loss in delivered volume is in-
evitable, and the amount will depend on the amount of
The density of the concrete was measured as 142.6 lb/ft3.
foundation over excavation, spreading of forms, loss of en-
Therefore:
trained air, wastage and spillage, or amounts lost in wash-
out after each truck load. Except for the washout, these are
19 245 3
yield = -= 135.0 ft of concrete losses for which a supplier of mixed concrete is not respon-
142.6 sible, because they are entirely out of the supplier?s control.
Experience can be used to estimate the extra concrete that
Using the yield calculated and batch weight of the cement, its needs to be supplied to compensate for possible losses and
quantity per yd3 can be determined. for required volume increases on any particular project.
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

BATCHING AND MIXING 49
CHAPTER 7-BATCHING AND MIXING
The aim of all batching and mixing procedures is to produce

uniform concrete containing the required proportions of materi-
als. To attain this, it is necessary to ensure the following:
1. All ingredients are maintained homogeneous prior to
and during batching.
2. The equipment provided will accurately batch the re-
quired amounts of material and the amounts can be easily
changed, when required.
3. The required proportions of materials are maintained
from batch to batch.
4. All materials are introduced into the mixer in proper
sequence.
5. All ingredients are thoroughly intermingled during mix-
ing, and all aggregate particles are completely coated with
cement paste.
6. The concrete, when discharged from the mixer, is uniform
and homogeneous within each batch and from batch to batch. Fig. 7.I-Control console of an automatic batching plant.
Batching can be done manually, semi-automatically, or au-
tomatically. As the name implies, in manual batching all op-
erations of weighing and hatching of the concrete ingredients
are done by hand, or with the use of mechanized weigh batch-
ers where the weighing and cut-off of the ingredients depends
on the operator’s observation of scales (or water meter).
Manual plants are acceptable for small jobs having low
batching rate requirements. Attempts to increase the capacity
of manual plants by rapid batching may result in weighing in-
accuracies. In a semi-automatic batching system, aggregate
bin gates for charging batchers are opened by manually oper-
ated push buttons or switches. Gates are closed automatically
when the designated weight of material has been delivered.
The system includes interlocks that prevent batcher charging
and discharging from occurring simultaneously. In an auto-
matic hatching plant, automatic batching of all materials is
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
electrically activated by a single starter switch (Fig. 7.1).

However, interlocks interrupt the batching cycle when the Fig. 7.2-Permanent batch plant.
scale has not returned to 10.3% of zero balance or when pre-
set weighing tolerances are exceeded.
Mixing can be performed in central- or site-mix plants,
truck mixers, pavement mixers, portable mixers at the plac-
ing site, or a combination of two types. Batching and mixing
are fully covered in AC1 304 R and ASTM C 94.
BATCHING OPERATIONS
Tolerances of measurement
Ready-mixed concrete and site-mixed concrete-The tol-
erances of batch weight measurements of ingredients for
ready-mixed concrete are provided by ASTM C 94, or by
contract documents. The allowable tolerance for weighing
of cement depends on the amount to be weighed and the ap-
plicable specifications. When using ASTM C 94, if the
quantity exceeds 30% of the full capacity of the scale, the
batching tolerance is 1% of the required weight ut that
weighing point. If smaller weights are to be batched, the tol-
erance is not less than the required weight nor more than 4%
in excess of the required weight. Fig. 7.3-Portable batch plant.

STDOACI SP-2-ENGL 2 9 9 7 D ObbZ”1119 05rlflL78 bAfl D
If aggregates are weighed in individual batchers, the allow- sensitive to show movement when a weight equal to O. 1% of
able batching tolerance is 12% of the required weight. In a cu- the nominal capacity of the scale is placed in the batch hop-
mulative aggregate weigh batcher the cumulative weight after per. Pointer travel should be a minimum of 5% of the net-rat-
each successive weighing must be within 1% of the cumula- ed capacity of the largest weigh beam for underweight and
tive required weight at that weighing point, provided that the 4% for overweight.
cumulative weight exceeds 30% of the scale capacity. If the Each plant should be provided with an adequate amount of
cumulative weights of aggregate are less than 30% of capacity, test weights, which is usually at least 10 standard 50 lb weights
the allowable tolerances are 10.3% of the scale capacity or meeting the requirements of the National Institute of Stan-
13% of the required cumulative weight, whichever is less. dards and Technology (Handbook No. 44) for calibrating and
As specified by ASTM C 94, the water added to the batch testing weighing equipment. Using these test weights, check
must be measured and batched to an accuracy of 1% of re- the scales up to the full amount of the batches. Balance the
quired total mixing water. The total water including surface scale first at zero load. When the scale has been checked up to
moisture, ice if used, water in admixtures, and any wash wa- the limit of the weights, remove the weights; place enough ma-
ter must be measured to an accuracy of 13%. For admixtures, terial in the weigh hopper to produce the same scale setting;
the batching tolerances are 13% of the required amount. and reapply the weights to check the scale at higher loads.
Record the scale reading for each increment of weight, and ad-
Weighing equipment just the scale to read correctly. Scale adjustment is best done
Weigh hoppers should be constructed so that materials dis- by a scale technician.
charge easily and completely by gravity with no accumula- At least twice during each shift, balance manually operated
tions of materials sticking to the hopper. scales at zero load. Check automatic batchers with zero inter-
For all semiautomatic and automatic plants, interlocks locks for proper cutoff. Inspect the scale and weigh hopper
should be provided so that: 1) the charging device can open frequently for signs of sluggishness, inaccuracy, damage,
or start only when the scale indicates zero load, and when the or sticking materials that do not discharge.
weigh hopper discharging gate is closed; and 2) the discharg- Check tests-In plants equipped with automatic feeding
ing gate can open only when the desired weight is in the and cutoff arrangementsand graphic or digital recorders, one
weigh hopper, and when the charging device is closed. In cu- check test consists of applying known loads in increments
mulative automatic batchers, interlocks are used to ensure with the aid of test weights (after first setting the scale to ze-
that the scale returns to zero before batching starts and that ro) and comparing the actual load with the corresponding
each material is within tolerance before the next can be readings of the beam or dial of the recorder. Then adjust the
weighed. The batch plant operator should never circumvent scale mechanism to comply with the actual weighing within
interlocking devices. specified tolerances that is usually the smallest division of
Weigh hoppers for aggregates should be built so that the the scale. Test the cutoff mechanism during regular batching
contained material can be inspected easily and the aggregate operations by bringing the cutoff setting on a given scale up
can be sampled. If aggregates cannot be sampled from the to the normal setting in several increments for a number of
hoppers, take a sample from the belt of the conveyer system. successive batches and comparing the dial readings at cut-
Desirable and undesirable arrangements of batching hoppers offs with the cutoff settings. In some plants, it will be neces-
are shown in Fig. 7.4. Make certain that all working parts, sary to adjust both main and “dribble” feed. Adjust the
particularly the knife edges, are in good condition, free from recorder to be within the allowable tolerance that is usually
friction, readily accessible for inspection and cleaning, and the smallest division of the scale. Adjust the cutoff mecha-
protected from falling or adhering material and other con- nism to conform to allowable weighing tolerances.
tamination. All nuts that might work loose in operation
should be protected by locking devices. Tighten the weigh Batching equipment
hopper and gates against leakage. Desirable and undesirable arrangements of batching
Provisions should be made for adjustment in the amount of equipment for large installations are shown in Fig. 7.4.
materials for a given batch and for ready removal of excess AC1 304R recommends that the batching plant be
material in any batch. The weighing mechanism and indicat- planned to conform to the size of the project. Batch
ing dials must be arranged for convenient observation by the plant bins should be of adequate size to effectively
batch plant operator and the inspector, and for indication accommodate the productive capacity of the plant.
when the correct amount of material is in the hopper. Further Compartments in bins should adequately separate the
details on weigh hoppers are provided in NRMCA Plant various concrete materials. Shape and arrangement of
Cerî$cation Checklist. aggregate bins should prevent aggregate segregation
Scales for batching concrete ingredients may be beam or and breakage (Fig. 7.5).
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
springless dial scales. Such scales should conform to applica- Make certain that the aggregate bins have adequate sep-
ble sections of the current edition of National Institute of Stan- arate compartments for fine aggregate and for each
dards and Technology Handbook No. 44. Other methods of required size of coarse aggregate. Each compartment
weighing (electric, hydraulic, and load cells), which meet the should be installed so it will discharge efficiently and
above weighing tolerances, are also acceptable. Beam scales freely, with minimum segregation, into the weigh hopper.
should be equipped with a balance indicator sufficiently Cement and pozzolan bins should have a dust seal

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL. 1979 Is übb2947 0548399 539 1
U N I F O R W I T Y OF CONCRETE IS A F F E C T E 0 BY THE ARRANGEMENI

OF BATCHER - SUPPLY B I N S ANO W E I G H B A T C H E R S
b.
C O R R E C T I N C O R R E C T C O R R E C T I N C O R R E C T
F U L L BOTTOM SLOPING 50° F L A T BOTTOM B I N S OR THOSE W I T H ANY MATERIAL DROPS VERTICALLY CHUTING MATERIAL INTO B I N
FROM HORIZONTAL I N A L L ARRANGEMENT OF SLOPES HAVING CORNERS INTO B I N DIRECTLY OVER THE ON AN ANGLE. MATERIAL
OIRECTIOWS T O OUTLET W I T H OR AREBS SUCH THAT A L L M A T E R I A L I N D I SCHARGE OPENING PERMI T T ING F A L L I N G OTHER THPN DIRECTLY
CORNERS OF B I N PROPERLY B I N S W I L L NOT FLOW R E A D I L Y THROUGH DISCHARGE O f MORE GENERALLY OVER OPENING NOT ALWAYS U N I
ROUNDED SO THAT A L L MA- OUTLET WITHOUT SHOVELING. UNIFORM M A T E R I I I L . FORPI AS 0 ISCHARGED.
T E R I A L MOVES TOWARD THE
OUTLET.
SLOPE OF Af32EGATE EIN KlTTMiIS
GRAVEL B I N S ARRANGEO CONCENTRICALLY

AROUND C E M N T B I N S .
SEPARATE
d.~ ~ ! ~ I N G S T I
AGGREGATE BIN FILLING
&
CUMULATIVE
-HEXAGONAL BBTCHER
IRCU- OR SQUARE (CEMENT
IR SHAPE WEIGHED
B I N S CAN BE SEPARATELY)
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ARRANGED I N L I N E
UELIVERY T O MIXER -SUSPENDE0

HOPPER. GO00 METHOU. BATCHER
:ONE BUT SUCH EQUIPMENT NOT
READILY AVPILABLE
i 0 MIXER T O MIXER OR TRUCK
R E F E R R E D A R R A N G E M E N T A C C E P T A B L E A R R A N G E M E N T P O O R A R R A N G E M E N T S
AUTOMATIC W E I G H I N G OF EACH INGREDIENT PGGREGATE AUTOMATICULLY WEIGHED SEPARPTELY EITHER Of PBOVE CLOSE GROUPINGS O f B I N
I N I N D I V I O U P L WEIGH BATCHERS.0ISCHARG- OR CUMULATIVELY. CEMENT WEIGHED SEPARATELY DISCHARGES UHICH CAUSE LONG SLOPES OF
ING THROUGH COLLECTING CONE DIRECTLY BATCHERS INSULATEO FROM PLANT V I B R I I T I O N . H U T E R I A L I N EINS RESULT I N SEPARATION
I N T O M I X E R . DISCHARGE OF CEMENT BATCH- dEIGHT RECORUING EQUIPMENT P L A I N L Y V I S I B L E AND I M P A I R E 0 U N I F O R M I T Y .
ER CONTROLLEO SO THAT CEMENT I S FLOWING TO OPERPTOR. PROPER SEQUENCE OF OUMPING
U H I L_ E_ AGGREGATE
. -. ~ I S B E I N G DELIVERED
~~ . ._ - - ..-- - - . . - . - AGGREGPTF
M û T Ç R I P I-í NFCFTFARY . .PWOID .. - .. - CON-
..
BATCHERS INSULATEO FROM PLANT V I B R A T I O N . STANTLY FLOWING OVER TOP OF MATERIAL I N
-'END VIEW
END VIEW-
P R E F E R R E D A R R A N G E M E N T A C C E P T A B L E A R R A N G E M E N 1
AGGREGATE P U T O M A T I C A L L Y LIEIGHEO CUMULATIVELY. AND CARRIED AGGREGATE AUTOMATICALLY WEIGHED C U M U L I T I V E L I . CEMENT WEIGHED
T O N I X E R ON CONVEYOR B E L T . CEHENT WEIGHED SEPARATELY AND SEPARATELY ANO DISCHARGE CONTROLLED SO THAT CEMENT I S FLOW-
DISCHARGE I S CONTROLLED SO THAT CEMENT I S FLOWING WHILE ING WHILE AGGREGATE I S BEING DELIVERED.
AGGREGATE I S B E I N G DELIVERED.
Fig. 7.4-Correct and incorrect methods of batching,from ACI 304R.

Fig. 7.5-A well-organized plant is a great aid to proper

control of proportions. (Plant conveys graded aggregate
batch [in center] to mixing batchel: Cement pumped from
silos [at right].)
between the bin and the weigh hopper. The dust seal
should be installed so that it does not affect the accu-
racy of weighing.
Weigh hoppers should have easy-operating clamshell or
undercut radial-type bin gates. Power-operated gates Fig. 7 . 6 M e t e r shows quantity of water delivered to the
should be used to charge and fully auto- mixez Some meters automatically shut off flow when the
desired quantity has been delivered.
matic batchers and have a suitable “dribble” control to
obtain the desired weighing accuracy.
chemical interaction that could cause partial solidifica-
Water measurement-Batch plants usually meter (Fig. 7.6)
tion of the admixtures, diminish the efficiency of either
or weigh water. in older plants, water may be measured by vol-
admixture, or adversely affect the concrete.
ume in a calibrated tank.
The tank or meter should be calibrated by measuring Liquid admixtures (and powdered admixtures dissolved
in water prior to use) should be added into the stream of
or weighing sample batches of water drawn out for
mixing water being batched into the mixture.
various settings of the device. Modem meters operate
well over a wide range of pressures, but are inaccurate Powdered admixtures (those used without being first
at very low flow rates. dissolved in water) should be weighed. Large fluctua-
Do not permit any leakage into the pipe leading to the tions may occur when measurement is by bulk volume.
mixer, either from the measuring device or from any Powdered admixtures to be used in small quantities
connections or valves. should be packaged in advance. Do not, however, use
Do not permit any arrangement of valves that allows powdered admixtures unless absolutely necessary
unmeasured water to flow into the mixer from a tank because they are difficult to batch and properly blend
that is being charged or discharged. into the mixture. Most contract documents prohibit
For proper control of mixing water, the free water from the batching of powdered admixtures by volume.
aggregate must be accounted for. Moisture meters or probes High-range water-reducing admixtures (HRWRA or su-
are often used to monitor the fine aggregates for water con- perplasticizers, Types F and G admixtures) can be charged
tent. Moisture probes should be calibrated by comparing into the batch at the batch plant or at the site immediately be-
readings obtained from the moisture meter with readings ob- fore final mixing and discharge.
tained by weighing an aggregate sample before and after dry- When added at the batch plant, the HRWRA is usually add-
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ing the aggregate in an oven or over a hot plate (ASTM C ed in the same manner as other admixtures. The inspector
566). The inspector must be sure that the sample is represen- should be especially careful to verify that the water content of
tative and must make a suitable correction for absorption. the mixture is carefully controlled prior to charging the HR-
Admixtures-Liquid admixtures may be dispensed into the WRA, as there is no way to verify that the design w k m has not
mixer either by weight or by volume. Some manufacturers of been exceeded using standard on-site tests after the HRWRA
fluid admixtures supply dispensers that inject the proper dos- has increased the slump of the concrete dramatically. Project
age into the mixing water or into the fine aggregate. In any specifications may allow a slump higher than 8 in.
case, be sure dispensing equipment conforms to ASTM C 94 When the HRWRA is added at the job site, the inspector
and provides for visual confirmation of the correct volume for should verify that the consistency of the mixture is within es-
each batch, and for a slow discharge so that there is no possi- tablished parameters prior to charging with the HRWRA.
bility for an inadvertent double dosage. See also AC1 212.4R. Some suppliers equip their mixer trucks with admixture
If a concentrated fluid admixture is used, better accuracy is tanks and others add the HRWRA manually. In either case,
secured by preparing it as a dilute solution before batching. the inspector should be careful to verify that the quantity of
If two or more admixtures are used in the concrete, add admixture being introduced meets the requirements of the
them separately to avoid intermixing until they combine approved mixture proportions and ensure that the batch is
with the batch water already in contact with the cement. thoroughly mixed in accordance with the manufacturer’s
The purpose of this precaution is to prevent possible recommendations.AC1 301 specifies a slump of 2 to 4 in. be-

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1 7 7 7 U Obb27Y7 05Li820L T T Z
fore the admixture is added and a maximum of 8 in. at the fresh concrete at the point of placing. Specifications for vol-
point of delivery after the admixture is added. Project spec- umetric batching and mixing are provided by ASTM C 685.
ifications may allow a slump higher than 8 in. Further guidance is found in AC1 304.6R. Frequently check
If a central mixer is employed and the HRWRA is intended the amount of concrete produced during some specified
to be added at the site, the transport vehicle must be qualified number of revolutions of the equipment, or by some other
as a mixer, not merely an agitator. output indicator, to monitor the production rate of such con-
Many HRWRA manufacturers express their mixing require- cretes (see Chapter 6). For this purpose, it is recommended
ments in terms of a minimum mixing duration (often 5 min). that 2- 1/2 to 3 ft3 of concrete be discharged into a 35- to 55-
The inspector should be careful to monitor the number of rev- gal. drum, which in turn can be placed on a weighing scale.
olutions of the drum to ensure that the total number of revolu- That amount of concrete will weigh 350 to 500 lb. The batch-
tions (before and after charging with the HRWRA) does not ing tolerances are the same as for weight batching.
exceed the maximum specified in ASTM C 94. If the travel Measuring materials-Cement, fine and coarse aggre-
time from the plant to the site is such that thorough mixing of gates, water, and admixtures must be measured accurately
a job site-added HRWRA cannot be accomplished without ex- and fed in a uniform flow. When volume proportioning is
ceeding this parameter, uniformity tests should be performed employed, counters, calibrated gate openings or flow meters
at the maximum anticipated mixing duration. must be available for controlling and determining the quan-
tities of ingredients discharged. Check the proportioning and
Accelerators indicating devices individually by following the equipment
Some contract documents have included the use of accel- manufacturer’s recommendations as related to each individ-
erators as a means of increasing the rate of hydration and ual concrete batching and mixing unit. Follow the manufac-
thus accelerating the strength gain of concrete. Among other turer’s recommendations in the operation of the equipment
advantages, this reduces the time that protection is needed. and in calibrating and using the various gages, revolution
Accelerators may also accelerate the setting and hardening counters, speed indicators, and other control devices.
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of concrete, thus expediting the start of finishing operations. Mixing mechanism-For continuous mixing, use an au-
In the past, calcium chloride was often used as an acceler- ger-type mixer or any other type suitable for mixing concrete
ator. Many proprietary admixtures, primarily water-reduc- to meet the required consistency and uniformity require-
ing admixtures, used as accelerators (and even ments of ASTM C 685.
normal-setting water reducers) contain calcium chloride as
the active ingredient. If calcium chloride or other admixtures MIXING OPERATIONS
containing chloride ions are used in reinforced concrete or in Essential requirements of satisfactory mixing of concrete
concrete containing steel embedments, the total chloride ion are that the materials be uniformly distributed throughout the
content of the concrete should meet the requirements of AC1 mixture and that all aggregate surfaces be well coated with
3 18. Accelerators containing little or no chlorides are avail- the cement-water paste. To accomplish this within a reason-
able to minimize the introduction of additional chloride ions able time, the mixer must be clean and in good condition,
into the concrete. Always thoroughly dissolve accelerators properly designed, particularly as to type and number of
in water before introduction into the mixture. Never use dry blades, not overloaded, charged correctly, and operated at
calcium chloride in a mixture. the optimum speed as recommended by the manufacturer.
Ali calcium chloride used should meet the requirements of The valves controlling the mixing water should not allow
ASTM D 98. Do not use calcium chloride and other chloride- leakage into the mixer.
containing accelerators indiscriminately, and only if absolute-
ly necessary. Severe side effects, such as corrosion of metals, Centrai or site mixing
have often been found. Calcium chloride also increases sus- Before concrete mixing is begun, examine the mixer to see
ceptibility to sulfate attack and increases alkali-aggregate re- that the mixing blades and interior of the drum are clean and
action and mottling. Do not use calcium chloride as an the blades are not worn more than lo%, and that the batch
admixture in concrete that will be exposed to severe or very timer and counter (if specified) are working properly. Make
severe sulfate-containing solutions as stated in AC1 3 18. Do sure the mixer drum is watertight.
not use calcium chloride in prestressed concrete. Do not use A reference plate should state the maximum capacity of
patching materials containing chloride in members containing the mixer and the mixing speed (Fig. 7.7).
prestressing strand or rods. Charging the mixer-It is best to feed the water into the
The use of accelerators in warm weather often results in a rap- mixer over the full period of charging the mixer with dry ma-
id set of the concrete, making finishing difficult or impossible. terial, beginning just before and ending just after this loading
operation. Feed all of the dry materials at the same time, so
Volumetric batching and mixing that they will flow in as “ribbons,” and as rapidly as practi-
Modern volumetric batching equipment combined with cal. Do not allow any loss of materials, either as spillage or
continuous mixing equipment is now available. In addition dust, during charging.
to central and site plants, volumetric batching and mixing When aggregates are batched by weight, adjust the batch
can also be provided by trucks that carry aggregate, cement, weights from time to time during batching to compensate for
and other ingredients in separate compartments and mix variations in moisture content of aggregate. Contract docu-

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1999 m Obh27q7 O548202 939 m
which requires a minimum mixing time of 1 min for batches

of 1 yd3 or less, and an additional 15 s for each additional yd3
or fraction thereof.
Determine shorter mixing times, if desired, from results
of performance tests as described in ASTM C 94, pro-
vided that the mixing time is sufficient to produce uni-
form concrete.
Require longer mixing time as necessary to bring results
of performance tests up to standard. Longer mixing time
will usually be required if poor or dirty equipment is
used, although use of such equipment should not be per-
mitted. In modem large central mixers, failure to obtain
well mixed concrete in 45 to 75 s is most often the result
of an inefficient charging procedure or sequence. Worn
blades will also affect efficiency.
Establish a maximum permissible time of actual mixing
(AC1 304R); and if the batch is to be delayed longer,
operate the mixer only at intervals. Occasionally, when
there are delays beyond the mixer, it is desirable to con-
tinue the mixing of a batch for several minutes.
Although additional mixing for a few minutes is con-
sidered beneficial because of the added uniformity and
strength, excessive mixing is harmful because there is
some grinding action during mixing, particularly with
soft aggregates. Although some contract documents
limit the time after mixing that the concrete can be
used, there is no reason for such a time limit if the con-
crete can be properly placed and fully consolidated
without the addition of water.
The effect of mixing time on air content requires particular
Fig. 7.7-Plant mixer rating plate shows m i m u m capacity attention. Generally, the total % air content is increased by
of mixed concrete and rotating speed of drum. about one percentage point when the mixing time is in-
creased from 1 to 5 min. It then remains constant for the next
ments or supplementary instructions should make clear what 5 min of mixing; but, after 10 min, air is gradually lost during
aggregate conditions the mixture proportions are based on, and further mixing. Chapter 5 discusses the differences between
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whether ‘‘dry‘’ aggregate means oven-dry, air-dry, or saturated entrained, entrapped, and total air. It is the entrained air that
surface-dry. Use the selected basis throughout the batch com- should be retained in concrete.
putations. Provide controls to ensure that the batch cannot be
At the beginning of a run, the amount of moisture in the ag- discharged until the required mixing time has elapsed.
gregates may differ from the average amount, because the At least three-quarters of the required mixing time
aggregate is usually drawn from the bottom of the bin, where should take place after the last of the mixing water has
water in the aggregates may collect. Similarly, during cold been added.
weather, aggregates stored in heated bins for extended peri- Use a timing device frequently to check the time of mix-
ods (for example, overnight) are sometimes dried to less than ing, because the mixer is usually the bottleneck of the job.
a saturated, surface-dry condition. Make common-sense ad- Be sure to understand the effective time in the cycle at
justments to offset these variations until conditions have be- which mixing and discharging are considered to begin
come stabilized; or better, draw down and refill the bins with because the difference of a few seconds per batch may
aggregate of known mQisture content. affect the cost considerably. By proper timing of charg-
Water temperuture-Hot water may be any temperature ing and discharging, high rates of output can be attained
that does not result in setting or cement-ball problems and without slighting mixing time.
that consistently produces concrete of the required tempera- The mixer should be operated at the speed recom-
ture. Other causes of cement-balls are the introduction of ce- mended by the mixer manufacturer.
ment ahead of coarse aggregate, worn mixer blades, hot The entire batch should be discharged before the mixer is
aggregate or cement, and delayed mixing in truck mixers. recharged (except for multiple drum paving mixers).
Time of mixing-The necessary time of mixing varies with Segregation in mixer-If the last portion of a batch being
the size and type of mixer. In the absence of contract docu- discharged from the mixer contains an excess of coarse ag-
ment requirements for mixing time, common requirements gregate, correct the condition by adjusting the mixer, the
for stationary mixers are those contained in ASTM C 94, charging sequence, or the size of the batch. All segregated

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1 9 9 9 E O b b 2 9 4 9 11548203 ô75 =
Table 7.1-Permissible differences between tests Methods of ordering ready-mixed concrete-ASTM C 94

Maximum permissible provides for three optional methods of ordering. The purchaser
Test difference specifies the ordering method that will be used, as well as the
Density of concrete (calculatedair free) 1 Ih/ft3 maximum size of aggregate, type of aggregate (normal or
Air content (volume percent of concrete) 1 percentage point lightweight), slump, and air content. Each ordering method
4 in. or less 1 in. provides different responsibilities for determining proportions
Slump
4 to 6 in. 1.5 in. that will provide the required concrete quality.
Coarse aggregate content (weight %)* 6.0% Option A applies when the purchaser requires the manufac-
Density of air-free mortar 1.6% turer to assume full responsibility for the selection of con-
Compressive strength, 7 days 7.5% crete proportions. In addition to the requirements of slump,
'Ratio of weight of aggregate retained on and washed over a No. 4 sieve to the total aggregate type and size, and air content, the purchaser
weight of the concrete sample.
specifies the required compressive strength at the point of
discharge. If requested, the manufacturer furnishes the pur-
batches should be wasted. Batch uniformity may be deter- chaser with the planned mixture proportions, and with evi-
mined by washing out samples taken from different portions dence that the materials and proportions will provide the
of the batch as discharged; the amount of coarse aggregate required strength (trial mixture results or servicerecords).
in one part should not differ greatly from that in another. Option B of ASTM C 94 applies when the purchaser
Recommended limits of uniformity are given in ASTM C assumes responsibility for the proportioning of the con-
94. That standard lists six tests of two concrete samples, rep- crete. In addition to the foregoing requirements, the
resenting the first and last portions of the batch being tested. purchaser specifies the cement content, maximum
The tests and the permissible maximum differences between allowable water content, including aggregate surface
the samples are shown in Table 7.1. moisture, and the types, names, and ranges of dosages
Test results conforming to the limits of five of the six tests of admixtures, if used.
in the ASTM C 94 example indicate uniform concrete. Ten- Option C applies when the purchaser specifies a mini-
tative approval of the mixer may be granted pending results mum cement content but requires the manufacturer to
of the 7-day compressive strength tests. assume responsibility for the selection of proportions
for concrete. In addition to the requirements of slump,
Mixer uniformity tests vary. The U.S. Bureau of Reclama-
aggregate type and size, and air content, the purchaser
tion (USBR 1981) requires two samples from the first and
also specifies the required compressive strength of sam-
last portions of the batch, similar to the requirements of
ples taken at point of discharge, the minimum cement
ASTM C 94. The samples are tested for variance in quantity
content and types and names, and types and ranges of
of coarse aggregate and density of air-free mortar. The
dosages of admixtures, if used. If requested, the manu-
Corps of Engineers requires three samples taken from the
facturer furnishes the purchaser with planned mixture
first, middle, and last portions of the batch. The samples are
proportions, and with evidence that the materials and
tested for density of air-free mortar, quantity of coarse ag-
proportions will provide the required strength. What-
gregate, water content, and cement content.
ever strengths are required, the quantity of cement used
Transporting equipment-Central-mixed concrete may be must not be less than the minimum specified. Under
transported in truck mixers or agitators or in suitable nonagitat- this option, it has become increasingly common for
ing containers approved by the purchaser. Nonagitating equip- specifications to stipulate a maximum w/cm in place of
ment should have smooth, watertight, metal bodies with gates a minimum w/cm.
for control of the discharge. Covers should be provided to pro- Under Options A, B, and C , each set of mixture propor-
tect the concrete from the weather. Uniformity requirements for tions should be given a distinctive label to facilitate identifi-
nonagitated concrete are the same as discusked previously. The cation of each mixture delivered to the project. This
requirements for truck mixers and agitators are discussed in the designation should be clearly shown on the delivery ticket.
following section on ready-mixed concrete.
'
ASTM C 94 specifies 10 mandatory and eight additional (if
so required by the contract documents) items of information
Ready-mixed concrete to be provided on the delivery ticket.
I
AC1 1 16R defines ready-mixed concrete as central-mixed, All automated plants (and many semi-automated plants)
truck-mixed, or shrink-mixed concrete manufactured for de- are equipped with recorders. A recorder monitors the auto-
livery to a purchaser in a plastic and unhardened state. mated batching process and produces a complete record of
ASTM C 94 is the standard specification that applies to the quantity of all ingredients comprising the batch (other
ready-mixed concrete. The previous discussion in this chap- than those added separate from the automated or semi-auto-
ter regarding central and site mixing applies to ready-mix mated process such as flaked ice); identifies the bin, silo, ad-
operations that use a central mixing plant. This section will mixture dispenser, and water source employed; quantifies the
be devoted to concrete that is truck-mixed or shrink-mixed, aggregate moisture measured in the bin via a direct reading or
and delivered to the job in truck mixers or agitators. The input based on laboratory measurement; and registers the time
mixer uniformity tests discussed previously also apply to of day when batching was initiated and completed. A recorder
truck mixers. clearly distinguishes when the batch computer was overridden
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S T D = A C I SP-Z-ENGL 1799 Obb29Y9 05i1820Y 701 H
Examine mixers and agitators frequently to detect changes in

condition due to accumulations of hardened concrete or to de-
tect worn blades, and to ensure that there is no leakage of water
from the water tank into the truck mixer. Regardless of the re-
sults of all uniformity tests and the frequency that these tests are
performed, the uniformity of the mixture is a direct function of
the condition of the mixing equipment. Without proper mainte-
nance, aii mixers will produce nonuniform concrete. The rate
that mixer uniformity degrades is surprisingly rapid, it can
change within a few loads if proper care is not taken.
Communication-Establish positive communication be-
tween the discharge point of ready-mixed concrete and the
central mixing or batching plant. This will allow faster
changes in proportions that may be required to obtain proper
workability or consistency.
INSPECTION
Plant inspection
At central- or site-mixing plants, verify that the specified
type and amount of cement is used, make necessary accep-
tance tests of materiais, make necessary changes in propor-
tions to adjust for moisture, observe batching and central
Fig. 7.8-Truck mixer must not mix and transport a batch
larger than the capacio shown on its rating plate. If it oper- mixing, and check the accuracy of batching devices. Make
ates as an agitator only, it can transport a larger amount. tests of density, air content, or slump, if required at the plant
site. Likewise, if required, fabricate strength specimens and
and the quantities were manuaiiy charged. The recorder main- see that they are properly stored and delivered to the testing
tains an electronic copy of aii batch ingredients that can be laboratory at the proper time.
downloaded to a disk for archive purposes. Additionally, the Control of water content-This is an important means of
recorder can usually be electronically coupled to a printer so assuring quality concrete.
that a “hard copy” of the batch ingredients can be made imme-
Continually watch to ensure that proper charging of
diately available. The inspector should arrange to have a hard
water takes place as discussed previously, and that
copy of the recorder printout accompany each delivery so that
proper adjustments are made for the moisture content of
an immediate verification of ingredients, tolerance, design w/
the aggregates.
em, and batch times can be made. The correlation between the
recording and the mixture proportions should be checked. Check moisture meters (for measuring moisture in the
aggregates) for proper calibration and correct use, if the
Requirementsfor t m k mixers and agitators-ASTM C 94
plant has these meters installed.
requires that each truck mixer and agitator have an attached
metal plate (Fig. 7.8), giving information such as: the gross Check consistency meters and torque meters for correct
volume of the dnun,the capacity of mixed concrete, and the calibration and use them with judgment. In other words,
minimum and maximum rotating speeds of the drum, blades, if the plant has moisture meters installed, check them
or paddles. When transit- or shrink-mixed, the volume of regularly for proper calibration and compare their read-
mixed concrete should not exceed 63% of the total volume of ings with other physical indicators of moisture content.
the drum or the container. If the concrete is central-mixed, the Consistency varies when water-line pressure fluctuates:
volume of concrete in the truck mixer or agitator should not when pressure is low, the measuring tank does not fill
exceed 80% of the total volume. Each truck mixer or agitator completely before discharging. This variation can be
should be equipped with counters or other means by which the prevented with the use of positive interlocks and other
number of revolutions before discharge can be verified. methods, as discussed previously.
All truck mixers should be capable of combining the ingre- The inspector should randomly verify that, after cleaning
dients into a thoroughly mixed and uniform mass within the and prior to batching, the mixer is empty. A considerable
specified time or number of revolutions. Agitators should be quantity of cleaning water often enters the following batch if
capable of maintaining the mixed concrete in a uniform mass not properly drained.
and of discharging the concrete with a satisfactory degree of Arrange with the producer to have the truck-mounted wa-
uniformity. Slump tests from samples taken after discharge of ter tanks filled prior to each delivery. Although ASTM C 94
approximately 15 and 85% of the load may be taken to check requires that the tank level be recorded prior to leaving the
uniformity. If these differ more than that required in the uni- plant, the possibility of additional water being introduced to
formity test discussed previously, perform the full uniformity the load during transit is minimized if the tanks are always
test and correct the condition, or use a longer mixing time, a filled prior to dispatch, as the water level in the tank can be
smaller load, or a more efficient charging sequence. easily verified upon delivery. Note that during freezing
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S T D O A C I SP-2-ENGL 1999 IObb2947 0548205 b48 =
weather, it is likely that the water lines must be discharging ticipate changes in air content that will be caused by
continuously to avoid freeze-up. changing conditions. The amount of air entrained by a given
Water will enter the batch as the trucks are cleaned after dosage may vary as a result of a change in strength of the
the load is batched and before the truck leaves the batching agent, brand or type of cement, pozzolan or other admixture,
yard. To minimize concrete spillage on public streets, most temperature of the mixture, slump, or length of mixing. A
suppliers instruct their drivers to wash the hoppers and fins given dosage will produce less air when: temperature of the
of the truck. Some suppliers erect wash racks specifically for mixture rises; mixing is excessively prolonged in truck mix-
this purpose, whereas others use the water stored in the truck ers; slump is lower; and there is an increase in amount of
tank. Some water will always enter the batch when the truck fineness of cement or pozzolan.
is cleaned. The amount can be reduced considerably when Perform routine tests once or twice a shift to verify that
the operator exercises care. The inspector should monitor correct amounts of air are being obtained, or more often if
this activity and insist that the amount of water entering the there is reason to suspect a change. When frequent and quick
batch be minimized. Any water entering the batch must be indications of the approximate air content are desired, a
estimated and accounted for in the batch. small pocket-type air indicator may be used, but it should not
Control ofair contenf-Correct air content is best obtained be used as a basis for accepting or rejecting batches. In case
with the use of a carefully batched air-entraining admixture. of doubt, test the concrete by one of the approved methods.
The use of air-entraining cements often leads to lower and er- Loss of workability may be caused by a sharp reduction in air
ratic air contents, and it is most difficult to increase the air content; excessive stickiness and smoothness may be due to
content by adding an air-entraining agent because air-entrain- too much entrained air. Air content of concrete may be deter-
ing cement is quite sensitive to very small doses. mined by one of three methods. These methods and their in-
When air entrainment is required, maximum and mini- dividual advantages are discussed in Chapter 19. Several
mum percentages are usually specified for concrete contain- meters are available for direct measurement of air content of
ing each appropriate size of aggregate. Appropriate amounts a representative sample of the concrete in a properly filled
are discussed in Chapter 5 , and specific recommendations container. Volume and pressure meter methods are described
may be found in AC1 21 1.1, AC1 21 1.2, and AC1 301. The in Chapter 19 and in ASTM C 173 and C 23 1.
contract documents may require certain limits. Usually the The significant amount of air is the entrained air that is in
amount of air required is less for aggregate of larger maxi- concrete in place, after the concrete has been consolidated.
mum size, because the paste content is less. (See Chapter 5 Losses of air that occur during handling and transportation
for the difference between entrapped, entrained, and total and during vibration of concrete after placing may not be re-
air.) Less air is needed (2 or 3% less) where only improved flected by air-content tests of samples taken at the mixer, ex-
workability and cohesion of the mixture are desired rather cept for the degree to which consolidation of the test sample
than freeze-thaw resistance. In some applications, the con- in the air-meter container represents consolidation in the
tract documents may permit entrained air but not require it. forms. Fortunately, the first air lost as a result of these ma-
In other applications, the contract documents may not allow nipulations consists of the larger bubbles of entrapped air
the use of entrained air, usually when maximum density or that do not contribute to durability. Such things as long agi-
extra-high strength is required. Another reason to omit entation or mixing in truck mixers or excessive vibration, how-
trained air is to improve uniformity of slump. ever, can seriously reduce the amount of effective entrained
In view of the many factors affecting air content, and be- air, especially when the initial amount of entrained air is less
cause slump is sensitive to changes in air content, slump uni- than that recommended in the table in Chapter 5 .
formity is adversely affected when entrained air is used. The manner of placement will affect air content, When
Sometimes when entrained air is not needed for the sake of concrete is pumped, most concrete mixtures will lose some
durability, it may also be unnecessary for workability, par- of their entrained air content due to the air going into solution
ticularly when mixture proportions are favorable and when in the mixing water due to the pressure of pumping. Some
pozzolan or water-reducing admixtures that entrain a slight air-entraining agents seem to increase the quantity of entrained
amount of air are used. air as the mixture passes through the pump chamber, apparent-
Whatever the selected amount of entrained air may be, it ly due to the turbulence experienced by the mixture as the con-
is important that the concrete contain a quantity of air that is crete passes through the pump, causing a more complete
uniformly close to the desired amount, batch after batch and dispersal of the air-entraining agent throughout the paste.
day after day. Too much air detracts unnecessarily from Furthermore, when concrete is pumped through a typical
strength without a sufficiently compensating improvement boom truck, the total air content can be influenced by the
in durability, whereas too little will fail to provide workabil- boom position. Experience has shown that if the boom is ap-
ity and durability as desired. If the sand and water content proximately vertical (as would be experienced when the
are at a minimum for a certain amount of air entrainment, a point of placement is close to the pump) the free-fall of con-
drop in air content may cause a serious loss of workability. crete through the pump line creates a vacuum causing an
On the job, variation in air content obtained from a given evacuation of entrained air from the concrete.
dosage of air-entraining agent may be the result of one or a Regardless of the sampling location defined in the contract
combination of influencing factors. Many of these are recog- documents, the inspector should perform check tests of the
nized qualitatively, but all vary quantitatively. Learn to an- concrete after it has been pumped as described previously.
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S T D = A C I SP-Z-ENGL 1999 M Obb29Li9 05Li820b 581i
the number of revolutions at mixing speed is within the pre-

scribed limits (usually 70 to 100). Monitor to ensure that oth-
er revolutions are only at agitating speed. Determine the
consistency of delivered concrete, and take required test
specimens. Otherwise, the inspector’s duties are similar to
those for job-mixed concrete work.
Slump loss during the time interval between mixing and
placing is sometimes a serious problem with ready-mixed
concrete because it often causes the addition of extra water
and results in an increase in unit water content. Slump loss
greater than 1 in. is objectionable because it usually creates
Fig. 7.9-Mixer revolution counter helps maintain uniform a demand for higher initial water content to provide greater
consistency of concrete. From 70 to 100 revolutions are per- initial slump to compensate for the slump loss that will occur
mitted at designated mixing speed for ready-mixed concrete. before placing. Slump loss increases as time increases be-
tween start of mixing and placing. It is aggravated by higher
The inspector should become familiar with the behavior of temperatures, absorptive aggregates, severe false setting of
the mixture and learn to anticipate the effect that pumping cement, richer mixes, or ill-advised use of an accelerator.
may have on the total air content. Reduce slump loss by correcting the causes.
Occasionally, and especially when there is a possibility that If temperatures are high, lower the temperature of the
significant loss has occurred, make a test of the amount of air in concrete and surrounding materials by means such as:
the concrete after it has been vibrated in place. It is particularly including ice in the mixing water; spraying aggregate,
important that the surface and upper portion of pavement and forms, and subgrade with water; shading materials; and
bridge deck slabs, as well as exposed surfaces of hydraulic working only at night or during early morning hours.
structures, contain the specified amount of entrained air. If If a long haul is at fault, make arrangements to add
more than one-fourth of the amount noted in the concrete at the water and to mix after trucks arrive at the forms, or at
mixer has been lost, correct the practices causing excessive loss least delay mixing until a few minutes before arrival.
or add compensating enîrained air initially. If placing condi- If there is too much delay between discharge for the first
tions change, the concrete in place is liable to end up with high and last part of each batch, reduce the size of the batches.
air and low strength. Care must be taken when adjusting air. Make sure the cement is as cool as possible and free of
Control of temperature-As noted in Chapter 9, high tem- any tendency toward false set.
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perature within the plastic concrete can,causeexcessive evap- Carefully check the w/cm and increase the cement
oration and difficulties in placing and finishing. High requirements as necessary to correspond with increases
concrete temperatures, combined with atmospheric factors in unit water content.
such as high winds and low humidity, can also lead to exces- Consider the use of retarders. Slump loss, however,
sive or rapid drying and plastic shrinkage. Accordingly, most may sometimes be greater with retarding admixtures.
contract documents limit the temperature of concrete as Control of consistency-As stated in Chapter 6, it is desir-
placed. Thus, it is essential to measure the temperature of the able to maintain the consistency of concrete constant for a
mixture prior to placing. Several kinds of thermometers are given kind of work to simplify the conveying, placing, and
available and suitable for this test. Record the temperature finishing. If the aggregate supply varies in grading or mois-
each time a slump test or air-content test is conducted, or ture content, or if different consistencies are required for dif-
when compression test cylinders are made. If plastic concrete ferent parts of the work, adjustments must be made in batch
temperatures are expected to be less than 50 F, and if low tem- quantities of one or more materials. One of the most impor-
perature is causing difficulty, warm water may be used for tant duties of the inspector is to observe the consistency of
mixing water. Cold temperatures well above freezing, howev- concrete at the mixer, in conveying devices, and especially at
er, are advantageous to the ultimate quality and freedom from the forms. From these observations, determine whether the
cracking of concrete. (See Chapter 16 for effect of high tem- specified consistency is being used, judged fiom the stand-
peratures on heavy concrete sections, such as mass concrete.) point of its workability in the forms, particularly the response
Ice is much more effective than cold water in reduction of of the concrete duríng vibration. Readily available radio or
concrete mixing temperatures, mainly because ice absorbs telephone communication between job site and plant are nec-
heat when it melts (144 BTU per lb of ice). The resulting essary for best control of consistency, especially if truck mix-
melted water absorbs additional heat at a rate of 1 BTU/lb ers are used.
for each degree F change as its temperature rises from 32 F A good consistency or slump meter can be of great help to
to the final mixing temperature. the mixer operator or ready-mix truck driver in attaining and
adjusting the desired slump as mixed. Meters recording the
Placing Inspection power usage of the mixer (wattage, and oil pressure) can be
Monitor the mixing and check the revolution counter of the installed in a convenient location. A relationship between the
ready-mixed concrete truck-mixer (Fig. 7.9) to confirm that power used and the desired slump of the concrete is then es-

S T D = A C I SP-2-ENGL 1999 Obb2949 0548207 410
Fig. 7 . l G T h e slump test is made on a smooth, nonabsorbant surface such as a sheet of

metal. Protect the surfacefmm jarring by nearby equipment.
tablished so that adjustments to the mixing water can be they result in higher than allowable values of wkm, either use
made readily if the power readings are too high. a richer mixture or take effective action to control fines in the
The general tendency of some workers is to make the coarse aggregate. Finish screening at the batching plant, keep-
consistency of concrete as wet as possible, because wet ing storage piles and batching-plant bins as fui1 as possible, and
consistency will reduce the labor of placing (but not necessar- routinely cleaning out and wasting accumulation of fines at the
ily the overall labor requirement). Use of a wetter consistency, bottom of the bins will help greatly to prevent variations in the
however, results either in lower strength of concrete or in a aggregates and thus in mixing water requirement. Maintain the
greater cement requirement, according to whether the ce- aggregate moisture content as constant as possible.
ment-water paste is diluted or more cement is added to keep
Make tests for consistency from time to time for the record
the w/cm at the required level. Higher water contents produce
and to determine compliance with the contract documents,
concrete with higher shrinkage. Furthermore, wet concretes
but judge the workability of the concrete and suittibility of its
are more likely to segregate. Therefore, the mixture should be
consistency by how the concrete is responding to working
only as wet as absolutely necessary for proper placement. The
and vibration in the forms, not by the test alone. Make and
use of high-range water reducers makes possible a more fluid
record a test when wetter concrete is subject to rejection. The
consistency without diluting the w/crn. Consider them when-
usual test for record of consistency is the slump test, made in
ever a high slump is desirable.
accordance with ASTM C 143 (Fig. 7.10). The result of a
Usually the consistency is regulated by varying the amount
single slump test should not be the only basis for rejection,
of water added at the mixer based on observed or tested consis-
because the test itself is subject to considerable variation. For
tency of previous batches. If aggregates are uniform in mois-
example, the indicated slump may be too much if the base is
ture content and grading, there will be small need for varying
subjected to jarring, or too stiff if the base is rough or dry.
the amount of added water. Nevertheless, do not lock the wa-
Usually, contract documents set the permissible tolerances in
ter-measuring device at a fixed quantity, because unavoidable
slump. Some contract documents, however, just state that it
variations in moisture content of the aggregate would then re-
shall not exceed a single fixed value.
sult in variable consistency. The average moisture content of
the aggregates and the average additional water requirements The Kelly ball test, a simple, rapid consistency test, capable
at the mixer will show whether the average mixture conforms of being made even in the forms, consists of observing the pen-
to the contract documents regarding wkm. If it does not, adjust etration of a 6 in., 30 lb metal ball into fresh concrete (ASTM
the mixture (not the consistency) by exchange of appropriate C 360) (Fig. 7.11). Normally, the penetration equals approxi-
solid volumes so as to maintain the same yield for the batch mately one-half the slump, but the relationship does not neces-
(AC1 21 1.1). Also check extremes of high water content and if sarily hold for all conditions of test. A relationship for the
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

STD*ACI SP-Z-ENGL 1777 W Obb29ii9 05ii8208 357
The first batches of concrete may be inconsistent because

batching conditions have not yet become stabilized and be-
cause mortar or paste sticks to the mixer and the conveying
devices. To offset this tendency, the first batch may be over-
sanded and made somewhat richer and wetter than normal;
these three effects can be accomplished conveniently by sim-
ply leaving out part of the coarse aggregate, making proper
note of the corresponding reduction in volume of the batch.
Make a change in ratio of aggregate sizes only under proper
supervision. The starting batches of concrete must never have
consistencies on the dry side of the specified slump.
If the time between mixing of concrete and its final place-
ment in the forms is too long, the mixture is likely to have
stiffened so much that it cannot be consolidated satisfactori-
ly. The degree of stiffening beyond which the concrete can-
not be consolidated will depend on the nature of the
placement and whether effective vibration is being used.
Fig. 7.11-The ball penetration test is made by lowering the More than a slight amount of stiffening calls for correction if
“ball’’ gently into a leveìed-ofs sulface of concrete and the time cannot be sufficiently reduced. Usually the cause
observing its depth of penetration with respect to the stirrup can be traced to excessive evaporation of mixing water by
that rests on the sulface. sun or wind, unanticipated high absorption of mixing water
mixture being used can be established by a series of slump and by aggregates, high temperature of one or more of the ingre-
dients, an improper accelerator, or premature stiffening char-
ball penetration tests on the same samples of concrete.
acteristics of the cement or cement-admixturecombinations.
It is best to make tests for consistency and for air content
Sometimes faulty performance of vibrators gives a false in-
of concrete at the same time, because increases in air content
dication of stiffening. In hot climates, retarders are routinely
may increase slump and vice versa.
added to concrete to prevent premature stiffening but may in-
When a truck mixer is approved for mixing and delivery of
crease the rate of slump loss.
concrete, do not add water after the initial introduction of
mixing water for the batch, except when concrete arrives at Measuring concrete quantity-Concrete may be measured
the job site with lower slump than specified. Record and note by volume in the receiving hopper or forms; by weight; or by
the additional water on the delivery ticket. This additional summation of the absolute volumes of cement, water, air,
water to bring the slump within specified limits must not ex- and aggregates. According to ASTM C 94 for ready-mixed
ceed the design w/cm, otherwise the batch must be rejected. concrete, the basis of sale is the volume yield of the batch de-
If additional water is used, it should be injected into the mixer termined by dividing the total weight of the materiais
under the pressure and flow needed to meet ASTM C 94 uni- batched by the density of freshly mixed, unhardened con-
formity requirements. Turn the drum or blades an additional crete. Although such measurements are of interest primarily
30 revolutions or more at mixing speed until uniformity is to the producer and contractor, they serve as a check on batch
within limits. Do not add water to the batch at any later time. quantities and thus on cement content. See Chapter 6.
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1 9 9 9 IObb2947 0 5 q 8 2 0 9 273
INSPECTION BEFORE CONCRETING 61
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
CHAPTER &-INSPECTION BEFORE CONCRETING
Close inspection before placing concrete is important.

Check the condition of earth founciation preparation for proper
compaction and moisture content. Thoroughly moisten the
foundation material to provide moisture to the concrete during
curing. On the other hand, do not allow standing puddles of
water, because these will increase the w/cm of concrete in con-
tact with the earth. Improper reinforcement placement can
lead to severe cracking, steel corrosion, and excessive deflec-
tions (or even failure). Form tightness and alignment, coating
for release of forms, and cleanness are all required both for vi-
sually pleasing exposed surfaces and for sound concrete.
Common imperfections and disappointing results in concrete
construction are often due to lack of suitable preparation for
the work.
PRELIMINARY STUDY
Upon first arrival at the job site, become familiar as soon
as possible with the contract documents and with the rele-
vant requirements of any referenced or related specifications
and building codes as well as site conditions.
If there is no separate engineering staff, see that the
contract documents correlate with each other and with Fig. 8.1-Carefully excavated trench will serve as form for
any special instructions. concrete grade beams to be placed without wood forms.
Examine any shop drawing details and erection or place- Reinforcement will be supported at correct level before con-
crete is placed. The bottom reinforcing bar is not chaired.
ment drawings and check these with the contract documents.
Check the reinforcement details and other details for
excavation has been completed and forms have been
potential construct ability problems.
built. If form dimensions and stability are satisfactory,
Observe the general layout of the work, as well as the
the contractor may then clean the foundation and coat
contractor’s plant, equipment, and organization. Give
the forms, and install any reinforcement and fixtures.
particular attention to subgrade compaction equipment
and procedures; to the concrete batching, mixing, trans- Semijìnal or “cleanup”-When everything is in place
porting, and placing facilities; to construction joint plan- for concreting, make a detailed inspection of founda-
ning and cleanup; and to concrete-vibrating equipment. tions, forms, reinforcement, and all equipment or parts
to be embedded in the concrete. If the installations are
Review methods to be used for curing, form stripping,
satisfactory, the work is ready for final cleanup.
shoring, reshoring, and proposed testing procedures.
Become familiar with the conditions at the site (lines, Final-Final inspection is made immediately before
grades, foundations); the location of rights of way; the concrete is placed. Forms and fixtures must not have
location of roadways, streams, sewers, pipelines, poles, been displaced. Surfaces must be clean and, if speci-
or wires that might be affected by construction or other fied, must be wetted. All pertinent items on the check-
underground or overhead utilities; regular and special out form (described at the end of this chapter) must be
traffic arrangements; and safety regulations. properly signed for.
Meet all parties to the concrete placing operations to Properly prepare for staging trucks, positioning pumps or
establish communication lines prior to problems during other conveying devices, and prepare a suitable and safe
placement. work location for concrete field technicians.
Assuming that the requirements with regard to suitability
INSPECTION OF PREPARATORY WORK of materials, proportions, and working conditions (weather,
Before concrete is placed in a given section of the work, time, lighting, equipment, access for prompt delivery of con-
inspect excavation, forms, shores, reshores, reinforcement, crete, and curing protections) have been met, the contractor
and embedded items to ensure that they meet contract docu- may then proceed with concrete placing.
ment requirements. Also, before commencing concrete
placement, make sure that necessary preparations have been Excavation and foundation
made to form construction joints and to cure and protect the Excavated surfaces upon or against which concrete is to be
concrete. To keep delays at a minimum, continually inspect placed (Fig. 8.1) should conform to the specified location,
through the three stages of the work, as follows. dimensions, shape, compaction, and moisture requirements.
Preliminary-Make a preliminary inspection when Consider slope of adjacent excavations for stability during

S T D - A C 1 SP-Z-ENGL 1999 Obb29q9 05Y82LO T O 5 B
placement and resultant vibration! Verify provision for age to other foundations or finished work.
drainage where necessary. For discussion of pavement foun- For major foundations, approval of the resident engi-
dations, see Chapter 13. neer, architect-engineer, or geotechcal engineer is
usually required before concrete may be placed.
General Surfaces against which concrete will be placed must be
When structural concrete must be placed directly against clean and moist, but not soft.
the earth, the condition of the subgrade is vital. Unless the Preferably, clean rock surfaces of foundations with
structure or slab is being placed on controlled fill areas or is water or air-water jet, followed by an air jet to remove
supported by another mechanism, such as piles, the usual re- excess water. Remove pools of water.
quirement is for the earth to be undisturbed. In sandy soils, If new concrete will be placed upon or against previ-
this may not present a problem. In clay soils, however, the ously cast concrete, clean the surface of the older con-
subgrade will soften over time and all soft material must be crete. Remove oil, grease, other foreign matter, and
removed prior to the pour because a weak stratum will reduce laitance. Wet sandblasting or high-pressure water blast-
the foundation capacity. The rate of softening depends on the ing may be required by the contract documents. Con-
nature of the clay. Most clays need a direct source of water, tract documents sometimes require roughening.
such as rain, to soften. Overconsolidatedclays, however, will Roughening for its own sake is not necessary to obtain
soften due to the moisture in the atmosphere. bond if a thoroughly clean surface, comparable with a
Depending on local climate conditions, the expected dura- fresh break, is obtained. Such a clean joint surface
tion of the preparation work, and the nature of the clay soils approaching dryness without free water is best for bond
as described in the project geotechnicalreport, it may be nec- strength. (See Concrete Manual [USBR 19811 regard-
essary to place a “mud mat” or “blinding mat” on the sub- ing “dry” surface for best joint.) Free surface water will
grade. It is vital that the mud mat be placed as soon as increase the w/cm and therefore weaken the mortar or
possible after the bearing surface is exposed. In this manner, cement paste in the new concrete adjacent to the old
the mud mat seals the subgrade from moisture and preserves concrete.
the subgrade’s integrity. For underwater placement:
Mud mats are also desirable if the foundation is massive Do not place concrete under water except by express
and a large quantity of reinforcing must be supported. A mud permission of the contract documents or of the archi-
mat has a much greater capacity for supporting reinforcing tect-engineer. In such cases, excavate and clean the
bar supports than supports placed directly on the subgrade. foundation with more than ordinary care, because this
Although mud mat concrete need only develop a strength is a difficult operation to accomplish as well as to
that is equal or superior to the strength of the soil, a 1500 to inspect. For further details on underwater concreting,
2000 psi concrete is commonly used. A nominal thickness of see Chapter 15.
2 to 4 in. is sufficient. Mud mats may also be required with For pile foundations:
expansive rock, such as shale. If concrete will be supported by piles, check the num-
For building slabs on grade: ber, location, and penetration of each pile. After the
Compact the subgrade to contract document requirements. piles are driven, report any that deviate more than the
The type of subgrade material dictates the typeof compac- specified tolerance from the theoretical alignment.
tion equipment used. Cohesive materiais (clays) are best
compacted by rollers or tamping equipment. Cohesionless Forms for buildings
materials (sand and granular materials) are best compacted Before concreting is started, inspect the forms, shores, and
by using vibrating compaction equipment. bracing that will support the concrete. Location and dimen-
Pay particular attention to the compaction along edges sion of forms after they are filled with concrete may not be
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
of foundation walls. the same as when they were built and set, because the weight
Eliminate soft spots, and all portions of the subgrade of concrete, workers, and equipment employed in placing the
that might later be subject to settlement or swelling. concrete may cause the forms to settle, sag, or bulge. It is
Among these are fissures, inclined layers, clay layers, usually a good idea to have a carpenter assigned to each
. and water-bearing sand layers.

Thoroughly compact backfill in trenches and ruts.
For building foundations:
placement so that adjustments can be made to the forms and
shores when necessary as the concrete is being placed.
Check forms as soon as possible after erection so that
Excavate until sound material is reached because soil errors can be corrected with minimum delay, and any
under footings must have the bearing capacity required lack of tightness can be corrected.
in the design. Sound material may be the original undis- Verify the number, type, and location of shores and
turbed soil or a properly compacted soil. bracing.
In rock excavation, the surface of the rock must be If bottom forms sag even when shored as specified,
sound, completely exposed, perpendicular to the direc- advise the contractor, so that he can shore the forms at
. tion of load and of a capacity required by the design.

Key the footings into rock if so required.
If blasting is required, control the charges to avoid dam-
. closer intervals.
Adequate bearing area on the ground can prevent settle-
ment of shores.

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1977
INSPECTION BEFORE CONCRETING
Dbb2747 0548211 741 =
63
Table 8.1-Maximum lateral pressure for design of Table 8.2-Maximum lateral pressure for design of
wall forms column forms
Rate of place- , maximum lateral pressure, psf, for temperature indicated
+mentR,fvh 9 0 F 80F 70F 60F 50F
3
4
40F 1 1
664
1
Ib/ft2 governs 600 minimum
750
I
690
870
1
825
1050 4
Ib/ft2 governs 600 minimum
664 1 750 870 1050

5 650 1 712 793 900 1050 1275 5 1 650 1 712 1 793 1 900 1050 1275
6 750 1 825 921 1050 1230 1500
7 I 850 I 938 1 1050 1 1200 1 146 I ~~
1725
8 1 881 1 973 1 1090 I 1246 I 1466 1, 1795
9 1 912 1 1008 1 1130 1 1293
!
1 1522 I 1865
10 I 943 I 1043 I 1170 1 1340 I 1578 I
~~
1935
~
Note: Do not use design pressures (in lWft*) greater than 150 x height in ft of fresh
concrete in forms. Table applies only for normalweight concrete made with Type I
cement, no admixtures or pozzolans, slump no more than 4 in., and vibration depth of
4 ft or iess.
13 1 1450 I 1613 1 1822 I 2100 1 2490 I 3000
14 1 1550 1 1725 1 1950 1 2250 1 2670 1
On some jobs, during concreting operations, it may be 16 1750 1950 2207 2550 3000 1
necessary to adjust the shoring by means of screw jacks 18 1950 2175 2464 2850
to maintain proper elevations. 20 2150 2400 2721 3000
Place shores supporting successive stories directly over 22 2350 2625 2979
those below, and shore the number of stones required 24 2550 2850 3000
to carry the total loads. 26 2750 3000
Construct and set forms as exactly as possible to indi- 28 2950
cate lines, grades, and dimensions, except as necessary 30 3000 1 3000 lb/ft2 maximum governs
to build in camber, discussed as follows. Tolerances in Note: Do not use design pressures (in Ib/ft*) greater than 150 x height in ft of fresh
AC1 301 and AC1 117 apply to hardened concrete, not concrete in forms. Table applies only for normalweight concrete made with Type I
cement, no admixtures or pozzolans, slump no more than 4 in., and vibration depth of
to the forms. 4 ft or iess.
Ensure that the forms will result in hardened concrete
of the required dimensions, alignment, and surface fin-
ish. Governing points of line and grade will be set by
the engineering staff, but additional measurements may
be needed from and between these points. In many
cases, a homemade template will serve as a convenient
and accurate means of checking dimensions and align-
ment. An accurate straightedge of proper length should
always be at hand. Irregularities may be detected by
careful sighting, but plumb lines and stretched lines or
wires may be necessary in some locations.
Use proper bracing, form ties, and sufficiently stiff
form members to prevent bulging. Fresh concrete,
when vibrated, exerts maximum pressures of the mag-
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
nitude indicated in Table 8.1 and 8.2, which are taken

from AC1 SP-4 (Hurd 1989).
Bracing and tying of forms (Fig. 8.2) must be adequate
because it is usually impossible to force a form back into Fig. 8.2-With true, tight, well-braced forms having su$mes
position after it has bulged or slipped while being filled. coated or wetted to prevent sticking, the concrete can be made
pleasing in uppeamnce without special decorative treatment.
For large or important concrete placements, install ?tell-
tale? arrangements (siring lines and plumb lines left in floor and beam forms 1/4 in./lO ft span. Cambering of
place during placing operations) at several locations on the forms is the responsibility of the contractor.
the forms, particularly where settlement or deflection may During concrete placement, have one full-time worker
be expected. These telltales will give early warning of any monitor telltales; checking for and stopping leaks; and
movement or deflection of the forms. Immediate actions checking and tightening forms, accessories, and bracing
can then be taken to stop these movements or deflections, as required.
or at least control them within prescribed limits. If climbing forms or ??lift? forms are used (Fig. 8.3),
Settlement and sagging can be controlled by building a pull the form after being raised, tight against the con-
camber into the form. One widely used rule is to camber crete already cast. Make the joints in forms especially

S T D o A C I SP-Z-ENGL 1777 Obb27V7 05Li82L2 888
Fig.8.4-Tooled control joint.
Provide smooth form surfaces with tight joints and free

from holes to prevent any mortar escaping during vibration.
Where appearance of the structure is important, arrange
form lines and form ties to make neat patterns. The lay-
out should be approved by the designer prior to start of
work.
Form ties and spacers should not leave metal near an
exposed surface, nor bend if workers climb on them.
Fig. 8.3-In contrast to continuous slipforming operation, this Use wire ties only on light work, making holes for tie
chimney is constructed by means of an adjustable climbing wires as small as possible.
form that moves upward afer each concrete lift is placed. * Clean, and if necessary, recondition the forms before re-
secure, even, and tight. To avoid unsightly offsets and use. Fill open seams, plane warped boards, straighten
mortar leakage at horizontal construction joints, reset metal facings, and rematch joints. Do not sandblast or
the forms to overlap the concrete only 1 in. or so, (see abrade metal forms to a bright surface.
Fig. 8.4.) Use ample tie bolts close to the joint to ensure Avoid marring the form surfaces throughout construc-
holding the form tight to the hardened concrete during tion of forms and other work preliminary to concreting.
concrete placement and vibration. Before concrete is placed, wet the form surfaces or coat
Shores for cantilevers are frequently critical and must them with nonstaining form oil or other satisfactory
be adequate to support all loads. Construction joints materials. Use only the proper amount of form coating
may create temporary cantilevers until the member is to avoid discoloration of the concrete. Do not apply the
completed. Support the concrete on both sides of such coatings so thick that staining or softening of the con-
joints until all concrete has developed strength to permit crete surface will occur; sticking will be prevented by a
the member to carry its own weight. coating that feels oily. Apply form coatings to all con-
If the inspector doubts the security or rigidity of the tact surfaces and edges. Air bubbles tend to form or
forms, he should so advise the contractor. If the contrac- water to accumulate at the surface of perfectly tight
tor does not correct the situation, the inspector should forms with dense and impervious surfaces. The defect
give the contractor, the owner, and the engineer written is principally in appearance and is not serious unless
documentation of the problems, and a description of architectural exposed concrete is involved.
possible satisfactory consequences. Apply form coatings before reinforcement is placed to
Vhious materials are used for reusable forms. Sealers ef- avoid coating the reinforcement and preventing bond
fectively seal wood allowing repeated use. Steel forms are with the concrete. If a form is coated with the release
widely used. They should not contain cracks, nicks, dents, agent prior to installation of reinforcement, this serious
bulges, loose joints, or deformations that prevent proper fit. problem can be completely avoided.
Plastic-coated plywood provides a smooth hard finish well Remove wooden spacers as the concreting progresses,
suited to forms. It can be reused many times if undamaged. by means of wires previously attached.
For architecturally exposed concrete, glass-fiber reinforced Remove foreign material from inside the forms. Foreign
polymer forms are popular because they can be shaped to any material includes chips, blocks, sawdust, dried mortar,
desired contour. More detailed discussion of forms for archi- snow, and ice. Preferably use air and water, or steam, s u p
tecturai concrete is provided in Chapter 14. plemented by hand cleaning. Foreign material is likely to
Construction of forms for structural and architectural con- accumulate in corners and places difficult to reach. In deep,
crete and specially formed surfaces are described in AC1 SP-4 narrow forms, provide holes for cleaning and inspection at
(Hurd 1989). the most effective location, usually at the bottom and at
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

S T D = A C I SP-2-ENGL 1977 IO b b 2 9 4 9 0598213 714 I
joint levels of the forms. Close these holes before concret-

ing starts or just before the concrete reaches their level.
Placing reinforcement
Check reinforcement as soon as possible for proper
strength, grade markings, size, bending, horizontal and ver-
tical spacing, location, adequacy of support and tying, and
surface condition. Do not wait until reinforcement has been
wired substantially in place (and is more expensive to alter)
before checking it. Practical information with illustrations is
contained in Placing Reinforcing Bars and Manual of Stan-
dard Practice (CRSI 1997a, b).
Cutting and bending

All bending details must be correct. Unless closer limits
are stated in the contract documents, straight bars have a Fig. 8.5-Reinforcing steel here is readyforplacement of a slab.
length tolerance of 1 in. (CRSI 1997a,b). Bent bars are usu-
ally measured from outside to outside of bar, but some orga- between steel and the coating may cause coating fail-
nizations use center-to-center dimensions. ure. Additional requirements for handling, inspection
Regardless of bending tolerances, all parts of bars must and repair of epoxy-coated reinforcing steel are con-
have the specified cover. tained in Manual of Standard Practice (CRSI 1997b).
If reinforcement will be job fabricated, use a bending
pin diameter not less than the recommended sizes in Reinforcement installation
Manual of Standard Practice (CRSI, 1997b) and AC1 Reinforcement is embedded a minimum distance from the
318. Different pin diameters are required for different surface of the concrete (clearance), to prevent buckling un-
grades of steel (Grades 40, 60, and 75.) If several bars der certain conditions of compressive load, rusting when ex-
will be bent alike, check the first one bent, preferably posed to weather, or loss of strength when exposed to fire.
by placing it in the forms, before the others are bent. Larger clearances are required for concretes exposed to cor-
Do not bend or straighten steel in a manner that would rosive liquids or vapors and for bridge decks that are fre-
weaken the material. quently exposed to deicing salts. Typical recommended
Heat reinforcement for bending only when approved by depths of cover are given in AC1 301, AC1 318, and AC1 345.
the designer, because heating may change the charac- Cover must be at least as much as shown in the contract doc-
teristics of the steel. In any case, never heat steel above uments, if not, the designer must be consulted. Reinforce-
1200 F and always allow it to cool slowly. ment must be properly spaced, spliced, firmly tied in
If bars being bent by heating are partially embedded in position, and embedded to give the required clearance to all
concrete, avoid damaging the concrete surrounding the concrete surfaces (Fig. 8.5 and 8.6). Placing Reinforcing
bar by the heating process or by the bending. Bars, Manual of Stundard Practice (CRSI 1997a, b), and
Never bend or heat prestressing steel (see Chapter 17). AC1 3 18 give detailed information on these matters, espe-
cially for supports and spacers not shown on the contract
Storage and handling documents. Although it is always expressed as “minimum
Avoid storage conditions that might cause excessive rust- cover,” AC1 117 defines tolerances for the “maximum” per-
ing of the steel. missible cover because the location of the bar is critical to the
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Before reinforcement is placed, the surface must be free structures design.

from objectionable coatings or heavy corrosion. Except Check clearance at stirrups and column ties that project
for prestressing tendons, a thin adherent film of rust or beyond other reinforcement and to clearance under sag-
mill scale is not objectionable because it increases the ging horizontal bars midway between supports. On
bond of steel to concrete. Remove other objectionable structural slabs, especially bridge deck slabs, and all
coatings such as paint, oil, grease, dried mud, and weak concrete exposed to the marine environment, clear
dried mortar or concrete. Brush weak mortar from the cover between the top of the slab and the top of the
bars and remove it from the forms. If it is difficult to reinforcement is critical.
remove, it is probably harmless and need not be removed. If there is more than one mat of reinforcement, align
Special care must be taken if the steel has been coated bars vertically above each other in both horizontal
with epoxy. Nylon slings must be employed for lifting directions to minimize interference with placing and
bundles of epoxy-coated reinforcing to avoid coating consolidating concrete. Symmetrical location of rein-
damage. Epoxy-coated reinforcing should be staged on forcing will also aid future alterations to the structure,
cribs. In sunny regions, it may be necessary to store such as core drilling, as the amount of reinforcing steel
epoxy-coated reinforcing in shaded areas. cut during this operation will be minimized.
Differences in the thermal expansion characteristics Provide preplanned openings in the upper mat for

S T D * A C I SP-2-ENGL 1999 M Obb29q9 05i182111 b 5 0
degree or semicircular hook of specified minimum

radius.
Especially where reinforcement is congested, the nomi-
nal maximum size of aggregate in the concrete mixture
must not exceed three-quarters the minimum clear
spacing between bars so as to permit satisfactory place-
ment of concrete around the bars.
Use vibrator heads that fit between bars in congested
areas. If small vibrators are used, reduce the spacing of
vibrator insertion locations and increase vibrating time.
No placement should be allowed to start unless spare
vibrators (at least one per vibrating crew) are immedi-
ately available. Verify that all vibrators are functional
before placement begins.
Fig. 8.4-A certijîed inspector checking the reinforcement

Support
All reinforcement must be f d y held in place before and
placement.
during the casting of concrete.
drop chutes to help prevent scattering and segregation Use built-in concrete blocks, metai or plastic supports,
of the concrete. spacer bars, wires, or other devices that will prevent
Where reinforcement is too congested to permit con- displacement during construction.
crete placement, provide openings by temporarily Use a quantity and strength of bar supports and spacers
crowding bars to each side and then replacing them to sufficient to support both reinforcement and construc-
designated position. Alternatively, when approved by tion loads.
the designer, crowd bars to each side and leave them in Do not use rocks, wood blocks, or other unapproved
that position permanently. objects to support the steel.
Stagger bar splices to facilitate concrete placement Use sufficient chairs or blocks for the support of hori-
unless prohibited. zontal reinforcement to prevent settlement into base
Stagger the splices in column ties around the four cor- soil or indentation into soffit forming.
ners of the column instead of one above the other. Support horizontal bars every 5 or 6 ft in general. For
Do not splice bars or welded-wire fabric without the specific recommendations, see Manual of Standard
approval of the designer unless shown in the contract Practice (CRSI 1997b).
documents. See supplied references (CRSI 1997a, b) Some spacers expose more metal than necessary at the
for lengths of lap, methods of splicing, location and ori- surface. To prevent surface staining from rust, contract
entation of splices, and provisions for lateral support in documents may require that no corrodible metal be left
certain cases. It is always desirable to stagger splices in the concrete within a stated distance of the surface.
whenever possible. To meet this requirement, stainless steel or plastic bar
If splices are welded, make sure that the weld is the supports or supports having plastic tips can be used (or
required size and length, and that the bars are not burned concrete blocks, if permitted).
or reduced in cross section. Have a certified welder do ali Twist the ends of tie wires to project away from a con-
welding in accordance with AWS D1.4. Ensure that the crete surface. Use 18-gage or heavier wire for tying bars.
welder’s certification is current and that all preheating Tie bars at sufficient intervals so that they stay in place
requirements stipulated in AWS are carehlly followed. during placing and consolidating concrete. Six to eight
The welding of reinforcement will lower the strength of spots for a 20 ft bar is the usual practice but every other
the bar and is prohibited in many contract documents. intersection is better. Tie spacing depends on handling
Do not permit tack welding unless allowed by the con- and traffic on the mat and the position it occupies.
tract documents because tack welds weaken bars at the Train workers to recognize the importance of proper
tack location. Treat tack welds the same as splice welds location of reinforcement (Fig. 8.7). During the con-
in terms of welder certification and preheat requirements. creting operation, reinforcement, especially light “tem-
If many welds are made, some weld testing is advisable. perature steel,” can become displaced by the runways
The use of patented splicing sleeves for large bars is (although runways should never be supported on the
common. Thermite sleeve splices are also used. Unless reinforcement), by accidents, by heavy loads of con-
permitted by the contract documents, however, do not crete dumped upon it (especially in deep forms), or by
use any mechanical splice unless approved by the tools used in consolidating the concrete. Constant atten-
designer in writing beforehand. tion is required to prevent this displacement and to
Anchor a bar wherever necessary by extending it detect and correct any displacement that does occur.
beyond the point of no stress, by bending it around For pavement slabs or mass concrete, when reinforce-
another bar or steel member, or by bending it into a 90 ment is not supported on chairs, a permissible practice is
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

S T D * A C I SP-2-ENGL 1994 W O b b 2 9 4 9 0548235 5 9 7 9
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
approved by the designer. Recognize that conduits (and
pipes) will float on the rising concrete and that they should
be secured against both vertical and lateral displacements.
Soak wooden inserts before concreting, or make sure
the wood surface is effectively sealed; otherwise, the
wood tends to swell and cause the concrete to split.
Openings
Where additional openings not shown on the contract docu-
ments are required, have the proposed openings approved by
the designer. At the comers of all except very small openings,
install short diagonal bars to resist stresses around the opening.
Isolation, contraction, and construction joints

Although many other more detailed descriptive terms can
be used to describe various joints, the following are the gen-
Fig. 8.7-Continual attention i s required to$nd and correct
displacement of reinforcement. Imporperly placed steel i s eral definitions:
deflecting under the weight of workers and fresh concrete. Isolation joints-Designed to allow the structure on each
side of the joint to move independently. If these joints are
to place relatively stiff concrete up to a given level, then omitted, compressive or tensile forces may crush or crack
to lay the mesh or bars on the surface before placing the or otherwise damage the concrete. Such forces develop by
rest of the concrete. When pavement concrete is placed thermal or chemical expansion, shrinkage, applied loads, or
in a single course, wire fabric sheets or bar mats may be differential settlements. Reinforcement must not cross iso-
laid in proper horizontal alignment on the full depth of lation joints.
struck off concrete and machine depressed with special Contractionjuints-Purposely made planes of weakness
equipment to proper elevation (see Chapter 13). designed to control the location of cracks that might other-
Do not lift or “hook” reinforcement in thin slabs from wise occur randomly due to contraction of concrete (from
the bottom of a slab up to its prescribed level during drying shrinkage, and temperature drop). Reinforcement
concreting operations. This operation is seldom, if ever, may be continuous or discontinuous in contraction joints,
properly done and it results in uncertain location of the depending on the design of the structure.
steel. with much of it on the bottom. Construction joints-Joints created by necessary inter-
ruptions of the placement of concrete (see Chapter 9 for a
Embedded fixtures detailed discussion). If the construction joint is also a con-
Before concrete is placed, firmly fix in position all anchor traction joint, the steel should be treated the same as in a
bolts, inserts, pipe sleeves, pipes, conduits, wiring, flash- contraction joint.
ings, manhole-cover frames, instruments, other embedded Recommended practice regarding design, location, and
fixtures, and mechanical equipment. For detailed require- construction of joints is given in AC1 301, AC1 318, and
ments regarding embedded fixtures, see AC1 318. AC1 504R.
Embedded metals, other than steel reinforcement, may Isolation and contraction joints are “working” joints in
cause galvanic action and corrosion unless coated to contrast with construction joints, which are not working
isolate them. In particular, do not embed aluminum in joints, unless they are also designed and constructed for that
reinforced concrete unless it is effectively coated to function. Materials for filling working joints are discussed in
isolate it. Preparation of contact surfaces depends upon Chapter 3, and detailed information on elastomeric joint
whether or not bond with concrete is desired. sealers is provided in AC1 504R.
Do not allow built-in fixtures to displace reinforce- Isolation joint material is generally a compressible filler
ment, except as shown on the contract documents, nor (and frequently stretchable also). Do not allow plugs of
to appreciably reduce the strength of the construction. concrete or other incompressible material to span or block
Moving or relocating reinforcement beyond the speci- the expansion joint.
fied tolerances to avoid interferences must be approved Contraction joint sealing material must bond to the con-
by the architect-engineer according to AC1 301. crete on each side and have sufficient deform ability to resist
In general, conduits 1 in. or less in diameter do not signifi- breaking under the expected joint movement.
cantly reduce the strength of concrete in compression. Dowels may be required across some joints. If so, align them
Conduits coming together at a particular location may carefully, lubricate one end to allow joint movement, and fit that
require extra reinforcement above and below to minimize end with an expansion cap. In a similar manner, sliding joints re-
excessive cracking at such location. Do not allow more quire a bond breaker installed before casting the adjacent concrete.
than one conduit to take space in the cross section of a col- Before concreting, make sure that the specified initial joint
umn or to mass together at the face of a column except as opening is allowed for, that debris can be removed from the
permitted by the contract documents or specifically joint opening, and that the joint surfaces can be cleaned before

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1999 Obb2947 05482Lb Li23
I
I
CON- P
L
A
CE
-
OK TO PIACE CCNCRETE:
CONTRACTOR’S
DI1. nmm
Pou mo
d Dlt. nm
Pour C0mpht.d Dato Tini.
U n Cu. Ydr
Computod ûaccknll Cu. Yds.
TOW C0mprct.d Cu. Yds.
Cu. Yds. Qout
Cu. Yds. Concnt.

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TotJ Cu. Yds. Pkciid
Cu. Yds. W a t . rt Pour
Cu. Ydr. W a t . st PIsnî
TOW Cu. Yds. PI8nt
Fig. 8.8-Example of a Checklistform.
instaìüng the joint filler. Be on the lookout for construction and constructionjoints for cleanliness and absence of sur-
conditions that may later interfere with movement of joints or face moisture.
with proper water drainage. Spaces 2 ft wide or more are some- Remove all foreign material from the forms by vacuum-
times left in casting concrete to allow some shrinkage of the ing or blowing out the debris. The forms should be free of
concrete to take place before they are filled. In such cases, to al- standing water, ice, or dirt.
low unrestricted joint movement, reinforcement is lapped rath- Make certain the forms have been oiled. If rpoiling is
er than continuous. Preparation of joints in these cases should required, keep Einforcement clean and completely í k e of oil.
be the same as for constructionjoints. Check the weather forecast for the day of the concrete
placement. If extremely hot, cold, or windy weather is
FINAL INSPECTION BEFORE PLACING forecasted, see that precautions have been taken to pro-
Before placing concrete, make a final inspection. tect fresh concrete and that materials and equipment for
Check all bracing and shoring to ensure that it has not further protection are immediately available at the plac-
been loosened or misplaced. ing site for use incase the weather becomes worse.
Verify that the subgrade has not been disturbed by the pre- When concrete is placed on Fridays, weekends, or Mon-
placement construction activities. days, exercise extra vigilance because the attention of the
Check ail forms for damage and mortar tightness, and workers and resulting workmanship may be at a low ebb.
make sure that tie bolts are tight at construction joints. Make sure that alI preparations have been completed
Check reinforcement for completeness and proper place- during the final inspection. Finishing some preparations
ment and make sure that the specified thickness of cover while concrete placing operations are beginning is not a
will be obtained. good practice and normally should not be permitted.
Give special attention to reinforcement that supports run-
ways for transporting concrete. (niis is poor practice and CHECKLIST FORM
many contract documents prohibit it.) It may be necessary The use of a Checklist form can be a great help when ana-
to provide additional bar supports in these areas. lyzing the concrete-placement process. Fig. 8.8 is an example
Recheck all inserts for proper size, location, mounting, of a comprehensive form used successfully on one project.
and protection against contamination. Check the forms The Checklist form is a listing on one sheet of the relevant

STDOACI SP-2-ENGL 1979 E Obb2947 0548217 3bT U
items discussed in this chapter, or those in Chapter 23, plus Place the Checklist form in a convenient and protected
any others that require attention before concrete placement. In spot on the formwork where anyone can quickly verify the
the form, columns at the right are for the name or initials of su- status of the preparations.The completed Checklist form
pervisors to certify the readiness of each item for inspection is collected by the concrete placing inspector as authori-
and for the inspector to sign when he or she approves it. Space zation to proceed with concreting and is included in the fi-
is also provided for the time of each signing. nal report.
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

S T D = A C I SP-2-ENGL 1799 Obb29'49 0546216 2Tb D
CHAPTER SCONCRETING OPERATIONS
After batching and mixing operations are complete, satis- HANDLING OF CONCRETE
factory concrete requires the following: The placing inspector is responsible for inspection of the
1. Conveying, placing, and consolidating without segrega- conveying, placing, consolidation, finishing, and curing of
tion; and consolidating thoroughly enough to fill all parts of the concrete. He or she may also be required to make tests of
the form to essentially eliminate air and rock pockets and to the fresh concrete. Review Chapter 19 prior to conducting
form a bond with adjacent steel or concrete. tests of fresh concrete.
2. Maintaining the required quality and uniformity of the Check the revolution counters on truck mixers (the minimum
concrete. is normaliy 70 to 100 revolutions at mixing speed) and that ad-
ditional revolutions are at agitating speed only. Also check wa-
3. Proper curing.
ter tanksto see that they are still fidl when concrete is discharged
The principles of concrete control with regard to selection
or kept completely empty, as required. Read the batch ticket of
and proportioning of materials are discussed in Chapters 2,3,
each truck mixer and see that the ticket is properly signed.
4, and 6. Recommended practice regarding batching and
Some contract documents limit the time after mixing that
mixing is discussed in Chapter 7 and in Concrete Manual
the concrete can be used. As explained in Chapter 7, a time
(USBR 1981) and AC1 304R. Conveying, placing, and fin-
limit is unnecessary if the concrete can be properly placed,
ishing are covered in this chapter and in Concrete Manual
consolidated, and finished without the addition of water (re-
(USBR 1981) and AC1 304R.
tempering). Good practice, and most contract documents,
The ultimate success of the concrete operations involves prohibit such belated additions of water. But do not confuse
site preparation, batch plant inspection, transportation to the retempering with adding water initially to adjust a slump
site, site handling of concrete, and care after placing. during mixing or when tmck mixers first arrive at the job.
Such initial addition of water is acceptable if slump loss is
SITE CONDITIONS considered and the maximum water-cementitious materials
Do not proceed with concreting unless requirements of the ratio (w,cml is not exceeded.
contract documents have been met regarding site preparation
as well as location and condition of forms and reinforcement.
Conveying
Items discussed in Chapter 8 must be completed. Preserve the aualitv and uniformitv of concrete while con-
1 ,
Review the planned placing sequence. veying it from the on-site mixer or delivery truck to the
Some contract documents prohibit concreting at night forms. Specific details of conveying equipment are given in
(to ensure visibility) or during periods of extreme heat, AC1 304R.
extreme cold, wind, or rain unless certain specified pro- Dump or drop concrete vertically, otherwise coarse
tection of the work is provided. (See the discussion on aggregate will segregate. The best method of insuring a
hot- and cold-weather concreting in Chapter 10.) On the vertical drop is to pass the concrete through a short sec-
other hand, some contract documents require concret- tion of dropchute. Baffle plates are not satisfactory
ing at night in hot weather to reduce evaporation and to because sometimes they merely change the direction of
reduce the temperature of the concrete, especially for segregation (Fig. 9.1).
structures in which cracking may be a problem, such as Unconfined drops must not cause segregation. A short
bridge decks, pavements, and mass concrete. Provide fall that results in stacking may cause more serious seg-
adequate lighting for night work. regation than a longer fall that creates a bulging mass.
Do not place additional lifts of concrete in columns and Scattered individual pieces of coarse aggregate are
walls until the specified period has elapsed, to allow for acceptable because they will be re-embedded into the
settlement, hardening, or cooling of previously placed concrete.
concrete. Never dump concrete over the reinforcement into deep
Do not deliver concrete so fast that proper placement forms because segregation will occur as the coarse
and consolidation are difficult or impossible. Deliver, aggregate rattles past the bars.
place, and consolidate concrete fast enough to prevent Many types of conveying devices are used, either alone or
undue delays and especially to prevent formation of in combination with other types (buckets, buggies, wheelbar-
cold joints. Delays contribute to slump loss and to rows, and trucks, including bucket air-lift as shown in Fig.
slump variation. 9.2). In filling containers, avoid segregation by using the
Check all equipment for proper operation, and keep methods shown in Fig. 9.1.
enough equipment on hand to ensure continuity of the Buckets and hoppers-Bottom dump buckets and hoppers
placement if failure of some equipment occurs. permit placement of low-slump concrete. They should have
Schedule enough personnel for the work. For example, side slopes of not less than 60 degrees with wide, free-work-
large slab areas placed in hot weather require a greater ing and tight-closing discharge gates.
number of finishers and better scheduling of operations Gates must readily open and close at any time during
than the same slabs constructed in cool weather. discharge.
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S T D - A C 1 SP-Z-ENGL 1779 m Obb2749 0548233 132 m
CONCRETING OPERATIONS 71
VNLESS OISCHARGE CF CONCRETE FROM MIXERS IS CONTROLLED. THE UNIFORMITY RESULTING

FROM EFFECTIVE MIXING WILL BE U€ 'ROYEO BY SEPARATION
a. b.
\:I
1
C O R R E C T I N C O R R E C T
DROPPING OF CONCRETE DROPPING OF CONCRET
A D E Q U A T E DIRECTLY OVER GATE ON SLOPING S I D E S CF
rf,
OPENING HOPPEH
CONCREIF DITCHARGE SHOULD
BE I N CENTER OF BUCKET. F I L L I N G C O N C R F T E
CAR, TRUCK. OR HOPPER. H O P P E R S OR B U C K E l S
I I 1 I
/UNSEPARATI
, D
'e.*<
.;
;?pVERT I C A L
, p
,:
C O R R E C T
U * o SQUARE
c IRCUL
!ITHER CF THE ARRANGEMENTS UT THE

. E F T PREVLNTS SEPARA1 ION REGURDLESS
I F LENGTH OF CHUTE OR CCNVIYOR. I N C O R R E C T
dHETHER OISCHARGING CONCP7Tt INTO DISCHARGE FROC CENTER OPENING TO SLOPING HOPPER GUTE5 UHICt:
3UCKETS. CURS. TRUCKS, CR HOPPERS GET VERTICUL CPOP INTO CENTER OF A R E I N EFFECI CHUTES W I I H
c 0Y T R 0L O F S E P A R A f I 0N A S BUGGY ULTERNATL APPROACH FROM OUT fND CONTROL CPUSING
c0Kc R E E Is 9 s c H R G E 0 OPPOSITE S I D E S PERMITS AS RAPID
LOADING AS MAY BE OBTAINED LIITH
OBJECTIONABLE SEPARAIION I N
F R O M M I X E R S F I L L I N G THE BUGGIES
' THE OF3JfITIONbbLE DIVIDE0 HOPPERS
HUVIlI(i 1 i0 DISCHARGE GUTES
d.
././
D I q C H A R G E OF H O P F E R S F O R
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L O A O IN G C O El C R E T E BUGGIES^ I
INCH HEAD RUBBER SCRAPER BUFFLE NO BAFFLE
ROOM FOR I ) e.
DOLINP I PE
. _.
INCH MINIMUM
HEADRQOM
í O h UO.iNPIPE
THE ABOVE PRRANGLMENT PREVENTS IYPROPER O R COMPLCIE LACK OF CONTROL A T
SEPUROTION OF CONCRETE W E I H E R END OF BELT USUALLY A BAFFLE OR SHALLO1.I
I T i s BEING D I S C H A R G E D INTO H o p PIOPPER YEAELY CHPNGfS THE D I R t C T I O N O í C O R R E C T
PERS 8UCKETS C U R S . TRUCKS. O R SEPARUTION THE ABOVE ARRANGEMEfil PREVENTS SEPA
FORMS RAT;ON, NO "ATTER HOri W O R T THE CHùTE.
i i H E l h r R CONCRETE I S BEING OISCHARGED
C O N T R O L O F S E P A R A T I P Y OF C O N C R E T E A T T H E I N 1 0 HOPPERS. BUCKETS. CARS. TRUCKS.
E N O OF C O N V E Y O R B E L T OR F O R A S
I N C O R R E C T
IMPROPER OR LACK OF CONTROL A I END O í ANY CO&
CRETE CHUTE. NO MATTER HOM SHORT. USUALLY A
EOfFLE MERELY CHANGES D I R E C T I O N OF SEPARATION.
CONTROL OF SCPARATION
AT THE EN0 Of CONCREIE CHUTES
T H I S APPLIES 10 SLOPING OISCHARGtS rROM M I X E R S , IRUCK
M1X:RS ETC US I " L L AS TO LONGER CHUTES BUT R î T &HEN
C ~ N T R O L A T T R A N S F E R POINT
CONCRETE I S D I S C H A R G E D INTO IINOTHER CHUTE OR ONTO A
O F TWO C O N V E Y O R B E L T S CONVEYOR BELT
Fig. 9. I-Correct and incorrect methods of handling concrete (fromACI 304R).

STDoACI SP-2-ENGL 1777 Obb2'147 0548220 754
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig. 9.2-Ready-mixed concrete truck discharging con-

crete into bucket for helicopter air-lift to wilderness
construction site. Fig. 9.3-Pumping enables placement of slab concrete with-
out runways or crane. Maintain direct communication
Prevent contamination of the equipment by loading on between pump operator and placing crew. The inspector
must verify that the contractor has supported reinforcement
platforms rather than on the ground. so that it will not be inadvertently moved by workers.
Do not swing buckets over freshly finished concrete.
Avoid concrete build-up during use.
the pump should be between 3 and 4 in., or slightly higher
Remove hardened concrete, clean, and lightly oil the for air-entrained concrete. A water-reducing admixture or a
bucket and gate control mechanism after each use. pumping aid (admixture) may be beneficial, especially during
Chutes and belts-Use round chutes to avoid accumula- hot weather.
tion of concrete in corners. The slope must be steep enough Inspect the condition of the concrete at the end of the
to permit concrete flow without a slump greater than that
pipeline, slump at each end of the line, and see that no
specified or required for placement (the slope usually re-
unauthorized water is placed in the pump hopper.
quired is 1 vertical to 2 or 2-1/2 horizontal).
Thoroughly clean the pump and pipe after pumping is
Conveyor belts are widely used. The concrete is deposited
done. Water used to clean the pipe must be wasted out-
through hoppers onto the belt in a continuousribbon. Numer-
side the forms.
ous configurations of belts are possible to deposit concrete
even in relatively inaccessible areas. When using belts, avoid Air used to force concrete through pipes tends to dry
segregation by discharge through a suitable dropchute. the concrete and whip it to a stiffer consistency. There-
In hot, dry,or windy weather, cover long lines of chutes or fore, a consistency wetter than that desired in the forms
belts if necessary to prevent drying of concrete and excessive is usually necessary at the beginning of the line.
slump loss. Covering high-speed belt conveyors may not be Keep discharge lines horizontal or inclined upward
mandatory except under extreme drying conditions. Use mo- from the machine.
bile chutes or belts to move as close as possible to the place- Because segregation occurs when concrete issues at
ment location. When chutes or belts are flushed with water high velocity from the end of the pipe, discharge con-
for cleaning, do not allow the water and diluted concrete to crete slowly until the end of the pipe is buried in con-
drain into the forms or on freshly cast or finished concrete. crete, and use appropriate discharge hoods to baffle the
Purnping-Pumping with light, small-line pumps that can discharge.
handle concrete with aggregate up to 1-1/2 in. through pipes Control pneumatic placing equipment carefully to pro-
and hoses ranging from 4 to 6 in. in diameter is very popular duce uniform in place concrete.
(Fig. 9.3). Before deciding to use a pump, however, test the
proposed equipment and line layout with concrete materials Placing
and mixtures otherwise suitable and appropriate for the job. Placing methds should keep the concrete uniform and tite
Pipelines are available in steel, aluminum, and plastic. Alu- from obvious imperfections. This stage of the work often can be
minum pipelines, however, are prohibited by most contract the key point of the whole concreting operation. h p e r placing
documents because aluminum abraded by the flow of the methods will prevent segregation and porous or honeycombed ar-
concrete will often form hydrogen gas that causes damaging eas,avoid displacement of forms and reinforcement, secm a ñnn
expansion of concrete. Pumping practices are described bond between iayers, minimize shrinkage cracking, and produce
more fully in Chapter 15. a stnictureof good appearance (USBR 1981;AC1 304R).
Pumping requires a continuous supply of uniform, plas- Direction and location of concrete drop-Drop concrete
tic, workable concrete of medium consistency. It is helpful vertically to avoid segregation. Use drop chutes, if neces-
to reduce the coarse aggregate up to lo%, but this increases sary, to avoid striking reinforcement or sides of the form.
both the water and the cementitious material content if the This will minimize segregation and coating of surfaces with
w/cm is not to be exceeded. Slump of concrete delivered to mortar. Dry mortar coating on reinforcement reduces bond.

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1779 = Obb27Li9 0 5 q ô 2 2 1 890 m
Do not distribute concrete by pushing or pulling lower before placing resumes, refer to the section on construction
sections of sectional drop chutes to a considerable angle joints later in this chapter.
from the vertical because serious segregation occurs. Do not walk on fresh concrete or reinforcement, nor
Instead, hold the lowest section in a vertical position. engage inactivities that will affect the uniformity, fin-
When concrete placement is near the top, segregation ish, or bond.
and coating of forms can be avoided, time and labor On wide slab work, provide working platforms that
saved, and concrete better placed and distributed by span the entire width of the slab to avoid disturbing the
dumping buckets or other delivery equipment directly freshly placed concrete.
without hoppers or drop chutes (USBR 1981). Keep muddy boots out of fresh concrete.
Deposit concrete near its final location, and do not Measure surface elevations before, during, and after con-
allow it to flow laterally unless the whole mixture is creting. Slow settlements often go unnoticed and exces-
moving without segregation. sive deflection or settlement of shores during or after
For best durability, place concrete directly in comers concreting is a sign of trouble. Shores on ground are par-
and ends of walls, so that flow is away from the comers ticularly susceptible to a creeping settlement that causes
and ends rather than toward them. excessive deflections of green slabs, and cracking.
In slab construction, dump new concrete against the Include provisions for adjustment (wedges) of shores.
concrete in place, not away from it. Workers may neglect further adjustment after the
Deposit only as much concrete at one place as can be inspector’s preliminary approval (before start of con-
consolidated conveniently. crete placement), unless required to continually check
Keep the top of a layer nearly level. forms and bracing during placing. (Discussion of forms
in Chapter 8.)
Limit the depth of the first layer placed on hardened con-
crete or rock to 20 in. Dig out and scatter segregated
coarse aggregate on other areas rather than covering it CONSOLIDATION
Consolidate concrete thoroughly as it is being placed using
with mortar because covering can result in a rock pocket.
hand tools, mechanical vibrators (preferably), vibrating
An unusually stiff batch of concrete may be saved by screeds, or finishing machines to secure a dense concrete,
spreading it in a shallow layer and working it into the good bond with reinforcement, and smooth surfaces. Work
other concrete. the concrete well around reinforcement and embedded fix-
Do not use toothed rakes to spread concrete of any tures and into comers of the forms. If the concrete mixture
kind; use come-alongs or similar solid-faced tools or tends to segregate or stratify when worked or vibrated, re-
shovels. duce its water content or reproportion it as necessary.
Deep lifts-Near the top of a deep lift, concrete tends to Be sure sufficient consolidation equipment and personnel are
become wetter because water in lower concrete migrates up- available for the planned production rate that must allow con-
ward. To offset this, use a drier consistency as the level of crete to be consolidated fast enough to prevent delays and pos-
concrete rises. This normally causes no problem in placing sible cold joints. When consolidation is slowed unexpectedly by
because concrete near the top can be reached more easily for congested conditions,failure of equipment, poor workability of
vibration. If bleed water rises to the surface, it is probably the mixture, or other cause, also reduce the rate of batching and
due to sand deficient in fines, a lean mixture, or high-slump mixing.
concrete. Such bleeding, either of clear water or water and Do not allow unconsolidated concrete to accumulate in the
fines, produces a top surface of weak concrete, unsuitable ei- forms or to stand idle and stiffen in the mixer, hopper, bucket,
ther for a construction joint surface to which additional con- or other part of the conveying system.
crete will be bonded, or for exposure to weather or traffic.
Air-entrained concrete has a significantly lower bleeding Hand tamping
potential than non-air-entrained concrete. For dry, hand-tamped concrete, ram the surfaces with
Before placing concrete in floor slabs and beams on top of heavy flat-faced tools until a thin film of mortar or paste ap-
fresh concrete in walls and columns, allow ample time for pears at the surface, showing that voids of the aggregate have
settlement of concrete in the vertical placement or else been filled.
cracking will result. Delay the second placement until con-
crete in the walls and columns can no longer be revibrated. Vibration
The delay will be shorter in warm weather. Vibration consolidates low-slump mixtures that cannot be
Correct placement-Fig. 9.4 and 9.5 show correct meth- compacted by hand methods except possibly by ramming,
ods of placing concrete. If possible, maintain continuity which is expensive, and often infeasible. Vibration permits
without undue delays except as noted previously; however, placing and consolidating concrete with slump of 2 to 4 in. in
equipment breakdowns or rain can interrupt placing opera- heavily reinforced members, and even lower slump in open
tions. Whenever interruptions occur, shade the concrete face placements. Low-slump concrete has less tendency to segre-
by covering it with wet (not dripping) burlap, particularly gate than the wetter, higher-slump mixtures that are neces-
during hot, dry, and windy conditions. A fog spray is another sary when concrete is consolidated by hand. Do not expect
suitable protection method. If the concrete reaches a final set vibration to correct segregation that has already occurred be-
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

S T D * A C I SP-Z-ENGL AY77 = ObL2949 0548222 727
CONCRETE WILL SEPARATE SERIOUSLY UNLESS
I INTROOUCEO I N T O ORWS PROPERLY
b.
CONSTA
SLUU
SLUMP R E O L C E D
AS FORM IS F I L L E 0
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
C O R R E C T I N C O R R E C 1
DISCHARGE CONCRETE INTO TO PERUIT CONCRETE FROM CHUTE

LIGHT HOPPER FEEDING INTO OR BUGGY TO STRIKE AGAINST - -
LIGHT F L E X I B L E OROP C W T E . FORM ANO RICOCHET ON BARS ANO
SEPARATION I S AVOIDED. FORM FACES CAUSING SEPARATION C O R R E C T I N C O R R E C T
FORMS PNO STEEL ARE CLEAN ANO WNEVCOMBPT THE BOTTW.
NECESSARILY WETTER CONCRETE TO USE SAME SLUMP PT TOP
U N T I L CONCRETE COVERS THEU. As REQUIRED AT BOTTOM OF
AT BOTTOM OF DEEP NARROU
FORM MADE DRIER AS MORE Ac- LIFT. HIGH swup a i TOP
CESSIBLE LIFTS NEAR TOP ARE RESULTS I N EXCESSIVE
I RACING CONCRETE I N mP OF NARROII FORM REACHED. WATER G A I N TENOS

TO EQUALIZE QUALITY OF CON-
CRETE. SETTLEU€NT SHR INKAGE
WATER G A I N WITH RESULlANT
DISCOLORATION. LOSS OF
QUALITY AND O U R A B I L I T Y I N
I =*
IS M I N I W M . THE UPPER LA'IER.
d.
BUCKET "OLEO BY COUPRESSEO A I R
CRANE ANO R E R I N - FROU CRANE FOR
ORTABLE OROP C BUCKET GPTE
TO UOVEABLE POCKET
OPENI'NG I N FORM.
MORTAR
FRAUEUORK TO PRO- COLLECTOR

C H E UNDER
I
TECT COLLECTOR
C O R R E C T I N C O R R E C T BUCKET GATE
CONE FROU O A W G E r
PEWINENTLY
A T ï A C M D TO
BUCKET F R I R E .
\CORO TO OPERITI
, A I R ACTUATED
GPTE FRMI THE
FûRW .
I C O R R E C T I N C O R R E C T
DROP CONCRETE V E R f l C P L L V TO PERMIT N I G H VELOCITY STREAU F L E X I B L E DROP CHUTE ATTACHE0 TO COLLECTOR

INTO OUTSIDE POCKET UNOER OF CONCRETE TO ENTER FORMS ON CONE. CWTE COLLPPSES F U T UHEN W CON-
EACH FORM OPENING SO AS TO AN ANGLE FROn THE VERTICAL. CRETE I S DROPPING. A L L W I N G I T TO BE USED
LET CONCRETE STOP AND FLOU THIS INVARIABLY RESULTS I N FOR THE S W L L E S T SIZE AGGREGATE AS E L L AS
EASILY OVER INTO FORM SEPARATION. BEING LARGE ENQIGH TOR THE LARGEST.
UITHOUT SEPARATION.
Fig. 9.4-Correct and incorrect methods of placing concrete @om ACI 304R).

CONCRETE WILL SEPARATE SERIOUSLY UNLESS

INTROOUCEO I N T O FORMS PROPERLY
a. t
C O R R E C T I N C O R R E C I
TO DUMP CONCRETE INTO FACE TO DUMP CONCRETE nuru FROM
OF CONCRETE IN PLACE. CONCRETE I N PLIICE.
I N C O R R E C T
PLACE BAFFLE ANO DROP AT TO DISCHARGE CONCRETE FROM A
END OF CHUTE so THAT SEP. FREE END CHUTE ON A SLOPE TO PLACING SLAB CONCRETE
ARATIDN I S AVOIDED ANO BE PIIVED ROCK I S SEPARATED
CONCRETE REMAINS ON SLOPE LINO GOES TO BOTTOM OF SLOPE. FROI WGGIES
VELOCITY TENDS 10 CARRY
CONCREIE DOUN SLOPE
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RkCINC C U C H T E ON A SLOPING SURFACE
h.
AoEgunTE SUPPORTS
TO M A I N T A I N DROP
P I P E R I G I D AND PLUM9
I;
MORTIIR
PLACING CONCRETE I N TOP OF NARRCM FORH
BY C m E K w ahu HOSE
C O R R E C T
Fig. 9.5-Correct
ROL K II N C O R R E C T
PLACING I N DEEP OR CURVE0 WALL

BY CONCRETE PUMP AND HOSE
F
RANSFER TO POINT
and incorrect methods of placing concrete (from ACI 304R).

REINFORCED RUBBER BOOT
PLACING CaFICRETE BY
rn PIPE
NOTE: A STRCM OPEN TUB FROM WHICH CONCRETE

OVERFLOWS INTO A REGULAR HOPPER FOR A DISCHARGE TO
A BELT BUCKET CHUTE OR PUMP CAN BE SUBSllliJlfD
FOR n i € REINF~RCED ~UBBER.BOOT.

S T D * A C I SP-Z-ENGL 1997 = Obb29119 I35q8224 5TT =
hole will be left in any stiff concrete. Do not use the vibrator
to cause concrete to flow from one location to another, be-
cause such a practice usually causes segregation, with the
larger coarse aggregate remaining behind. In thin slabs, it is
not feasible to use internal vibrators inserted vertically. See
Chapter 12 for detailed discussion of consolidation of con-
crete in slabs.
When consolidating concrete placed on hardened concrete
or rock, the first layer requires more vibration than succeed-
ing layers to ensure continuous tight contact at the cold joint.
This working is best accomplished by insertion of the vibra-
tors at about half the normal spacing for short periods of
time. Thoroughly vibrate succeeding layers into the preced-
ing layer while both are still plastic.
Fig. 9 . 6 I n t e m l vibration momentarily liquejìes the mix- Ordinarily, internal vibrators will not damage concrete in
ture, removing entrapped air and readily consoldating low-
slump concrete. lower lifts nor steel reinforcement. In fact, revibration of
concrete is beneficial if the concrete will respond to the vi-
brator and again become plastic (that is, a running internal
cause of faulty methods of handling and placing, nor to guar-
vibrator will sink into the concrete of its own weight). Leave
antee good results if the mixture proportions are not correct.
vibrators running as they are slowly withdrawn. Late revi-
Detailed recommendations for consolidating concrete by bration of the concrete will do much to eliminate horizontal
vibration, including information on vibrator types and sizes checks and plastic-shrinkage cracks caused by the settlement
are given in AC1 309. of concrete held up by reinforcement or irregular forms. Re-
Vibrators are of three general types: internal, surface, and vibration will increase concrete strength, decrease the num-
form. For best results when using internal vibrators, follow ber of air bubble holes in upper formed areas, strengthen
the size, frequency, and amplitude recommendations of AC1 bond under horizontal bars and embedments, and reduce
309. Apply vibrators systematically at close intervals so that leakage under form bolts.
vibrated areas of concrete overlap without omission. For nor- The same revibration procedures around built-in frames
malweight concrete, continue vibration until the concrete is (such as windows) will help avoid cracking from uneven
thoroughly consolidated and the voids filled, as evidenced by settlement.
the leveled appearance of the concrete at the exposed surface Begin placing and consolidating concrete on a slope at the
and the embedment of surface aggregate. When in doubt as bottom, and delay finishing operations to avoid sag. Heavy
to the adequacy of the vibration procedure for normalweight powered nonvibrated screeds are helpful in securing the
concrete, apply more vibration. There is little chance of over- proper slope.
vibrating a properly proportioned mixture. Because concrete A surface vibrator (Chapter 13, Fig. 13.6) should consoli-
that can be overvibrated is too wet or too susceptible to seg- date the layer being placed to its full depth. If not, either re-
regation, reduce the slump, or modify the mixture propor- duce the depth of layer or use a more powerful machine. Use
tions rather than reduce the vibration. Fear of overvibration of a surface vibrator (vibratory screed, pan-type vibrator, and
has caused poor results more often than overvibration itself. form vibrator) requires that the concrete mixture be properly
When the coarse aggregate is much lighter than the mor- proportioned and have a low slump. Otherwise, an undesir-
tar, however, such as with lightweight-aggregate concrete, able amount of laitance may be (and probably will be)
over-vibration or other consolidation effort tends to strati@ brought to the surface.
the mixture. Because of the lower specific gravity of light- Form vibrators are used most frequently in precasting op-
weight coarse aggregate, some large particles will probably erations (Fig. 9.7). Form vibration, however, is suitable for
rise to the surface, even under careful vibration. In this thin sections of cast-in-place concrete and is a useful supple-
case, use a tamper grate to drive the particles below the sur- ment to internal vibration at locations where it is difficult or
face, and thus allow proper finishing (Chapter 16). For ei- impossible to insert an internal vibrator. It is also useful in re-
ther lightweight or heavyweight concrete mixtures, limit ducing air voids (bug holes) on formed surfaces. Select and
vibration to that necessary for effective consolidation. For mount the form vibrator to be most effective (Fig. 9.8) and,
structural concrete, the desired results will usually be se- if necessary, strengthen and stiffen the forms. Form vibrators
cured within 5 to 15 s when vibration points are 18 to 30 in. must be powerful enough to effectively vibrate the forms.
apart rather than for longer periods at wider intervals. Refer This, in turn, requires that the forms be sufficiently strong
to Chapter 13 for proper procedures for consolidation of and rigid to withstand the vibration without distortion or
concrete pavement. leakage of mortar.
When consolidating with an internal vibrator, quickly in-
sert it vertically (Fig. 9.6) to the full depth of the layer being FINISHING
placed. Do not drag it through the concrete, but slowly with- The quality of a concrete surface is largely judged by the
draw it vertically while operating it continuously so that no condition and appearance of the finished surface. Exposed
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S T D - A C 1 SP-Z.*ENGL lr‘117 IB Ubb2997 05Li8225 Li3b W
Fig. 9.7-Electric-driven immersion type vibrator being Fig. 9.9-A screed forms the concrete sufuce by using
used for wall placement. screed guide.
Fig. 9.8-External vibrators muy be mounted on brackets

attached to forms. Use this method with caution, employing Fig. 9. IO-Long-hundìed bull float used on pavement slab.
only low-amplitude, high-jïrequency units.
surfaces are subjected to conditions (ranging from benign to alignment by using a straightedge or template (Fig.
severe) of wetting or drying, temperature changes, and me- 9.1 1). Correct high and low areas at once. Perform ini-
chanical wear. In addition, most concrete surfaces are sub- tial edging and joint grooving operations at this stage,
ject to cracking from excessive drying shrinkage. To while the concrete is still fairly plastic.
improve these conditions, the concrete must contain the Allow water that comes to the surface during darbying
proper mixture (without excessive water content), must be or bull floating to evaporate before the surface is floated
properly consolidated and finished, and must be properly with hand or machine floats.
cured for the specified time, according to AC1 302.1R. Start hand or machine floating just after the surface sheen
disappears. If the amount of water or laitance is excessive,
Unformed surfaces scrape it off before the surface is floated again. A large loop
Select concrete proportions and consistency and consoli- of garden hose pulled across the surface is effective for re-
dation methods so that only sufficient mortar for finishing moving excess surface water. Do not sprinkle dry cement
purposes is available at the surface. If the mixture is over- or a mixture of dry cement and sand (“dry shake”) on the
sanded or too wet, or if the concrete is overworked in con- surface of the fresh concrete. The absorbent properties of
solidating or finishing, the surface is likely to be covered dry cement placed on top of burlap covering the surface,
with bleed water or to contain a relatively deep layer of over- however, can be used to advantage in certain special tech-
wet mortar or laitance. Spread the concrete evenly ahead of niques for hardened floor finishing and pavement construc-
the strike off screed. During early finishing operations, work tion. Before finishing, carefully remove the burlap to
the surface as little as possible (Fig. 9.9). prevent contamination of the surface.
Darbying or bull floating (Fig. 9.10) is used to remove Control ail finishing operations to prevent bringing an ex-
high and low spots and to produce a true plane surface. cess of paste to the surface. No finishing operation should take
After darbying or bull floating is complete and while place while there is excess wetness or bleed water at the sur-
the surface is still fairly soft, check the surface for face. After darbying or bull floating and prior to troweling, use
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

STDmACI SP-2-ENGL 197?7 = Obb27q9 059822L 372
Fig. 9.12-Troweling smooths and compactsfresh concrete.
tic-shrinkage cracking in flatwork placed under unfavor-

able conditions. This plastic cracking can sometimes be
prevented or remedied by timely working of the surface,
Fig. 9.1I-Handled, cutting straightedge must be used to
true up the concrete sur$ace. accomplished by a somewhat later-than-usual floating fol-
lowed by a slightly early troweling. Cracks that form before
troweling can often be successfully beaten together with
floating (by hand or with power floats) to remove remaining
the float. If cracks are merely troweled over, they are likely
minor irregularities in the surface and to begin densification of
to show later.
the surface. Concrete is ready for floating when any water
sheen has disappeared and when a person stepping on the sur- Rain-During rain, either provide a fully effective shel-
face leaves an imprint approximately 1/4 in. deep. ter or discontinue the work until the rain has stopped. So far
Delay troweling as long as possible. The proper time inter- as practicable, make preparations in advance for protection
from rain when work must continue under such conditions.
val varies with the cement, weather, and other conditions;
Rain falling on freshly placed concrete may erode the sur-
roughly, it is ready when the surface just reaches the stage
that it can no longer be dented with the finger. If the surface face of the fresh concrete, dilute the mortar at and near the
surface, and quickly damage newly finished work.
is troweled too soon, a layer of scum (laitance) is formed at
the surface; if too late, the partly hardened concrete is too
hard to be troweled effectively. Formed surfaces
During troweling, tilt the steel trowel at a slight angle, and Contract documents should state clearly what finish is re-
exert heavy pressure to compact the paste and form a dense, quired or will be permitted on formed surfaces. These finishes
hard surface (Fig. 9.12). increase both the angle and pressure may range from merely knocking off the fins and repairing
of the trowel with each operation if the surface will receive imperfections to one of several decorative finishes (see K A
more than one troweling. See Chapter 15 for vacuum pro- 1980; AC1 303R). Regardless of the method of finishing,
cessing of slab surfaces. uniformity of surface texture and color is of primary impor-
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
tance for good appearance.
In general, form edge finishes at joints and edges with
jointers and edgers and clear away surplus mortar. Use thin, Repair imperfections as early as possible to make the
small radius edgers and jointers, and avoid working the con- repair more nearly monolithic with the base concrete.
crete at joints and edges more than the absolute minimum. By the time the forms are removed, the concrete has
Air-entrained concrete-Because air-entrained concrete has acquired a considerable degree of hardness, therefore,
less bleeding, it is sometimes considered more difficult to finish many finish operations (other than textures provided by
because the surface layer tends to stiffen more rapidly than the the forms) must be applied as soon as possible.
interior of the dah. It may be helpful to use a stiffer mixture that Finishing procedures used on formed surfaces include
will provide more uniformity in setting throughout the depth, sandblasting, brushing, scrubbing, bagging, and rub-
and to finish earlier than is usual for non-air-entrained concrete. bing. If the surface will be ground, chipped, or
A magnesium or aluminum float, instead of wood, facilitates bush-hammered, delay operations until the concrete has
finishing of air-entrained concrete. gained sufficient strength to prevent loosening the
Plastic-shrinkage crucking-Cracks appearing on un- coarse aggregate particles.
formed concrete surfaces soon after placement (while the Plastering can be done any time after concrete has
concrete is still plastic) are usually caused by excessive cured sufficiently.
evaporation due to extreme heat and dry wind and are com- At the time forms are removed, observe the condition of
monly called plastic-shrinkage cracks. These are randomly the concrete surface to determine the necessity for
oriented, unconnected cracks, wide at the surface but only repairs and to plan finishing and repairing operations.
moderately deep. Use of fog spraying, wind screens, sun Damp-pack holes left by tie-rods with stiff mortar of
shades, plastic sheets, or other means to inhibit loss of the same materials as, but somewhat leaner than, that in
moisture between finishing operations will minimize plas- the concrete. To make holes less conspicuous use some

S T D o A C I SP-Z-ENGL 17YY W OLL2747 0548227 209 U
white cement in the patching mortar. The amount of earlier the subsequent lift is placed, the better the chances
white cement can be determined by several trial for achieving satisfactory bond.
patches left to dry for several weeks. Surface finish the The essential requirements for joint surfaces on the older
mortar with a wood block to render the patch less con- concrete are that they be clean and that the aggregate not be
spicuous. Do not use metal tools because they will loosened nor the edges or comers of the concrete shattered.
darken it. Cleaning by means of an air-water jet or wire brooming can
Repair defective areas at once by approved methods and be done when the concrete is still soft enough that any scum
not by cosmetic applications that hide deeper problems. (laitance) can be removed, but has hardened enough that the
Do not allow repair work to interfere with immediate aggregate will not be loosened. Then keep the surface damp
application of continuous moist curing on adjacent by ponding or sprinkling with water, or by covering with
areas. Because the two operations tend to be conflict- damp sand until the new concrete is placed or until the spec-
ing, this matter requires special attention by the inspec- ified time of curing has elapsed. Otherwise, such surfaces are
tor. Throughout the operations of repairing defects and usually so contaminated by the time the next lift is to be
finishing the surface, do not allow the surface to placed that only sandblasting or high-pressure water blasting
become dry or the new repairs to be damaged by the will restore their cleanness acceptably. For economy and as-
curing operations. surance of cleanliness, postpone the cleanup until just before
Chapter I 1 discusses repairs in detail. placing the next lift of concrete, and then use wet sandblast
or high-pressure water jet to remove the surface film and
contaminants. These procedures are usually applicable to
CONSTRUCTION JOINTS dams, but are not widely used in building construction.
Planned construction joints
Where high-quality joints are desired, however, similar pro-
Construction joints, as distinguished from expansion
cedures should be used for buildings.
joints, are required by construction operations but do not
Placing practices, starting mixtures-Embed coarse ag-
necessarily allow movement across the joint. Plan construc-
gregate in the surface concrete when it is placed because
tion joint locations ahead of placing, and adhere to those lo-
roughness may interfere with a thorough cleanup of the
cations if possible. Generally, they mark the top of a lift, the
joint surface. Roughness of a joint surface is not required
end of a monolith, or the end of a day’s work. They should
for a well-bonded joint. When placing new concrete on a
be properly located, neat, and well-bonded.
horizontal surface, a bedding layer of mortar of the same
Locate construction joints in floor slabs and beams
mixture as that in the concrete may be broomed into the old
near the middle of the span (where the shear is least) surface after it has been kept continuously moist for several
and make them vertical (normal to the axis of the slab hours. This was a common practice in the past but is now
or beam). Always locate construction joints in high- losing favor for most applications.
way or airport pavements at planned contraction or Instead of using the mortar treatment, most authorities
expansion joints (Chapter 13). prefer to start placing with a starting concrete mixture on a
Because construction joints frequently leak and clean joint surface that is damp but not wet. If the regular
degrade in the weather, avoid them as much as possi- concrete contains aggregate larger than 3/4 in., a suitable
ble, consistent with contract document limits or good starting mixture can be made simply by omitting that part
practice on depth and extent of placements. of the aggregate that is larger than 3/4 in. If 314 in. or less
Preparing joint suïjiaces and edges-Contract documents is the specified maximum aggregate size, an extra bag of
may require surface cleaning, key construction, or insertion cement per yd3 in the first batches and enough additional
of dowels or tie bars at construction joints. Recommended water to make a 6 in. slump will serve the purpose. Provide
practice regarding location, design, and preparation of con- enough of this concrete to make a layer 4 to 6 in. deep, and
struction joints is given in Concrete Manual (USBR 1981) drop it into place at many locations so that it will be well
and AC1 304R. See Chapter 13 for discussion of joints in spread on the joint surface. When the first layer of normal
pavements. mixture concrete is placed on this starting-mixture, vibrate
In a wall, column, or other vertical lift, when the level of both layers thoroughly, making sure the vibrators penetrate
concrete reaches a horizontal construction joint, bring the to hard bottom each time. If the joint surface is clean, the
exposed edge of the joint to a neat line, by either forming starting-mixture method is just as effective in bonding, and
or trimming. For succeeding placements, hold and tie the it avoids possible concentrations of mortar and problems
form tight against a joint edge with minimum overlap be- caused by interruption of the concreting operation. A slight
fore additional concrete is placed, to prevent mortar leak- change in color may be noted at the joints with either pro-
age or offset of surfaces. If only a few hours elapse cess. The mortar procedure is much easier when the contact
between successive lifts that should be well-bonded, it is surfaces are small, as in most building construction.
not necessary to prepare the contact surface of the older If the mortar from concrete is well-vibrated against verti-
concrete if the surface is clean and damp, but not wet. If cal or steeply inclined surfaces, it is generally considered to
green concrete is not dirty, dry, or covered with a layer of be ample. If strong bond is required, however, first sandblast
laitance, new concrete can be adequately bonded by vibrat- the surface of the old concrete when it is accessible prior to
ing it thoroughly over the area of contact. Obviously, the form erection. Later, as concrete is placed, thoroughly vi-
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S T D * A C I SP-2-ENGL. 1999 P ObL29i(1 05Y6228 lair5
brate it against the joint. Because upper areas of a vertical The designer and the inspector should require that tentative
joint are weakened by bleeding and water gain, vibrate con- plans and details for installing such a construction joint be
crete at the joint deeply as late as the running vibrator will made ahead of time. When need for an unplanned construc-
penetrate the concrete of its own weight. tion joint arises, consult with the designer regarding possible
effects of the joint on structural behavior or safety.
Unplanned construction joints When joints are not indicated on the plans, locate and con-
Breakdowns,lack of concrete delivery, or many other construct them so as to least impair strength of the structure. In
struction problems may make it necessary to stop placement construction of unplanned joints, observe all of the precau-
of concrete at locations other than those previously planned. tions and methods discussed previously.
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S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1477 Clbh29Y9 U546227 Oô31 m
CURING, PROTECTION, FORM REMOVAL, RESHORING 81
CHAPTER 1&CURING, PROTECTION, FORM REMOVAL, AND RESHORING
Inspection does not end with the actual casting of concrete;

it is still necessary to see that the concrete is protected from
damage and is properly cured. Continue observation of fin-
ished parts of the work throughout the construction period.
REMOVAL AND SUPPORT OF FORMS

Time of removal
The time of form removal is based on the effect on the
concrete. Contract documents usually contain requirements
for removal time based on tests of job-cured cylinders. For
methods of evaluation of these test results, and for minimum
cylinder strengths, see detailed recommendations for remov-
al of forms (and for support and reshoring, discussed as fol-
lows) in AC1 301, AC1 306R, AC1 318, and AC1 347R.
Keep records of weather conditions and other pertinent Fig. 10.1-High wall form with ties, studding, wales, and
information and use these in conjunction with the test bracing in place-concrete placement in progress.
results.
When test cylinders are used to determine stripping
(form-removal) times, cure them under conditions that
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are not more favorable than the most unfavorable con-

ditions of the concrete that the cylinders represent.
Usually the designer’s approval is required before sup-
porting forms can be removed, but in many cases, this
responsibility is delegated to the inspector under a gen-
eral ruling of policy.
When stripping operations are not controlled by the contract
documents, AC1 347R provides minimum times that should
elapse prior to stripping, depending on the type of concrete
member. These times are the accumulated number of days for
air temperatures above 50 F, assuming that Type I portland ce-
ment is used. If Type III cement is used, these times may be re- Fig. 10.2-Multistory work-shores and reshores.
duced on approval of the designer. Of course, the times must
be increased if low temperatures are experienced. forms and supports without impact or shock, and allow the con-
Early removal of forms is desirable for finishing and is crete to assume load gradually and uniformly.
usually desirable for curing. When protection is not needed, Multistory work-Multistory work presents special condi-
nonsupporting forms (for example, for walls, columns, and tions for removal of forms and shores. The shoring that sup-
beam sides) can be removed as soon as it can be done with- ports fresh (green) concrete is necessarily supported by lower
, out damage to concrete surfaces and edges. In warm, dry floors, that may not have been designed for these loads. In
weather especially, it is preferable to remove the forms and such a case, the lower floors must also be shored to help carry
start curing as soon as possible. While forms remain in the load of shores above. Shoring must be provided for a suf-
place, keep exposed portions of the concrete wet. In hot, dry ficient number of floors to support the imposed loads without
weather, keep wood forms wet. excessive stress or deflection. AC1 SP-4 (Hurd 1989) and
AC1 347R provide detailed information on the design of
Support and reshoring forms and shores to support concrete.
Allow forms supporting concrete (Fig. 10.1) to remain For multistory construction, a structural engineer must de-
undisturbed until the concrete can bear its own weight sign all shores, reshores, and other supports. Recent failures
plus construction live and dead loads. At no time should have indicated that past engineering practice on reshores has
the construction load exceed that for which the member not been sufficiently conservative. The designer should be
was designed. Sometimes, the designer will provide for certain that reshores extend through a sufficient number of
construction loads, such as in multistory work. lower floors.
Timing of removal of supporting forms and shores must be Reshoring (Fig. 10.2) is one of the most critical opera-
approved by the designer or as specified in the contract docu- tions in multistory construction. Reshore when large areas
ments. As a general nile, forms for columns, piers, and walls can of new construction will be required to support combined
be removed before those for beams and slabs. Always remove dead and construction loads that exceed their capability.

pact backfill on and against concrete only when the concrete

is strong enough to carry the load, and with care to avoid im-
pact. Carefully control backfilling and compaction against
wails, particularly high unbraced walls, using hand compac-
tors. Do not use heavy equipment close to any wall, as it may
cause cracking, abrasion or other damage. Some basement/
retaining walls are designed so as to require interior floors,
or specific bracing and superimposed loads, to be installed
before exterior backfilling.
Prevent damage to curing compounds, waterproof coat-
ings, insulation, and similar materials by excluding large or
sharp pieces of material from the backfill near the concrete.
CURING
Fig. 10.3-Inclined su$ace of concrete base reshored after Most contract documents require that exposed surfaces of
form removal.
concrete containing standard portland cement (Type I) be
Carry out removal operations in a sequence, so that the sup- kept continuously moist for at least 7 days. Concretes con-
ported structure is not subjected to impact or loading eccen- taining high early-strength cements (Type III) require less
tricities (Fig. 10.3). time (about half), and slow-hardeningcements (Types II, IV,
While reshoring is under way, do not permit construction V, and IP and pozzolanic cement replacements) need more
loads on the new construction. Locate reshores in the same time than standard Type I cement for best results (two to
position on each successive floor. Where shores are not di- three times as long). Extensive tests indicate that the greater
rectly over reshores, an analysis should be made by the de- the amount of moisture retained within the concrete, the
signer responsible for shoring to determine if detrimental greater the curing efficiency.
bending stress will be produced in the lower slab. AC1 347R
provides detailed guidance for placing reshores. Be familiar Moist curing
with those details. The preferred method of curing is moist curing by use of con-
Place reshores as soon as possible after stripping opera- tinuous sprays, flowing or ponded water, or continuously satu-
tions are complete, but in no case later than the end of the rated coverings of sand, burlap, or other absorbent material.
working day on which stripping occurs. Place reshores at the Apply water to unformed surfaces as soon as it will not
location and timing approved by the architect-engineer. damage the finish, and to formed surfaces immediately after
Do not remove reshoring until the supported concrete forms are stripped. Use nonstaining water for curing where
member has attained sufficient strength to carry all appearance is important in the completed structure. Staining
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loads on it. may be caused by water containing a high iron content, by
Laterally brace shores and reshores, and remove ferrous pipes used to spread the curing water, and by other
reshores only with the approval of the designer. staining agents. Perforated plastic tubing or canvas soaker
hoses are satisfactory for distribution of curing water.
Protection from damage Wet burlap is inexpensive and can be applied without
Construction operations may injure concrete already in damage to the surface almost immediately after concrete is
place by overloading, jarring, or marring of surfaces. Occa- finished. Cotton mats and old carpets may be used in the
sional jarring or vibration, if not severe, generally is not det- same manner as burlap. Burlap or other wet covers should be
rimental, but do not permit heavy impact likely to damage clean and not stain the concrete. New burlap, or old burlap
green concrete. Loads imposed by storage of construction that has been contaminated, may stain the concrete.
material, by reshoring of upper floors, and by operation of Keep burlap on formed surfaces wet with perforated plastic
construction equipment are, in many cases, the most severe tubing or soaker hose pig. 10.4) along the top of the work or
loads that will be imposed on the structure. by other means and maintain the burlap in contact with the
i Make sure storage loads are spaced to avoid overloading any concrete surface. Use more than one thickness of burlap. If the
portion of the structure. Additional reshoring may be required burlap or other cover is used for the entire curing period,allow
in congested areas where such loads cannot be spread out. it to dry before removal @articularly in dry weather). The con-
Cover the floors on which construction activity is taking crete will then dry more slowly and be less subject to cracking.
place to protect the surface. Check curing membranes and If water curing sprays are planned, use moist burlap or other
coverings regularly for signs of damage. Protect inserts, pip- mats first. Leave these mats in piace and keep them wet until
ing, and projecting Ornamentation from falling material and there is no danger of surface erosion by the curing sprays.
debris that plug openings and make future work difficult. At- If wet earth or sand is used as a curing agent, make sure it is
tach nothing to projecting reinforcement. Give special pro- free from large lumps or stones (because drying occurs more
tection to architectural and ornamental concrete. quickly at such points) and keep it continuously wet. In addi-
Backfilling-Leave underpinning and protective sheet pil- tion, make sure that it does not have injurious amounts of or-
ing in place until the concrete has hardened. Place and com- ganic matter or other substances that will damage the concrete.

CURING, PROTECTION, FORM REMOVAL, RESHORING 83
Membrane curing
Membrane-forming curing compounds applied to the con-
crete surface will retard evaporation of the mixing water if
they meet ASTM C 309 requirements and are in strict con-
formance with the manufacturer’s recommendations. These
curing compounds are a satisfactory means of curing, partic-
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ularly if preceded by wet curing. White-pigmented curing

compounds are commonly used where future appearance is
not critical because coverage is easily verified and reflection
minimizes surface temperatures. Clear compounds (used on
areas where the appearance of white curing compounds
would be objectionable during the period that it is weather-
ing off,),should contain fugitive (quick-fading) dye to ensure
complete coverage.
The surface receiving a curing compound should still be
moist and above 40 F when the coating is applied. The ap-
plication should be made with power spraying equipment in
a smooth even-textured coat. Apply two coats, with the sec-
ond coat at right angles to the first coat. Note that windy con-
ditions may reduce effective coverage.
If required coverage is not specified, the coverage for each
coat shouldn’t exceed 400 ft2/gal. Do not use curing com- Fig. 10.4-Excellent curing may be obtained with saturated
pounds on surfaces that will receive additional concrete, cover held in contact with the concrete surface as soon as
paint, or tile that requires positive bond, unless it has been forms are removed, and kept wet with a soil soaker hose
along the top for the duration of the curing period.
clearly demonstrated that the membrane can be satisfactorily
removed before the subsequent application is made, or that
the membrane can serve satisfactorily as a base for the later impermeable sheets for curing
application. Hand-operated “garden-type” sprayers should Polyethylenefilm can provide effective moist curing provided
be permitted only on the smallest jobs. it is held close against the concrete surface and is either protected
Check the completeness and uniformity of coverage and from or not subjected to construction activity that would tear or
the amount of material used, and compare the latter with the otherwise affect its performance as a moisture barrier.
area of surface covered. Before work is resumed on an area Waterproof (kraft) paper can be also be used successfully
that has been treated with a curing compound, make sure the as a moisture barrier. Tightly seal the seams between adja-
compound has sufficient strength to resist foot or other traf- cent sheets and protect them from damage. Avoid the use of
fic. Damaged spots should be resealed immediately during dark-colored plastic film during warm weather except for in-
the curing period. teriors; however, because of its heat absorption qualities, it
does have advantages in cold weather. Inspect the concrete
In arid areas, a membrane curing compound can be satisfac-
surface beneath the sheets occasionally; if it is found to be
tory if one of the wet curing methods discussed above is em-
dry, the surface should be rewetted and the openings again
ployed during the first 24 h after finishing or form removal.
sealed. Under certain conditions, the combination of plastic
Without ample initial water curing, sealing of formed con- film bonded to absorbent fabric works more efficiently be-
crete is of limited value in an arid climate. In normal climates, cause this helps to retain and distribute the moisture released
only one double coat is required, but under very dry condi- from the concrete and condensed on the curing cover.
tions two double coats are necessary because minute pin holes Where appearance is a special consideration; concrete
in the first coat will permit considerable evaporation. should be cured by other means because moisture condens-
Wood forms, kept wet, and metal forms provide some pro- ing on the underside of smooth plastic film (particularly in
tection against loss of moisture. Exposed top surfaces of the wrinkles) creates an uneven distribution of water in the con-
concrete must be kept wet enough to ensure that water runs crete, with migration of soluble substances that will often re-
down the inside of the previously loosened forms. Other- sult in a mottled appearance, as well as discoloration from
wise, forms should be removed as soon as possible so that differential hydration. On decks and pavements requiring a
prescribed curing may be commenced with the least possible textured surface, keep the covering from damaging the tex-
delay. If a membrane is to be used for the curing of surfaces ture while the concrete is still plastic.
on which the forms have been left for 24 h or more, the sur-
face should be soaked for several hours before curing com- Accelerated curing
pound is applied. Soaking is important, especially for rich Most plant-precast and particularly plant-prestressed con-
mixtures, because concrete becomes partly dry through crete, other than decorative panels, is cured by accelerated
self-desiccation that accompanies the reaction between ce- curing procedures. Accelerated curing is achieved with the
ment and water (see also “Curing” in Chapter 5). use of saturated steam, or with dry heat (which requires the

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 2997 Ip flbb27111 051i8232 b7b
Tests of field-cured cylinders or other strength tests are re-

quired to confirm strength of concrete prior to loading.
At the end of the period of protection, artificial heating
should be discontinued and housings removed so that the
fall in temperature at the concrete surface will be gradual
and not exceed 20 F in 24 h for members 72 in. thick or 50
F in 24 h for members 12 in. thick or less (AC1 306R). If
the temperature is allowed to fall too rapidly, there will be
excessive surface shrinkage that will result in cracking.
Stop wet curing during protection soon enough so that
the concrete is allowed to dry somewhat before protection
from freezing is stopped. Keep a record of the temperatures
of the outside air, the enclosure, and the concrete surface.
Surface temperature is normally measured by thermome-
ters embedded in the concrete with 1/16 to 1/8 in. of cover.
Fig. 10.5-Concreting in cold weather requires special vigi-
lance to see that no part of the concretefreezes or dries out. Protection-The preferred method of protection at low
temperatures requires complete insulation or enclosure of
the fresh concrete (Fig. 10.5),with heaters in the enclosure
concrete member to be sealed to prevent loss of mixing water).
as necessary. On above-grade construction, it is often trou-
See Chapter 17 for optimum methods for accelerated curing. blesome to enclose the top surface of the concrete. In these
cases, one solution is to cover the concrete with polyethyl-
Accelerators ene film and then with protective blankets and insulation
In cold weather, many people mistakenly believe that cal- designed for this purpose. Convenient electric heating
cium chloride or other accelerators will act as an antifreeze blankets are available. In cases where top enclosures are
in concrete. Even at maximum permissible dosages, acceler- impractical, it is often necessary to provide partial enclo-
ators cannot significantly lower the freezing temperature of sure or a windbreaker to prevent chilling winds from freez-
the water in the concrete. ing the concrete.
Air temperature can be maintained within the enclosure by
SPECIAL CURING CONDITIONS AND low pressure steam or by electric or fuel burning heaters.
PROTECTION
Although the curing requirements for concrete placed during Prevent excessively hot and dry air from heaters from blow-
cold or hot weather remain the same as during normal tempering directly onto the concrete, or rapid drying and shrinkage
atures, the techniques used to achieve them become extremely will occur (Fig. 10.6).
critical. Plan curing and protection techniques for both types of Fuel-burning heaters must be properly vented or they will
weather extremes well in advance of their occurrence. cause rapid carbonation on the surface of the concrete, bring-
ing about later dusting problems. Drying and carbonation
Cold weather protection problems during cold weather curing and protection can be
Whenever air at the point of placement is likely to reach avoided by using saturated steam injected within the enclo-
freezing temperatures after placing concrete, take protective sure. It is most important that the enclosure be relatively
measures as outlined in AC1 306R. When the mean daily tight, and that the steam be maintained as near the saturation
temperature is likely to be above 40 F, protect newly placed point as possible.
concrete from freezing only during the first 24 h. See Chapter During curing and protection, make certain that all surfaces
16 for curing and protection of massive concrete sections. of the concrete are at the proper temperature. Do not allow ex-
Protection temperatures-As required by AC1 30 1, AC1 cessive heating on one side of a section to cause large temper-
306R, and AC1 3 18, when mean daily air temperatures are ature differences (over 50 F) between the two sides.
expected to be less than 40 F, provide artificial heating and
protection of the concrete. Keep thin sections of newly Hot weather curing
placed, air-entrained concrete made with Type I or Type II Review AC1 308 prior to placing concrete during periods
cement without acceleration at a temperature of not less of hot weather. Improper curing during periods of extreme
than 50 F for 6 days for safe strength under partial load. hot weather can cause poor appearance and low concrete
Keep concrete made with Type III (high-early-strength) strength that result from excessive and rapid evaporation and
cement, accelerator, or extra cement at not less than 50 F increased plastic-shrinkage cracks. Concrete placed at tem-
for 4 days for durability and for members carrying a por- peratures above 70 F will experience higher water require-
tion of their design load. The designer should analyze the ments, possible premature stiffening, difficulties in retaining
structure to ensure that allowable stresses in the concrete moisture, and relatively lower strength at later ages.
are not exceeded. Non-air-entrained concrete (not recom- In extremely hot and windy weather, if the evaporation
mended when freezing and thawing durability is neces- rate exceeds that recommended by AC1 305, it is necessary
sary) requires about twice these periods of protection. to provide a windbreak, fog sprays, plastic sheeting, or other
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGI.. L'lY'l Ips Ubh27li7 U548233 502 m
CURING, PROTECTION, FORM REMOVAL, RECHORING
I I
Fig. 10.7-Early covering with mats, kept water-soaked,

protects concrete while curing in hot weathel:
protection to prevent excessive drying of the concrete sur-

face before hardening occurs (Fig. 10.7).
Start curing as early as possible because long delays will
result in excessive evaporation and cracking. Avoid dark-
colored coverings and dark-colored membrane-curing com-
pounds, because they increase the already high surface tem-
perature through absorption of heat radiation. Keep accurate
records of the protection provided to the concrete, tempera-
ture, curing time, and type of curing used.
Fig. 10.6-Heater for cold weather protection. Combustion Plastic-shrinkage cracking, which can be a problem during
gases must be vented outside enclosure. hot, dry, windy weather, is discussed in Chapters 5,9, and 13.
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER 11-CORRECTIONS OF DEFECTS IN NEWLY HARDENED CONCRETE

AND REPAIRS OF OLDER CONCRETE
In spite of good workmanship and efforts to produce flawless
concrete, some correction of defects may be required when
forms are removed. In addition, repairs may be necessary to -
Funml Galvwized
22 pope sheet meid
in-service structures as a result of overload, design deficiency,
abrasion, fire, freezing, aggressive chemical attack, corrosion
of reinforcing steel, or other degradation mechanism. The best
and least expensive way to deal with repairs is to avoid the need
for them in the first place by means of tight forms, proper plac-
ing methods, and thorough consolidation by ample vibration of
the original construction.
The following AC1 committees have addressed concrete
repair and rehabilitation in their respective publications:
201 Durability of Concrete
224.1R Crack Repair
303 Architectural Cast-in-Place Concrete NOTE: D i d m shomi am opmximota
364 Rehabilitation
Fig. 11. I-Mortar gun for concrete repail:
503 Adhesives for Concrete
506 Shotcreting
546 Repair of Concrete
Where applicable, the current committee publication
should be consulted for the detailed procedures, methods,
materials, and equipment recommended for concrete repairs
(Fig. 11.1).
When defects requiring repair are observed, the cause and
extent of the damaged areas, as well as the quality of the un-
damaged portion of the structures, should be investigated be-
fore proceeding with a repair program. Compare the
restoration cost estimate with alternatives, such as improved
designs, that would contribute to better future serviceability. Fig. 11.2-Exposed su$aces of plain concrete are blem-
Another potential source of information on concrete repair ished when spots or areas vary noticeably.
methods, procedures, and equipment is the International Make repairs to newly hardened concrete as soon as the need
Concrete Repair Institute (ICRI). The publication and guide- for such repairs is evident. This greatly improves their compat-
lines of this organization may be of value in developing a re- ibility with the original concrete, because the "greener" the
pair program. base concrete is, the more receptive the surface is for bonding
When the need for a repair program is identified, the fol- of the repairs. Simultaneous curing of the base concrete and re-
lowing must be considered and incorporated into the repair pair will promote better color match.
program:
The deterioration should be examined to determine if
PLAIN EXPOSED FORMED SURFACES
re-analysis of the structure is required. The procedures Blemish repair
in AC1 364.1R should be used. The exposed surfaces of plain concrete are blemished when
For high-quality and satisfactory results, only knowl- spots or areas vary noticeably, and detract from the appear-
edgeable personnel should make repairs to concrete. ance of surroundingsurface areas (Fig. 11.2). Any repair pro-
For exposed concrete repairs, the texture and color cess should first be evaluated to determine if it will produce a
should blend inconspicuously with the original concrete. less apparent and more pleasing appearance than the original
I Make all repairs using procedures that ensure long-time blemish. Unfortunately, many repairs do not. For example,
durability. surface voids (bug holes) are common and their repair, except
On important structures, plan and demonstrate repair for sack rubbing or similar treatment, may be less satisfactory
methods first, perhaps by constructing mock-up demon- than no repair. The same observation usually applies to treat-
stration panels for approval. Such panels help the inspect ment of horizontal offsets where forms have not been an-
or judge the repairs required and the procedures used chored and tightened properly at the bottom of a new lift of
later during construction. On any job where appearance concrete.
is important but demonstration panels are not required, Choose the materials for blemish repair carefully and
develop effective repair procedures and demonstrate apply them by approved methods that have been estab-
them as soon as possible on surfaces that will be out of lished before construction.
sight in the finished work, such as on a basement wall. Minimize dark patches by avoiding rich mixtures and
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1793 OLb2949 0548235 385 =
CORRECTIONS OF DEFECTS IN NEW CONCRETE AND REPAIRS OF OLDER CONCRETE 87
steel finishing tools and by using some white cement in Epoxy mortars developed for filling tie-rod holes with a
the repair material. Adjust the proportions of white to caulking gun have the advantage of not requiring curing, other
gray cement to most closely match the color tone of than temperature protection. If these materiais are used, com-
surrounding surfaces after both have been cured for a ply with manufacturer’s recommendations. Avoid smearing
month or more. onto the concrete surface.
In repair of surface blemishes or peeled areas, do not
interfere with curing of the original concrete. Only as Stain removal
much area as can be conveniently repaired in a reason- Stains on concrete have many sources including contami-
ably short time should be temporarily stopped from nants in the curing water and from corrosion of embedded
curing. steel as well as stains or marks on the form facing before con-
Make repairs immediately after forms are removed. crete is cast. Of course, prevention is best, but some staining
Satisfactory repairs require experienced workers and seems unavoidable. PCA Publication No. IS24T (1988) pro-
supervisors and detailed, carefully controlled procedures. vides much information on methods for stain removal.
Plan the cleaning procedure carefully, and make no at-
tempt at stain removal until the stain is identified. Experi-
Sack rubbing
Sack rubbing is used to repair blemishes, fill bug holes, ment first on the stains located in an inconspicuous area. The
and produce a uniform appearance in exposed concrete. removal of stains may change the surface appearance unless
precautions are taken. The least surface change is caused by
Hand apply a thick creamy slurry consisting of one part
scrubbing with strong detergent solutions, but they are effec-
cement to two parts of fine sand (passing the No. 30
tive only for surface stains and should be applied as soon as
screen) to the entire surface and rub it into all surface
possible. Scrub with detergents, rather than solvents, to re-
voids after a thorough wetting with clean burlap or a
move greases, oils, asphalt, and similar materials because the
rubber float while the surface is still damp.
latter will carry these stains deeper into the concrete.
Apply heavy pressure to the surface.
Chemicals specifically developed for the particular stain
After the slurry is sufficiently hard to not be pulled should be used. The treatment acts either by dissolving the
from the surface, rub the surface again with dry cement stain or by bleaching or changing the stain to a product that
and fine sand to remove all surplus material, being will not show. Use chemicals only after becoming familiar
careful not to remove it from the surface voids. Timing with their use and after experimenting on inconspicuous sur-
of the second rubbing is crucial. If done too soon, the faces because they can change the character of the surface.
filling will be partially removed from the voids; if done Flush the concrete surface with water or other cleaning agent
too late, removal of the excess material will be difficult after using chemicals. PCA Publication IS24T (1988) pro-
or impossible, vides methods for chemical removal of stains on flatwork.
Sack-rubbed surfaces must be adequately cured. Efflorescence, a common type of staining, is a deposit of
In warm drying weather, if possible, sack rub the sur- salts, usually white, leached from the concrete and deposited
face when it is in the shade. on the surface. If detergent scrubbing fails to remove the ef-
florescence, try an application of muriatic acid. Consider the
Tie-rod holes and other small, deep holes appearance change that results from etching of the concrete
Tie-rod holes, particularly those formed by cones, are often surface. Use weak solutions of muriatic acid (2 to 5% by vol-
left open to provide an architecturai effect to the concrete sur- ume). Thoroughly wet the concrete surface before applying
face. If this is the case, make provisions to prevent future cor- the acid, and flush the surface immediately after frothing on
rosion of snap-off ties by coating the tie end with an epoxy the surface has ceased, otherwise an insoluble white silicate
sealer or by inserting special plugs of plastic, lead, or other may be deposited on the concrete surface, particularly with
materials so that the plug remains recessed. Drive in the plugs stronger solutions. Make sure that acid solution and rinse
tightly. water does not contact surrounding and underlying surfaces.
If the contract documents require that tie-rod and other Protect workers from inhalation of vapors and acid bums of
similar holes be plugged flush, use a dry-tamp mortar. Ex- clothing, skin, and eyes.
periment with color match using some white cement prior to The usual mechanical methods for stain removal are abra-
application. The consistency of the mortar should be such sive blasting, grinding, steam cleaning, brushing, and scour-
that when bailed in the hand, the hand is left moist but not ing. Wire brushes should not be used because they deposit
dirty. After slightly premoistening the inside surface or ap- metal particles in the surface, which later cause rust stains.
plying an extremely thin bonding coat, place the mortar in Light abrasive blasting is one of the best methods for removal
the tie-rod hole and pack it with a hardwood tamper. After of stains on formed concrete; however, some abrasion of the
the hole is filled, finish off the surface with a wood block be- concrete surface will occur. Abrasive blasting, even light ap-
cause steel tools will darken the filling. Follow with ade- plications, will expose defects previously hidden below the
quate curing. For best results, fill the holes soon after the surface and enlarge visible defects. If abrasive blasting is cho-
forms are removed so that the fillings are cured with the con- sen, consider using it on all exposed concrete surfaces to
crete. Never use dry tamped mortar for shallow repairs or maintain uniformity of appearance. The precautions for
where positive lateral restraint cannot be obtained. abrasive blasting apply also to flexible-disc sanding. Sack
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

L C k f0- W be
b u í l t I n one piece.
By UH of anchor bolts, there front forms may be used for npiaanmnis

in tho wriaces of massive c o n ~ n hstrueturn
Fig. II.3-Slope top edge of opening to permit vibration of
concrete without leaving air pockets at top of repaix Fig. 11.4-Forms for concrete replacement in walls.
rubbing may acceptably reduce the disfiguring contrasts of and corrosion products on the surface of the reinforcing steel
staining or of unacceptable, incomplete stain removal. to give a clearance of at least 1 in. to the steel. These repairs
typically require re-analysis of the structural integrity of the
REPAIRS TO IN-SERVICE STRUCTURES affected member.
As previously noted, current publications of AC1 Commit- Repair materials-Plan proportions and placement of the
tees 201,303,364,50ó, 546 and ICRI are excellent sources repair concrete to ensure maximum bond to the original con-
of information on concrete repairs. The following text under crete and to minimize drying shrinkage of the repairs. In new
‘‘Structurai Concrete” is applicable to repair of in-service work, early repair helps achieve these objectives. To ensure
structures, as well as structures under construction. The dif- minimum shrinkage, mix the repair concrete with a low wa-
ferences in preparation for such repairs when applied to ter content and slump and allow it to age for 30 to 60 min be-
in-service structures are noted. fore use. If possible, use repair concrete of the same
materials and mixture design as the original concrete. If re-
ARCHITECTURAL CONCRETE pairs will be exposed permanently, take texture and color
By the nature of its character and purpose, the correction
precautions as described previously.
of defects in architectural concrete is more demanding than
for ordinary exposed concrete surfaces. Greater care and bet- F o r mfor repair-Forms for concrete replacement must be
ter workmanship must be devoted to restoring and obtaining tight at perimeters and joints, strong, and securely held in po-
the required appearance. sition so they cannot leak mortar when the concrete is vibrat-
ed. To provide maximum access for placement and vibration
STRUCTURAL CONCRETE of concrete in some applications over 18 in. high, install the
Special attention and care are necessary for repairs of struc- face form in 12 in. high sections as each 12 in. lifî of concrete
turai concrete, especially if the repairs affect the future struc- is placed. (The back form may be built in one piece.) Provide
tural behavior of the member. An engineering analysis using a full width “chimney” at the top to ensure filling to the top of
guidelines in AC1 364. IR should be performed to ensure that the opening. Use a pressure cap on the concrete in the chimney
the repaired concrete will function as intended. Common simultaneously tightening and revibrating the form to ensure a
causes of the need for structural repairs are improper place- tight seal at the top of the repair. When the form is removed, --```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ment of reinforcement, defective concrete, stress cracking, or carefully chip away the chimney concrete to avoid breaking
thermal and drying-shrinkage cracking. In older structures, concrete out of the surface to remain, and dress the surface of
deteriorated or damaged concrete often require local repair. the new concrete as required. See Fig. 11.3 and 11.4.
Repair surface preparation-Ensure bond of new concrete
Replacement with new concrete in deep or large to original concrete in all repairs by thoroughly cleaning the
areas
original concrete. One of the best cleaning methods is abrasive
Repairpreparation-Remove all defective concrete down
to sound concrete, and leave the edges perpendicular to the blasting. Regardless of the method used, remove ail blasting
concrete surface, preferably by sawing. Avoid feather edges sand, abraded concrete, and other fines from the cavity.
and sharp corners. When repairing weathered concrete espe- Dampen the surface of the original concrete (it should not
cially, remove all that could degrade after repairs are made. be wet!) then apply a portland cement mortar bond-coat.
Remove concrete with hand tools and light-duty hand-held Use a mixture of one part cement to one part of fine sand
power tools, particularly around the edges, to prevent dam- passing through the No. 30 (600 pm) screen, and enough
age to remaining concrete and steel. If reinforcementis in the water to make a consistency of thick cream. Sometimes a
repair area, remove the unbonded concrete around the bars neat cement bond-coat is used (Fig. 11.4).

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1197 D O b b 2 7 4 1 05iiA237 158 E
to-1 slope, so that rebound will fall free. Make round inside
comers. One advantage of both methods is that forming is un-
necessary, or at least very limited.
Satisfactory repairs may also be possible with preplaced-
aggregate concrete. The material and its use are described in
Chapter 15. Its advantages for repair work are its low shrink-
age and that it can be placed successfully under water. These
repairs typically require re-analysis of the structural integrity
of the affected members.
STRUCTURAL SPALL REPAIRS

New and in-service structures
Fig. 11.5-For repair of parking deck, unsound concrete The procedures and materials used for bonding of cementi-
removed, reinforcement sandblasted to remove rust, and tious repair materials can range from neat cement slurries to
extra reinforcement bars installed alongside some damaged latexes or epoxies. Thermal expansion and elastic modulus
or corroded bars. Bonding layer of neat cement grout
applied just before placing concrete overlay. characteristics should be carefully considered when using
chemical bonding agents. These should be compatible with
the base concrete and repair materials being used, particularly
Scrub or rub the bond-coat into the original concrete sur- in the case of job-mixed, sand-cement mixtures. Polymers
face. Never allow the bond-coat to set before placing the have much higher thermal coefficients than portland cement
new concrete. Chemical bonding agents, such as epoxy res- paste and slurries. When fine aggregate similar to that used in
ins and latexes, are available and often useful for specialized the job concrete is added to the polymer, the coefficient of
repair applications. Properly used according to the manufac- thermal expansion and elastic modulus of the resulting mate-
turer’s recommendations, materials formulated for this use rial is closer to that of the job concrete.
can aid in obtaining bond under difficult conditions, partic-
In application of neat cement slurries as bonding agents, the
ularly for thin repairs.
repair surfaces must be free of visible moisture, but damp to
Do not use epoxy resin bond-coats for areas and surfaces ex- the touch. Excessive moisture will thin the slurry, reducing its
posed to severe climates where moisture migrating toward the effectiveness. Concrete surfaces subjected to extreme tem-
surface will be blocked by the impermeable epoxy barrier. peratures or direct sun may require several applications of
Blocked water can freeze and debond the repair. Never al- water, in fog form, to properly cool the concrete surface. This
low chemical bonding agents to set before applying the re- is important to avoid premature drying out of the neat-cement
pair concrete. slurry. Premature drying out will interrupt the hydration pro-
Other procedures and materials have been used successfully cess, resulting in reduction of bond strength.
for this type of repair. The owner or responsible design profes- Neat-cement slumes consist of straight Type I and II low-
sional should select the most appropriate repair design. alkali cement to form a thin slurry, similar to thin oil paint.
Slurry consistency should be thick enough to allow for com-
Curing of repairs made with portland cement plete coverage of the entire repair surface and thin enough to
mortar or concrete (hydraulic cementitious ensure penetration into all crevices. Apply to the damp sur-
mixtures)
For the best durability, cure repairs for at least 7 days at face with brush or broom in a circular scrubbing motion to en-
temperatures above freezing. Due to the low w/c customarily sure that all crevices have been properly treated. Though
used with the repair materials, it is imperative that curing visible water in the neat cement slurry coat should be allowed
begin immediately upon initial set to avoid the loss of any to dissipate, the slurry coat should be damp when repair ma-
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
moisture. Although water-curing is the best method, the terials are applied.
size, location, and geometry of the repairs often make this Spa11 repair methods-Repair methods will vary depend-
method impractical. Membrane curing compounds using ing upon structural requirements. The following describes
up to twice the manufacturer’s recommendation have been four basic methods for concrete spa11 repair. Large spalls
found to be more reliable and involve less effort. should be investigated to determine their source and impact
on structural integrity of the affected member.
Structural repairs using other portland cement- 1. Hand application-This method includes job site-pre-
based materiais pared, sand-cement mixtures designed for general and specific
If the total volume is not too large, satisfactory structural applications, epoxy mortars, and polymer-modified mortars.
repairs can be made using damp-pack type mortar pneumat- Hand application of materials, although appropriate for most
ically sprayed with small-scale equipment. Larger structural types, is particularly suited for thin-layer repair under 1/4 in.
repairs can be made with shotcrete, maintaining close control thick.
over all operations. See AC1 506R as well as Chapter 15 for 2. Shotcrete-Best suited economically for use on large
further information. Do not use a bond-coat of any kind with areas where large amounts of materials are applied in a con-
either of these repair methods. For both types of repair, flare tinuous basis and movement of substrate and reinforcement
the edges of the concrete removal area outward at about a 1- can be held to a minimum.

S T D * A C I SP-2-ENGL 1999 Obb2749 0548238 0911
3. Mechanical dry packing-Although feasible for any re- wet cover for a minimum of 7 days, followed by application
pair, it is economically suitable for smaller, widely spaced re- of an approved curing compound. Alternative curing methods
pairs. Job site and environmental restrictions may also play a are necessary for polymer and polymer-modified systems as
part in its choice. This method is capable of producing a specified by the manufacturers.
monolithic, no-slump, nonshrink repair, and continuous ap-
plication of material regardless of depth. STRUCTURAL REPAIRS USING EPOXY RESIN
4. Poured or preplaced-aggregate concrete-Ideal for flat- Of the large variety of epoxy resins available, use only
slab repairs or complete replacement of concrete sections. those formulated specifically for concrete repairs should be
To determine the most appropriate repair method requires used. Normally these will be two-component, lûû% solids,
that the following factors be given proper consideration: epoxy resins. Epoxy resin materials are furnished in different
Structural requirements; grades, ranging from unmodified binder materials with low
Environmental conditions; viscosity through high viscosity fluids to trowelable pastes
Repair complexity and accessibility; and gels containing thickeners or mineral fillers. The con-
Cost; and tractor is governed by the requirements of the contract docu-
Urgency to prevent accelerated deterioration. ments in the selection of epoxy resin materials for repairs. In
Surface preparation-All defective concrete must be re- the absence of contract document requirements, consult the
moved down to sound concrete. Saw-cut perimeter of repair responsible architect or engineer for requirements and in-
to form a minimum 1/4 in. deep square edge. Round comers struction. Information given here is only for background data
and slope bottom outward where shotcrete or mechanical dry and additional guidance.
packing guns are used to allow for easier removal of rebound. Detailed guidance for the use of epoxy resin materials in
Remove sufficient concrete to give reinforcing steel a mini- concrete construction, including repair work, is available in
mum clearance of 1 in. Reinforcing steel that has deteriorated the guide prepared by AC1 Committee 503, and in four AC1
too much to perform its original structural function should be standard specifications (AC1 503.1,503.2,503.3, and 503.4).
removed and replaced. Additional data can be found in ICRI guidelines and publica-
New concrete should be repaired during the early curing tions. Consult these references before using epoxy resin in
stages so as to minimize interruption of the curing process. concrete repair work.
Surface preparation at this stage must be appropriate for the
repair method and materials used Moisture and temperature sensitivity
Roughen smooth surfaces prior to thin layer applications. Early epoxy resins, as well as some currently manufactured
Thoroughly clean the concrete repair surfaces and reinforcing products, are sensitive to moisture, both during curing and (to
steel is essential to ensure proper bond of the newly applied a much lesser extent) after hardening. Such materials must be
materials to both the reinforcing steel and the repair surface. used only in locations where they will not be subjected to
Cleaning of the repair surface can be accomplished by one of moisture either before or after curing. Epoxy resins now
the following methods: available that are insensitive to moisture can be used for a p
1. Abrasive blasting-Abrasive blasting has been a long- plications when it is impractical to completely dry the base
time standard for use in cleaning of concrete surfaces and re- concrete, for bonding fresh portland cement concrete, and for
inforcing steel. During abrasive blasting, attention should be locations that will be under water in service.
paid to cleaning or removal of scale from the backside of ex- Epoxy resins bond to most construction materials. Special-
posed reinforcing. Remove all accumulated sand and concrete ized products that bond to polyvinyl chloride and to neoprene
residue from surface cavities after completion of the operation. can be used for concreterepairs involving water stops. Epoxy
2. Hydroblasting-Hydroblasting is an alternative method resin, however, does not bond to materials such as polyethyl-
of surface preparation that uses high-pressure water rather ene, Teflon, cured epoxy systems, and greased or waxed sur-
than high-pressure air and abrasive material to remove deteri- faces. Polyethylene and heavy waxed paper are used for form
orated materials from the surfaces to be repaired. A method of lining for epoxy resin repairs.
collecting the water and waste material must be provided to Hardened epoxy resin has a higher thermal expansion than
prevent water damage and clogging of drains. It avoids the concrete. Unless this is compensated for, epoxy repairs may
problems of dust control, cleanup, and removal of expended tend to crack and come unbonded under expansion-contraction
abrasive material. In extremely warm environments, hydro- cycling produced by temperature changes. For epoxy mortar
blasting cools and dampens the areas to be repaired. The slurry and concrete always use epoxy resins that have high extensi-
created during hydroblasting must be thoroughly cleaned from bility, thus allowing the material to stretch and relieve differ-
the repair surface. ential stress for thick coatings. When fillers are added to
Application-A concrete repair meeting its original design epoxy resins and aggregates are used in mortars and con-
specifications not only depends on the type of application cretes, the dilution effect produces a lower coefficient of ex-
method used and expertise of the personnel involved, but also pansion in the total mixed material, and considerablyreduces
on rigid inspection criteria to verify that both project and stresses from restrained differential movement.
manufacturer specifications have been met. Epoxy resins cure with almost no shrinkage. Low shrinkage
Curing-Water curing is the most predictable method for is an advantage in repair work, but can present problems for
unmodified cementitious mixtures. Water cure by applying a repairs to newly hardened concrete that has not yet reached a
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Table 11.l-Aggregate gradation for epoxy mortars and concretes

Cumulative % by weight passing
'If half or more of minus No. 100 materials passes No. 200 sieve, use limit$ in parentheses.
+ASTM C 33. size No. 7.
stable volume. Using extensible epoxy resins allows the dif- Normally, the more extensible materials use epoxy resin
ferential stress to be relieved. binders specially formulated for the intended use. Use hard,
dense, clean aggregates, rounded or cubical in shape, and
Temperature limitations completely dry. Table 11.1 gives recommended aggregate
There are a variety of epoxy materials available that can be gradations. Coarse aggregates larger than 3/4 in. are seldom
used for wide temperature variations. Each manufacturer has used. For epoxy mortars, use the coarser gradations of fine
a line of products formulated for various temperature condi- aggregate for deeper repairs and the finer gradations for shal-
tions. At higher temperatures, use a material with a longer pot low repairs. The epoxy-mortar aggregate gradations shown
life, mix it in smaller batches, and place it in shallow lifts. are those found to give optimum results in producing non-sag
Never use thinners with epoxy resin. mortars. Many other gradations are successfully used, some
even consisting of uniform-sized aggregate.
SAFETY DURING EPOXY RESIN REPAIR Epoxy-resin mortar proportions normally are one part ep-
OPERATIONS oxy-resin to four to seven parts aggregate by mass. Epoxy-
Avoid contact of the epoxy resin or solvents with the resin concrete proportions normally are one part epoxy resin
skin. to six to 10 parts aggregate by mass. With the aggregate gra-
Wear protective clothing, including gloves, goggles and dations shown in Table 1 1.1, equal parts of fine and coarse
respirators. aggregates are used. Use the maximum quantity of aggregate
Apply protective creams to exposed skin areas. practicable, but never more than will be completely wetted by
Ventilate indoor repair areas, otherwise fire and explo- the epoxy resin and will have ail voids filled when the mixture
sion are hazards from industrial solvents used in is compacted.
cleanup.
Prevent human contact with industrial solvents. Surface preparation
If accidental skin exposure occurs, immediately remove In general, prepare the surface by following the requirements
epoxy from skin by washing with soap and water- discussed previously for other structural repairs. Outline the re-
never use industrial solvents. pair area with a saw cut, 1/2 in. deep for mortars and 1 to 2 in.
deep for concrete. If practicable, make sure the surface of the
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REPAIR WITH EPOXY POLYMER CONCRETE AND base concrete is thoroughly dry, otherwise, a moisture tolerant
MORTAR epoxy resin must be used. Compressed air lines used for clean-
Mortars and concrete are site-mixed with only epoxy resin ing and drying the surface must be equipped with adequate wa-
and aggregates, using fine aggregate for mortar and using both ter and oil separators.If possible, base concrete and ambient air
fine and coarse aggregate for concrete. Both mortars and con- should be at moderate temperatures (60 to 80 F) both before
cretes make excellent repair materials but their cost needs to placing the epoxy resin material and during cure.
be justified for repairs other than for small areas and for areas
subject to severe service conditions such as cavitation, high Preparation, mixing, and handling
abrasion, excessive point loadings, chemical attack, and sim- Condition the oven-dried aggregate and the epoxy resin to a
ilar conditions. Normally, epoxy mortar is used for repairs less temperature between 70 and 85 F before mixing. Mix the ep-
than 1-1/2 in. deep. Epoxy concrete has also been used for oxy resin separately before adding aggregate, being sure to add
deeper repairs. Use of this procedure may require re-analysis the curing agent component to the epoxy component (follow-
of the affected member to ensure that structural integrity is ing the formulator's direction) because using the reverse order
gained. may cause difficulties. Mix the epoxy resin with mechanical

STDwACI SP-2-ENGL 1979 Obb27ii7 0 5 9 8 2 9 0 792 m
equipment such as a low-speed pneumatic or spark-proof elec- volved in selecting and specifjing the procedure. Cracks as
tric drill with a paint mixer or propeller attachment. small as 0.002 in. can be grouted. Injection grouting should be
Mixing must thoroughly blend all of each component and performed by experienced personnel and closely supervised.
must be at a low speed to prevent entrapping air bubbles. Mix- Some cracks are symptoms of basic structural distress and, if
ing time must follow the manufacturer’s recommendations. grouted, will reappear nearby as a new crack. Joints designed
Then transfer the mixed epoxy resin to larger mixers or con- for movement or in which movement does not adversely affect
tainers, and add the aggregate. The resin-aggregate mixing structural capacity should not be grouted with adhesives de-
may be done by hand in a large pan or mortar box or in a me- signed to rebond concrete. Problems, such as water leakage
chanical mixer, but horizontal shaft mortar mixers are prefer- through moving cracks and joints, can be addressed by grout-
able. Power mixers using disposable 5 gal. pails mounted at ing with a nonstructural chemical grout.
an angle on a power-drive base are often used. Before repairing cracks in structural concrete the structural
For epoxy concrete, add all of the coarse aggregate to the requirements and effects of the crack on structural capacity
epoxy binder fxst to get better dispersion. Continue mixing must be identified and evaluated by a structural engineer.
until all aggregate particles are completely coated. Dump the Generally, if the required reinforcement is not corroded, re-
batch as soon as mixing is complete and spread it on the repair pairs are cosmetic in nature. If the structural capacity is inad-
area to minimize temperature buildup. equate, a modified design is required by a structural engineer.
If passive structural cracking is to be repaired, use pressure
Placing and finishing
grouting with an appropriate resin, as described in the following
Immediately prior to placing epoxy resin mortar or con-
crete, coat the surface of the base concrete with a thin layer of paragraphs. Grouting is best delayed until drying shrinkage or
epoxy-resin binder scrubbed into the surface. Avoid pools of temperature movements are substantially stabilized at a maxi-
liquid material. Delay placing of the mortar or concrete until mum crack opening. Without this delay, shrinkage and temper-
the bond-coat becomes slightly tacky, but placing must be ature movement is likely to cause a new crack more or less
completed before the bond-coat hardens. If the bond-coat parallel to the original. If a substantial amount of shrinkage has
does harden, remove the bond-coat then apply another occurred,additional shrinkage will not cause the original con-
bond-coat. crete to recrack however, shrinkage cracks acting as joints may
Place the epoxy resin mortar and concrete in layers 2 in. recrack. Application of pressure-injected epoxy and safety pre-
or less thick, with a slight delay between layers. If exces- cautions should meet the manufacturers’ recommendations.
sive heat buildup occurs, lengthen the delay. Consolidate Injection grouting and other crack repair methods are iden-
the material by hand tamping to eliminate all voids. Screed tified and described in AC1 224.1R. These documents should
and finish the same as for other mortar and concretes. Never be reviewed to ensure that the repair method selected (such as
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use a thinner to aid in finishing. Use wood floats and steel injection) is the most appropriate for the observed conditions.
trowels for finishing. If sticking is a problem, wrap steel
trowels with polyethylene or use special plastic trowels. Materials
Where repairs should blend with the surrounding concrete, For grouting narrow cracks, use a low-viscosity resin that
the glazed surface can be removed by light sanding or sand- will bond to a moist surface in the crack. Use only formula-
blasting of the hardened repair. Some choice of color is avail- tion with 100%solids, that is, without solvents. Do not thin
able in epoxy resins and a material can be chosen to match the with solvent. Use a resin capable of remaining fluid for a pre-
surrounding concrete. To help achieve a color match on un: determined time limit, and formulated for use in the tempera-
formed surfaces, portland cement can be sprinkled lightly on ture range in which will be used.
the surface before final troweling. Relatively wide cracks can be filled by normal construction
crews using caulking or other similar equipment and moder-
Curing and protection ate viscosity epoxy resin grouts. The resin used must have a
Cure epoxy resin mortars and concretes at least 72 h at tem-
relatively long pot life to permit the grout to be handled con-
peratures between 60 and 80 F. Protect them from water,
veniently. A minimum of 30 min is needed.
abrasion, and significant loads for at least 24 h.
Narrow cracks and extremely fine cracks (down to 0.002 in.
Cleanup wide) are commoniy filled by special crews trained and li-
Clean the equipment immediately after use, before the ep- censed by the epoxy formulator, using low-viscosity resin
oxy resin hardens. Toluene is commonly used for cleaning. specially formulated for this work. Short pot life resins are of-
Ketones can be used and are faster, but present much greater ten used for this work partly to aid in retaining the material in
safety problems, both as health and as explosion hazards. the cracks. A variety of proprietary methods for filling cracks
Methylene chloride (which is nonflammable) can also be is available, ranging from low-pressure injectors that employ
used. See the previous section on safety precautions. springs or inflatable bladders that provide pressure over a long
time period, to high-pressure injection machines designed to
INJECTION GROUTING OF CRACKS force resin into small cracks. The temperature of the concrete
Use of injection grouting to repair passive cracks must be being repaired will also affect the viscosity and curing time of
carefully implemented, the design professional should be in- the injected resin.

STD.AC1 SP-2-ENGL 1979 Obh29'17 05~82LiL b89 W
CORRECTIONS OF DEFECTS IN NEW CONCRETE AND REPAIRS OF OLDER CONCRETE
93
Equipment holding a nozzle against the port or by mechanically fastening

A wide range of equipment and specialized systems is the mixing head to the fitting.
available to fill cracks under pressure. The basic types used Injection ports are commonly spaced at a distance equal to
to inject cracks fall into the following general categories: the depth of injection required from that surface.
1. Multicomponent caulking-type guns, either hand-held
or pneumatically operated, in which resin is mixed in a static Injection
mixer immediately prior to introduction into the crack. These After the material used to seal the crack and to bond the en-
units are most appropriate for small jobs. try ports has hardened, inject the grout, preferably during a
2. Mechanically operated, multicomponent injection time of day (or night) when the concrete is coolest and the
pumps in which material is accurately proportioned and de- cracks are widest. Do not, however, exceed temperature lim-
livered through separate lines to an in-line continuous meter- its of the epoxy resin being used.
ing and mixing device located where the lines join at the Vertical cracks should be injected started at the lowest port
injection nozzle. These units operate at a range of pressures and proceeding upward as the crack becomes filled as evi-
as low as 5 psi to as high as 2000 psi. This type of equipment denced by resin flowing from higher ports. Experience will
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must be calibrated regularly to ensure that the resin is mixed dictate whether to seal the first port or to seal and skip the next
in the exact proportions required for proper cure. port. With horizontal cracks, proceed from one end of the
3 . Pressure pots in which resin is premixed and pushed crack to the other. Horizontal members should be injected
through hoses to the crack face by the introduction of air pres- from the underside, if possible.
sure into the closed container. Resins with long pot life are The crack is considered full if pressure can be maintained.
used in this equipment, both to prevent premature set and to If this is not the case, the grout is still flowing into the unfilled
compensate for the interruption of continuity of injection due crack, or is leaking out during injection, do not apply a pres-
to the necessity to refill the containers as the material is used. sure so high that the member is damaged by hydraulic action
4. Static-type injectors that are adhered to the surface of the of the fluid grout. After the resin has cured, remove all fit-
concrete and hold a small quantity of premixed resin. The tings, then grind and repair the surface as specified.
material is forced into the crack under very high pressure that Sometimes resin grouting may be performed by gravity feed
is provided by spring action or the action of an inflated dia- on horizontal surfaces, such as floors and decks. A resin of very
phragm as it attempts to return to an uninflated state. low viscosity is allowed to penetrate by gravity. If the crack
penetrates through the entire depth of a slab, seal the under-
neath side of the crack to prevent the grout from running out.
Preparation
Repeated filling may be necessary to completely fill the crack.
In preparation for injection, remove as much dirt and other
If a preliminary calculation has been made of the theoretical
debris from the cracks as possible by mechanical means,
amount of grout required, and this amount has not been used,
washing, and blowing with compressed air, being careful not
there is reason to suspect that the crack is either not full, or nar-
to inflict any further damage. Blow cracks as dry as possible.
rower or shallower than expected. The only way to be sure that
Equip all compressed air lines with water and oil separators.
grouting has been successful is to drill small diameter cores at
To keep the grout from leaking out before it has gelled, seal the crack.
the crack at all accessible surfaces. Use a sealing material
with the adhesive qualities necessary to resist the injection
Quality control
pressures that will be used. Fast-setting epoxies and thermo- It is important to verify if the injection has been successful
setting resins are commonly used for this purpose; however, and if the crack is full. Visual examination of the depth of
any material that will properly contain the resin within the penetration is possible by drilling small diameter cores across
crack may be considered. the cracks. If the purpose of the crack repair is restoration of
For injection with equipment other than the static type, in- structural integrity, then compression or splitting tensile
stall entry ports for injection. One method is to drill holes into strength tests should be run on the removed cores to evaluate
the crack through the resin seal and insert pipe nipples, or me- the strength of the repaired section. Nondestructive methods,
chanical fittings that are bonded and held in place by an ad- such as impact-echo or ultrasonic testing, may also be used to
hesive. Another method is to simply leave a gap in the seal. determine the degree of penetration and the integrity of the re-
Resin is introduced into the crack through ports, either by paired structure.

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 3999 IObb29Li9 05Yô2Y2 5 1 5 m
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CHAPTER 12-SLABS FOR BUILDINGS
Concrete slabs demand close attention to all applicable

factors of concrete inspection and construction to produce a
high-quality finished product. Because of their large un-
formed surfaces, slabs require much more time and effort
than most other concrete items. Depending on the location
and intended use, some aspects of inspection and construc-
tion may be more important than others, but conformation to
contract document requirements, finished design elevation
and surface tolerances, serviceability, durability, and ap-
pearance are always prime objectives. I I
Before becoming involved with slab construction, be-
come completely familiar with AC1 302.1R. Fig. 12.1-Wire mesh takenfiom roll m y tend to be wavy,
as shown. Make sure mesh is reasonablyflat and at speci-
fied height.
POSITIONING REINFORCEMENT
Finishers should be experienced and qualified. AC1 pro-
vides a program to certify Concrete Flatwork Technicians
and Flatwork Finishers.
Many slabs on grade are designed with reinforcement;
usually welded-wire fabric is specified. The precise place-
ment of this reinforcement is important, yet often ignored,
with the result that it is frequently found either at the very
bottom of the slab or so near the top surface that cover is in-
adequate (Fig. 12.1). Concrete slabs on grade constructed
with expansive cement normally require reinforcement in
the top half of the slab. Structural slabs often contain two
layers of reinforcement; one placed near the top and one
near the bottom. In this case, precision of placement is even Fig. 12.2-Dowels at constructionjoint of slab on grade.
more important. Pay special attention to placing the rein-
forcing around comers of slab openings, where cracking
frequently occurs. Reinforcement must be rigidly supported
at its designed elevation before concreting commences.
Never place reinforcement (particularly welded-wire fab-
ric) on the subgrade and then later attempt to pull it into
place in the center of the slab after concrete is placed. Some
industrial floors subject to heavy traffic may have special
joint details such as large, closely spaced dowels, which re-
/
quire careful installation (Fig. 12.2 and 12.3).
MIXTURE REQUIREMENTS
General job mixture requirements are usually satisfactory
for slabs (Chapter 6). Mixtures need good finishability,
however, and for this reason they should meet the require-
ments of AC1 302.1R.If not otherwise specified, use a water
content producing slumps conforming to the provisions of Fig. 12.3-Dowels after one piacement of concrete.
AC1 301. The concrete must have satisfactory plasticity and
finishing qualities and must be sufficiently cohesive to min- See Chapter 6 for comments on how temperature, slump,
imize segregation. The use of water-reducing admixtures and water reducers may affect air entrainment.
i may help to overcome problems of placement in large, flat If excess bleeding (presence of free water on the slab sur-
structures. Concrete for exterior slabs must be air entrained face) occurs, the sand may contain insufficient fines pass-
where required by the exposure conditions. Normalweight ing the No. 50,100, and 200 (300,150, and 75 pm) sieves.
concrete for many other exposures may have a small amount This can sometimes be corrected by the use of appropriate
of entrained air to increase the workability of the concrete admixtures, blending sand to improve the gradation, poz-
and to reduce bleeding. Concrete made with lightweight ag- zolan, or increased cement content, with an appropriate re-
gregate may require air entrainment to improve workability. proportioning of the mixture. If the mixture causes

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1799 Obb2Y47 05'482'43 Li51
SLABS FOR BUILDINGS 95
difficulties in workability and finishing, adjust the mixture.

Admixtures may help to overcome this problem; however,
obtain the designer's approval before changing the mixture
proportions. Mixtures should contain the maximum
amount of coarse aggregate that can be used without caus-
ing difficulty in placing and finishing. Nominal maximum
size of coarse aggregate should not exceed 1/3 the depth of
the slab and should generally not exceed 1-112 in.
Heavy-duty topping mixtures must have low slump and
less fines in the mixture.
SLABS ON GRADE
Prior to placing slabs on grade, prepare and compact the
subgrade in accordance with the contract documents. Drain
Fig. 12.4-Finishing machines float and trowel surface of
the bottom of granular base courses. Otherwise the bottom concrete slab.
must not be lower than the adjacent finished grade. Undrained
base courses become reservoirs for water. be vertical and as low as possible. Distribute horizontally
In many cases, particularly for floors of enclosed buildings, with square-pointed shovels and not with vibration.
impervious sheeting or similar material is specified to be placed Internal vibrators provide the best means of consolidation of
over the subgrade as a vapor barrier to prevent migration thicker concrete slabs. They should be inserted and removed
through the concrete of capillary water that rises to the surface in the vertical position and moved at short spacing over the en-
of fine-grained subgrade soils. If such impervious material is tire area. Pay particular attention to vibration along bulkheads
used, it should have full coverage, and each sheet should ade- and at comers. If vibrators are not available, thorough spading
quately lap adjoining sheets or be taped if so specified. Take will be required as the concrete is placed. To prevent bringing
precautions during installation and concreting to prevent punc- an excess of fine material and water to the surface, carefully
turing of the vapor barrier. This vapor barrier does not consti- avoid overvibration, which is easy to produce in thin slabs.
tute waterproofing. AC1 302.1R points out that the usual Concrete in thinner slabs may be consolidated by the sawing
drying-shrinkagecracking of slabs on vapor barrier is much less motion used with rigid strike-Offs, by vibratory screeds
if 3 in. of wet sand is first placed on the vapor barrier. (strike-Offs), and by rollers. Pan-type surface vibrators can be
used, but care must be taken to prevent working too much
If there is no vapor barrier specified, dampen the sub-
paste to the surface. Grate tampers (jitterbugs) can be used
grade by spraying with water before concreting. Never
with low-slump concrete, and should be used with great care.
place concrete for slabs on grade on frozen ground.
Do not use them with higher-slump mixtures or with light-
weight-aggregate concrete. Never use vibratory-grate tampers
Placing and consolidation of concrete because of probable overvibration and resulting segregation
Place concrete carefully to attain the designed slab thick- with excessive paste worked to the surface.
ness, within the specified tolerances, after finishing. This can
be done by using a sufficient number of suitable rigid screeds Finishing
and checking of the depth to grade at sufficient points. The Immediately after the concrete has been consolidated and
bulkheads or forms may serve as screeds. They must be set at screeded to grade, remove surface irregularities using a bull
proper elevation, and must have no projections so that the con- float or a darby. This must be done before any water appears
crete may be uniformly struck off. Another method for ob- at the surface. Suspend all working of the surface until time for
taining proper elevation of the concrete is with the use of a floating. Never work the surface while water is present.
concrete screed, sometimes called a wet screed. Low-slump The next operation, after strike-off and initial leveling, is
concrete is cast between grade stakes and struck off at the floating. Floating may be done by hand or with power floats
proper level. The grade stakes are then removed and the re- (Fig. 12.4). Do not begin floating until all of the bleed water
mainder of the slab placed and finished using these strips of sheen has disappeared and the concrete has stiffened suffi-
concrete as screeds. Use of wet screeds for placing concrete ciently to allow walking on the surface without leaving heel
in slabs is difficult to control properly. Immediately discon- prints more than about 1/4 in. deep. If the concrete is air en-
tinue the use of concrete screeds if there is doubt about con- trained, use a magnesium or aluminum tool to prevent tear-
solidation of the concrete in the screeds or in the slab ing of the surface. Use the proper amount of pressure to
concrete along the sides of the concrete screeds. provide the best results. Premature finishing will bring ex-
Place concrete for slabs by crane and buckets, pumps, cessive fines to the surface, which will tend to dust in ser-
conveyors, or by hand or power buggies. Take care to main- vice. Avoid over-floating or any over-finishing. Float only
tain proper location of reinforcement. Deposit the concrete to the extent necessary to ensure that a layer of mortar will
as close to final location as possible without building up cover the coarse aggregate. Observe this precaution in par-
piles. Avoid excessive horizontal movement and segrega- ticular when power floats are used. Floating may be the final
tion. As concrete is delivered, the drop onto the slab must finishing operation or may be followed by troweling.
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STDmACI SP-Z-ENGL 1777 Obb2747 05482qV 398
Perform edging only where required by the contract docu- ing has not always been successful. As a result, some orga-
ments. If edging is required, be careful not to overwork the nizations no longer use regular bonded two-course floors,
concrete. Edgers must have a radius no greater than permitted prefening instead to make the second course thick enough
by the contract documents; if not specified, the radius should to be serviceable by itself in cases where the second course
be between 3/16 and 3/8 in. Instead of edging, the edges of the must come later. In such case, no particular effort is made
surface at construction joints may be lightly stoned after the to bond the thick second course to the base course.
fonns are stripped and before placing the adjacent slab. Two-course floors can be constructed by applying a thin
Additional water must not be applied to the surface by topping to base-course concrete that has not completely
dashing with a brush, sprinkling, or spraying during finish- hardened (integral topping), or to base-course concrete that
ing or edging operations. With proper scheduling of the fin- is hardened and has significant age (bonded topping).
ishing operations to meet prevailing conditions, no Construct the base-course slab using single-course methods,
additional water should be necessary. Never use finishing but use only bull-float or darby finishing because it produces
machines with water attachments to wet the slab. a surface to which the topping will bond well. Apply integral
Many slabs require a troweled surface. Troweling is done af- toppings when the base-course concrete has hardened suffi-
ter floating and should be delayed as long as possible to prevent ciently that footprints of the workers are barely perceptible.
working excess fines and water to the surface, certainly until Before applying a bonded topping course to hardened base
the surface moisture film and shine remaining after floating has slabs, thoroughly clean the base slab of all loose material,
disappeared. Do not, however, delay so long that the surface laitance, scale, or other material such as oil, paint, or dirt.
becomes too hard to permit compacting the fines at the surface. These can be removed by sandblasting or high-pressure water
Do not trowel any surface that has not first been floated. In most jet. These methods may not be acceptable, however, for
modern operations power troweling is performed first, fol- inside-building work. Indoors it may be necessary to use
lowed by finish îroweling by hand. Trowels are made of spring cleaning agents that will not leave a residue, or to treat with a
steel, and for second and succeeding trowelings they are tilted 10% solution of muriatic acid scrubbed over the contaminated
slightly to increase the pressure of the contact area, thus pro- area, followed by thorough flushing. Store and handle the acid
ducing a dense, hard surface. Hand troweling requires a high carefully. Use acid cleaning only as a last resort. Before placing
degree of skill to produce a uniformly dense surface, free of the top course, thoroughly moisten the bottom course. Never
chatter marks or other imperfections. Where a hard troweled or allow pools of free water to remain. A neat-cement grout mixed
burnished surface is required, finish troweling is continued un- to the consistency of thick paint or a specified bonding agent is
til a ringing sound is mied. For some walks or ramps, partic- sometimes applied to the surface, just prior to concrete place-
ularly exterior walks, it is more desirable to use only a ment. These should not be aliowed to dry or set before the top
wood-float finish, without troweling, to improve traction, since course is applied.
it provides a rougher surface. This condition can also be at- The mixture proportions of the topping course (minimum
tained by first applying a steel-troweled finish and then, just be- thickness of 3/4 in.) are important. With crushed stone or pea
fore the concrete sets, lightly bmming the surface with a fine- gravel, No. 4 to 3/8 or 1/2 in. in size as the coarse aggregate,
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
haired push broom or similar device. the mixture should be 1: 1:1-1/2 by weight with no more than
42 lb (5 gal.) of water per 100 lb of cement. Water content
Hardened-surface slabs should be carefully controlled and specified as the minimum
Industrial floors, particularly those for warehouses, are at that will permit placing, consolidating, and screeding with-
times designed to receive a hardened surface produced by out undue difficulty. Usually this is a slump less than 1 in. A
use of a shake of metallic or natural hard mineral aggregate. better quality of finished surface will result if these instruc-
Mechanical application is far superior to hand methods and tions are followed without exception.
should be used whenever possible. A manufactured aggre- The finishing methods for twoaurse slabs are the same as
~
gate, usually mixed with dry cement by the manufacturer, is for single-course slabs. Heavy-duty toppings should be con-
evenly distributed over the surface after floating the surface structed with a mixture having no more than 31 lb (3.75 gal.) of
once. (Do not confuse this with using added cement to blot water per 100 Ib of cement and a slump not exceeding 1 in., un-
up excessive bleed water prior to finishing, which is never less a high-range water-reducing admixture is used to increase
permitted.) Two-thirds of the dry shake is f i s t applied in one slump. Consolidate and finish these toppings with disc-+
direction and then floated into the surface, without addition of power floats equipped with an integral impact mechanism.
water. The remaining 113 is then applied at right angles to the
first and again floated to ensure uniform application. Finish- Curing and protection
ing operations are then conducted as described previously. Curing is one of the most important factors in attaining du-
Abrasive aggregateis often added to slab surfaces in much the rable concrete. This phase of slab construction cannot be over-
same way to produce a nonslip surface. emphasized. It is important to begin curing immediately after
finishing is completed.
Two-course construction and special toppings Currently, use of membrane-forming curing compounds is
Caution! Bonding of two-course floors is a highly critical the most common method of curing concrete slabs. Acceptable
operation requiring the most meticulous attention to the types and brands are usually listed in the contract documents,
procedure described. Even so, experience with such bond- along with approved methods and rates of application. They are

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1779 - Obb2949 0548245 22‘4
SLABS FOR BUILDINGS
Filled around column

97
II after floor
is cast
Preformed sîrip
g(13rnm) thrck
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
construction
purposes
Fig. 1 2 . 5 4 ~Location
) of isolation und controljoints for concretejloor slabs, from ACI 302.IR; and (bj detail shows isolation
at columns.
ordinaxily sprayed on. If manufacturer’s directions are fol- kle-free contact can be achieved and maintained over the
lowed, reasonably good results can be expected, as the curing whole area. Mottling can be minimized (and curing im-
compounds retard loss of water by evaporation.They should be proved) by keeping free water under the covering.
applied immediately after completion of finishing, depending Maintain the curing for the specified minimum period. Nor-
on type of membrane used and the manufacturer’s instructions. mally 7 days is recommended when Type I cement is used.
During windy weather, the application rate may need to be in- Before placing concrete, verify that all curing materials
creased, depending on application method and wind velocity. and equipment are ready. Also provide materials and proce-
The necessary coverage rate will be increased by broomed or dures necessary to protect against sudden changes in weather
similar rough surfaces due to greater exposed surface area. (rain, snow, wind, and drastic temperature change).
Where practical, the best method of curing slabs is by “pond- Protection during cold weather-Properly cured concrete
ing,” which, as the name implies, is a method of maintaining a placed and cured at 50 F should provide excellent long-term
depth of water over the entire area after finishinghas been com- strength and durability. In moderately cold weather, for in-
pleted and the concrete has achieved initial set. In most cases, stance when the mean daily temperature at the job site falls
however, it is impractical to use this method because of con- below 40 F for more than 1 day, protect all concrete from
struction complexities and cost of retaining the water. freezing for at least the first 24 h after it is placed. Make pro-
I Another very effective method is to cover the slab with bur- visions for similar initial protection from freezing unless the
lap or similar material, which must be kept soaked during the mean daily temperature has been above 40 F for more than 3
entire curing period to be effective. It is best to wait until after consecutive days. Concrete so protected will be safe from
initial set has taken pluce before covering with burlap. Other- damage by freezing at an early age and, if air entrained and
wise, undesirable marks at joints or creases in the burlap will then properly cured, will not be impaired in ultimate durabil-
show on the concrete after removal. In drying weather, after ity, provided it is not permitted to freeze in a saturated con-
the specified wet-curing period has elapsed, cracking will be dition. AC1 306R gives additional guidance on protection
less likely to occur if the wet curing is discontinued in such during cold weather.
manner that the concrete will dry slowly. One way to slow Protection during hot weather-On hot, dry, windy days,
the drying process is to leave the burlap cover in place until slab surfaces may dry faster than bleed water rises to the sur-
the burlap has dried. Avoid the use of new burlap where face. This can cause a layer of dry concrete at the surface
staining of the concrete is objectionable unless trials have over unhardened interior concrete. Plastic-shrinkage crack-
shown that there is no problem. Use clean burlap; do not use ing also occurs under these weather conditions. Protection
old produce sacks because they are often contaminated. should consist of shading, wind screens, or fog sprays, ac-
Another way to cure slabs is by using curing paper or plas- cording to AC1 305R.
tic sheeting. If discoloration or mottling of the surface must
be prevented, some other means of curing may be preferred. STRUCTURAL SLABS
Normally, plastic sheeting requires special diligence to keep Satisfactory construction of structural slabs involves most of
it in complete contact with the concrete surface. When cur- the same requirements as those described previously for slabs
ing paper or plastic sheeting is used, it is possible to prevent on grade. Consequently, only additional requirements for struc-
discoloration or mottling only if complete, intimate, wnn- tural slabs will be discussed as follows. The inspector of struc-

S T D - A C 1 SP-Z-mENGL 1999 IUbb27q9 051i82qb I b U 9
prevent possible deflections of lower floor members that

support the shoring.
Check the final top-of-slab elevations around columns
carefully, as there is a tendency to overfill at these points.
Protection
In addition to the curing and protection requirements
discussed previously for slabs on grade, protect the bottom
1
surfaces of structural slabs as well as the top. Refer to
Chapter 10 for details of protection of concrete, including
hot- and cold-weather concreting.
JOINT CONSTRUCTION
Types and locations of joints for building slabs, either
1 slabs on grade or structural slabs, are usually shown in
___ - _contract
their . . documents: allow no deviation. Joints should
- ..._
-.
Fig. 1 2 . 6 I n slabs of grade, contractionjoint fonned by deeply be carefully planned by the designer to serve the intended
tooling fresh concrete provides weakened piane that prevents
random cracking caused by shrinkage or thermal &ects. purpose, such as isolation of columns (Fig. 12.5) or control
of expansion or shrinkage (Fig. 12.6).
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Depending on the purpose of the joint, various types of
fillers or armored protection may be specified. The inspec-
mai slabs should be thoroughly familiar with the necessary tor should verify that the filler, armor, or expansion joint
requirementsfor slabs on grade. material is as specified and is properly placed and treated.
Plan the casting of concrete for the slab in conjunction
Screeds with joint locations. If possible, have construction joints
Place screeds for reinforced structural slabs over the coincide with planned joints.
form-supporting members. In all cases, take into account Joints for control of drying shrinkage are often sawed.
the deflections of the supporting members caused by im- See Chapter 13 on pavements for the optimum conditions
posed concrete loads, and allow for such deflections in set- for successful joint sawing. In building slabs on grade, saw
ting the screeds. This may require shoring of the support the joints at least 1/4 of the slab thickness. It is most im-
members. If shoring is used, trace the vertical loads and portant that no unspecified joints be placed in a structural
provide additional shoring at lower floors, if required, to slab without the prior approval of the designer.

99
CHAPTER 13-PAVEMENT SLABS AND BRIDGE DECKS
Concrete pavements vary from relatively thin 5 or 6 in.

thick slabs used for light-load traffic for parking lots and
some residential streets, to thicker slabs for primary streets
and roads, to slabs for interstate pavements designed to carry
high-speed, high-intensity, heavy-load vehicular traffic, and
finally, to slabs for airfield pavements, which may be up to
24 in. thick and designed to carry aircrafts with gross loads
up to 750,000 lb. Each of these types may be unreinforced,
have distributed steel only, be relatively heavily reinforced
(such as continuously reinforced concrete pavement), or Fig. 13.I-Subgrade trimmer operating from stringline for
even be prestressed. both line and grade.
In general, the thicker the pavement or the higher the load
rating, the higher the cost per unit area, and the greater the operating from preset string lines or wires or from adjacent
priority given to (and the more money available for) inspec- completed, fine-graded subgrade (Fig. 13.1). in practice, grade
tion, testing, and sophisticated construction control mea- wires are installed frst by accurate measurement from the de-
sures. This is not necessarily a good arrangement of signer’s survey stakes, and then by carefully sighting along the
priorities. Often, a little more money spent on inspection and wire, correcting for discrepancies in either the measurements or
construction control for the lighter-duty pavements would the survey stakes.
return great benefits in upgrading their quality and lengthen- For jobs with fixed-form paving, the fine grading is done by
ing their service life. The purpose of all inspection and con- machines operated off of grade stakes or off of the set forms.
struction control is to produce a smooth-riding pavement The inspector’sjob is to see that the fine grading achieves the
with a long service life-ne able to withstand the repeated correct elevation by measuring from a string line or straight-
loadings and wear of traffic and the deteriorating effects of edge based on the elevation of the grade stakes. Fine grading to
natural weathering, often intensified by deicing chemicals- the correct elevation will reduce concrete yield losses and re-
all at the lowest possible cost. duce conflicts over pavement depth following coring.
The inspector (and testing technician), whether employed If permitted by the contract documents, concrete transit-mix-
directly or indirectly by the owner for acceptance inspection, ers or agitators are sometimes allowed to operate on the pre-
or by the contractor for quality-control inspection, has an pared subgrade.In this case, the inspector should make sure that
important role in the production of Satisfactory pavements. any subgrade deformations are corrected and recompacted,
AC1 provides certification programs for Concrete Transpor- with water added as necessary, prior to concrete placement.
tation Construction Inspector and Concrete Field Testing
Technician. As with all other discussion of concrete inspec- Stabilized base
tion in this manual, it is strongly emphasized that the inspec- Some heavy-duty highway and airfield pavements are
tor is strictly governed by the requirements of the contract placed on a granular subbase or base course that has been sta-
documents. Instructions and discussions of paving practices bilized by adding chemical stabilizing materials, such as ce-
here give background data and serve as additional guidance ment, asphalt, lime, or combinations of these. It is important
only on items not covered fully by the contract documents. that such bases be finished to grade within specified tolerances,
For more detailed information, refer to AC1 325.9R. at the time of original construction. Avoid excessive ma-
nipulation of the surface because this results in a weakened
FOUNDATION (SUBGRADE AND SUBBASE top layer susceptible to deterioration during service. This
COURSE) leads to joint faulting and other pavement problems. A sta-
The degree of smoothness retained depends, to a large ex- bilized base should be protected from damage after placing.
tent, upon the quality of the foundation. Grading and com- Equipment for placing subbase or base course should have
paction of subgrades and construction of subbase courses automatic grade control. A typical surface tolerance for sta-
should be in strict accordance with the contract documents. bilized bases under concrete pavement is 11/4 in. when
A smooth, thoroughly compacted base is critical for a satis- checked by a 10 ft straightedge.
factory pavement. There has been an increase in the use of a lean concrete
Low-traffic-volume pavements, such as residential streets base (often called “econocrete”) placed by the same equip-
and secondary roads, often do not have a subbase. Construction ment already on the job for constructing the concrete pave-
of a select-materiai subbase course may facilitate construction, ment. Normally, no hand finishing should be done behind the
and its use is, at times, permitted at the contractor’s option. paver. Membrane-forming curing compound is sprayed on
the surface to retain the moisture required for cement hydra-
Fine grading of subgrade or subbase tion and to provide a bond breaker between subbase and
Fine grading for slipformed concrete pavements is almost al- pavement. The lean concrete base should contain entrained
ways done by machines with automatic grade-control devices air for durability. Fabrication and testing of strength test
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STDmACI SP-2-ENGL 1979 Obb2949 0548248 T I 3 D
1O0 MANUAL OF CONCRETE INSPECTION
Fig. 13.2-Paving airport taxiway in alternate lams.After

form removal, lanes between are paved.
Fig. 13.4-FM.ed-fonn paver with keyway f o n attached to
form rail at right. In foreground, dowels are positioned for
expansionjoint.
The forms should normally have a depth equal to the thick-
ness of the concrete. For small areas of variable-thickness
pavement, they may be built up with full-width wood boards
securely attached to the bottom to increase the depth not
more than 25% of the original form depth. Do not add to the
top of the form. The base width of all forms must be at least
3/4 of the depth of the forms (Fig. 13.3). Use flexible or
curved forms for a curve whose radius is 100 ft or less.
Bent, dented, or twisted forms not meeîing the above require-
ments should be removed from the project. Rusty forms or forms
Fig. 13.3-Installing form for airport runway. Wide base caked with hardened concrete must be cleaned before use.
stabilizes form. Stake the forms securely to the grade and make sure they are
in full contact at all points. Fill in and recompact low spots in the
specimens, as well as tests of fresh concrete for such proper- grade before forms are reset. Do not attempt to fill and compact
ties as air content and consistency, should be done in the low spots under the forms after they are in place. Do not use
same manner as for concrete pavement. Regardless of the shims to correct uneven support. Forms must be full depth of the
type of subgrade or subbase or base provided, the essential pavement. Never place them in depressions or on mounds to
requirement for good concrete pavement performance is uni- compensate for improper height. Lock abutting sections of forms
formity of support. Uniformity in materials, compaction, and together tightly. Make final adjustments after checking grade
base thickness should be closely controlled. Close attention from grade stakes and checking smoothness with a straightedge.
to these features of prepaving operations will result in re- Lightly oil inside form face before placing concrete.
duced maintenance and longer pavement life.
Keyway forms
FORMS Keys for load transfer across joints are often required in longi-
Early pavement consíruction required the use of fixed forms tudinaljoints. When fired-form paving is used, the keyway form
to contain the concrete in the paving lane. In the late 1950s, is attached to the paving forms for the first lane (or lanes)of pave-
slipform paving equipment was introduced and its use in- ment placed (Fig. 13.4). When slipform paving is used, the key-
creased rapidly to the point that a high percentage of large pav- way form is attached to the sliding fom, usually to form a female
ing projects employ this method. In slipform paving, the key. The reverse has also been used successfully. On adjoining or
concrete is extruded or formed by a paver equipped with mov- fill-in lanes, the &er half of the key is formed as the concrete in
ing side forms that mold and retain the stiff plastic concrete for this lane is molded against the first placement. Attach the keyway
only moments as they pass. Fixed-form paving is often used form securely to the paving form to prevent movement. Tack
for small paving areas involving concrete that is hand-placed welding to steel forms is usually required. The dimensions of the
and finished, and for some applications, such as vari- key and location at middepth of the slab are very hportant and
able-width ramp or street paving, where spreading and fin- must conform to the contract documents. 'Ihe effectiveness of
ishing is done by equipment that rides on the forms. Fixed off-center and improperly dimensioned keys decreases rapidly as
forms are still used for some large jobs, but this use is declin- the key varies from requkd location and dimension. Wood keys
ing. Forms are normally made of steel and must be strong may swell with water and crack the keyway.
enough to support paving machines without excessive de-
flections (Fig. 13.2). The forms should be straight within a String line
tolerance of 1/8 in. in 10 ft along the top rail, and 1/4 in. in The string line or wire for guiding automatic control devices
10fi on the sides. Forms to support paving equipment should on slipform pavers must be carefully set to line and grade.
be made of steel not less than 5/16 in. thick. Maintain sufficient tension in the string line to prevent sag.
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S T D e A C I SP-2-ENLL 1777 D Obb2747 05q8247 77T D
PAVEMENT SLABS AND BRIDGE DECKS 1o1
STEEL REINFORCEMENT *
Distributed reinforcing steel, usually welded-wire fabric, is
used in concrete pavement in areas with high cracking tenden-
cy. Distributed steel refers to reinforcing steel used in a mini-
mal amount, usually 0.05% of the cross-sectional area. It acts
to maintain any cracks in a tightly closed condition so that ag-
gregate interlock will provide load transfer at these locations.
Normally, transverse contraction joints are constructed at
close enough intervals to prevent transverse cracking, in
which case distributed reinforcing steel is not provided, ex-
cept for odd-shaped slabs and areas where joints are mis-
. . __
matched. High percentages of reinforcing steel are used in
structural slabs and continuously reinforced concrete pave- Fig. 13.5-A certijìed inspector checks reinforcing steel
ment (CRCP). Reinforcement may be welded-wire fabric before concrete is placed.
(plain or deformed), bar mats, or separate bars.
Light rusting of reinforcement is not harmful, and actually gates can cause considerable difficulty in maintaining uniform
improves bond with the concrete. If the rust is so deep that it consistency of the concrete. In many areas, coarse aggregates,
reduces the cross section of the steel, the reinforcement must particularly gravels, contain significant amounts of materials
be replaced. Loose rust that can be removed by rubbing with that are unstable when subjected to freezing and thawing or
burlap or other effective means should be removed. When the even wetting and drying. When used in pavement concrete
steel is unloaded and stacked, rust protection is needed only subjected to severe weather, these unstable particles can cause
for long-term storage. In these cases, rust protection is provid- popouts in the pavement surface. This is particularly undesir-
ed by placing the steel on a layer of polyethylene sheeting and able in airfield pavements for jet aircrafts. Jet engines can pick
covering the pile with the same material. up the loose particles from the surface and suck them in, caus-
There are several methods of installing steel reinforce- ing major damage. For these pavements, the contract docu-
ment in the pavement. In two-course construction, the first ments may have very tight limits on such deleterious materials.
course is struck off to the specified depth of the steel, the Another aggregate problem peculiar to pavements is
steel is placed on the concrete, and then the top course of D-cracking. Some impure limestones cause major problems
concrete is placed. The top course must be placed before the when used for coarse aggregate in pavement concrete. The
lower course begins to harden to avoid a cold joint that may aggregate particles are unsound, and as they deteriorate, a
result in pavement failure. progressive crack pattern forms, roughly parallel to pave-
Another method of positioning steel is to set it on fabricated ment edges and joints (D-cracking). The usual way to mini-
chairs (supports) staked in the grade prior to paving. The con- mize or prevent D-cracking when such coarse aggregates
crete is then placed full depth in one pass. A third method is to must be used is to limit the maximum size of coarse aggre-
place the concrete full depth, lay the steel on the surface, and gates to 1/2 or 314 in. and to use an extremely low percentage
then depress it to its specified position by a separate machine. of coarse aggregate, possibly 40 to 50% at the most.
If the contract documents call for only longitudinal bars when Admixtures used in pavement concrete consist of the
continuously reinforced concrete pavement is being construct- following:
ed, the bars required are often assembled on the grade and fed Air-entraining agents-used in most pavement con-
through the bell-shaped entrances of tubes attached to the front crete, even in mild climates;
of the paver. The tubes are adjusted to guide the bars to the cor- Retarders-used particularly in hot weather;
rect spacing and elevation in the completed pavement. Water-reducers-used fairly commonly; and
Never lay reinforcing steel, either welded-wire fabric or Calcium chloride-at times used in pavement concrete
reinforcing bars, on the subgrade and attempt to pull it up constructed during cold weather. Most specifications,
into position after the concrete is placed. Heavy welded-wire however, discourage or even prohibit its use.
fabric is much easier to handle when furnished as flat mats
rather than rolls. Mixtures and mixture proportioning
Regardless of the method used for positioning reinforcing Mixtures for paving concrete should be proportioned in
steel, the inspector should probe into the fresh concrete be- accordance with the current edition of AC1 21 1.1.
hind the paver to ensure that the steel is in its proper position Flexural strength is the common basis for developing mix-
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within specified tolerances. ture proportions and for determining the quality of paving con-
crete as this is the basis of pavement thickness design. The use
CONCRETE of cylinders to determine compressive strength, however, is
Materials often the method of control on smaller projects. In either case,
Cement should be furnished in bulk and each shipment strictly follow standard sampling and testing procedures if the
checked to ensure compliance with contract documents. results are to be meaningful. It is particularly important that
Maintain close control on aggregates to ensure compliance the upper exposed surface of test beams be protected to avoid
with contract documents. Variation in gradation of the aggre- drying, which may produce lower apparent strengths.

The inspector should be alert to visual changes in the con-
crete and its handling characteristics, which may indicate
significant changes in essential properties. If there are varia-
tions among the batches, differential settlement will occur
during hardening and may result in a rough pavement.
Make uniformity tests if specified or if there are doubts as
to within-batch uniformity of the concrete. In these tests,
concrete samples from the first and last portions of a batch
are obtained and tested as described in ASTM C 94 or as oth-
erwise specified. See Chapter 19.
The most important responsibilities of the inspector (or
testing technician) is to ensure that the concrete contains
the specified percentage of entrained air and is of the proper
consistency (slump). In areas where the concrete will be
subjected to freezing and thawing and to deicing salts, the
proper amount of entrained air is essential for durability. In all
climates, air entrainment improves concrete workability and
reduces bleeding. Use only specified test equipment and test
procedures for acceptance or rejection of the concrete.
Slump of the concrete is important because variation in
slump will affect the operation of the finishing equipment.
This is particularly true for slipform paving. Contract docu-
ments often limit slump of concrete for fixed-form paving to
a maximum of 2 in. and slipform paving to 1-1/2 in.
Concrete placement
To provide moisture that will later aid in curing the con-
crete, and to help hold down concrete temperatures on hot
days, the grade should be moist, but without excess free water,
when the concrete is placed. The concrete should be placed
(b) evenly across the width of the lane. If placed in piles or wind-
Fig. 13.6-Paver-mounted vibrators: { a ) gang-mounted rows, it can consolidate unevenly, resulting in rough pave-
spud vibrators; and (b)pan-type surface vibrato,: ment. Keep concrete hauling equipment off the prepared
subgrade in the lane being paved, particularly where sub-
Batching and mixing grades are too soft to support concrete haul units without de-
In early paving operations, concrete materials for large formation. Use transfer equipment consisting of belt spreaders
jobs were batched at a central plant, hauled to the paving site, or moving hoppers to transfer the concrete from trucks on the
shoulder to the front of the paver. If the subgrade or base
and mixed in paving mixers operating adjacent to the place-
course is stabilized with chemical additives (lime, cement, and
ment. This system is seldom used now, and has generally
asphalt), hauling equipment may drive in the paving lane and
been replaced by central-plant concrete production. Here, the discharge the concrete immediately in front of the paver.
pavement concrete is batched at a central plant, either the
contractor’s own plant setup on or near the job for larger PAVING
projects, or at a commercial ready-mixed concrete plant for Vibration
smaller projects. The concrete is either mixed in stationary Adequate vibration is essential for successful paving. This is
mixers at the central plant, mixed in transit-mix trucks en often accomplished by a combination of internal spud vibrators
route to the paving site, or shrink-mixed (partially mixed at and surface tamping bars (Fig. 13.6). They should be rigidly
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the central plant and finished in truck mixers). gang-mounted on the front of the paver so all are at the same
depth and angle. Spud vibrators are usuaiiy oriented parallel to
Central-mixed concrete is hauled in agitating trucks,
the longitudinal direction of paving and should be located at in-
ready-mixed concrete trucks, special nonagitating trucks,
tervals of not more than 2 or 2-1/2 ft across the width of the
and at times, where well-proportioned mixtures of low slump paver. A minimum vibration frequency is usually specified,
are used, regular dump trucks. Time limits are often specified measure the actual frequency by tachometer to ensure compli-
for delivery, with longer times allowed for agitating units and ance. Minimum amplitude is also specified frequently.
truck mixers. It is the condition of the concrete at time of Vary the frequency and depth of the vibrators in accor-
placement, however, that is important. It should meet all re- dance with concrete consistency, materials, weather condi-
quirements for proportions, uniformity, consistency, temper- tions, and other variables. A sizeable head of concrete shall
ature, air content, and strength. be maintained over the vibrators to achieve effective consol-

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1 9 9 9 W Obb29Li7 059825% 528 H
PAVEMENT SLABS AND BRIDGE DECKS 103
Fig. 13.8-Spreader and finishing machine supported on

Fig. 13.7-Slipfom paver guided by string line. previously paved lane at left and on rail at right. Subbase
moistened ahead of spreadel:
idation. Interlocks should be provided for automatic cutoff
of vibration when the paver stops moving.
Paver
In addition to the gang vibrator, the paver should have a
knock-down spreader at the front to spread the concrete uni-
formly across the lane with the surface slightly above fin-
ished grade. The spreader is usually an auger or paddle type.
Slipform pavers are self-propelled and ride on crawler
tracks that are outside of the paving lane. Slipform pavers Fig. 13.9-Oscillating screed attached to concrete spreader
range in size from those designed for curb and gutter con- produces specijìed crown in paved surface.
struction to those paving 50 ft in one pass. They handle
depths from as little as 2 in. on resurfacing projects to 20 in. with scrapers that can be adjusted tightly against the wheels to
or more for airfield pavements. They can be small enough to keep them and the top of the forms free from concrete.
be moved intact several times a day on municipal paving Uniform concrete is a large factor in successful paving, par-
projects, or large enough to pave several miles of interstate ticularly slipform paving. Achieving uniformity entails many
highway in a single day. Slipform pavers are equipped with things, including keeping the paver moving forward at all
sensors and electronic or hydraulic controls for automatic times without stops. Each stop usually produces a ripple in the
grade control from string lines or wires (Fig. 13.7). surface. Although the use of proper slipform paving equip-
Some slipform pavers are equipped with oscillating trans- ment in itself provides a quality safeguard, the inspector’s in-
verse screeds to strike off and finish the concrete surface. sight and awareness are necessary to ensure quality concrete
Others have a broad extrusion plate that forms the concrete pavement. An understanding of the subtle relationships of
surface. They have moving side forms that confine the con- mixture proportions to items such as finishing and rideability
crete and mold the pavement edges. of the pavement, as well as the edge slump-concrete slump re-
With properly proportioned concrete, slipform pavers will lationship, come with experience. The inspector’s job is not
extrude exact tongue or groove keyways where additional just to make tests-it is to ensure acceptable and uniform con-
lanes are planned. They can install tie bars to the specified crete. Testing is one of the tools, but alertness to changing con-
position. They can also install dowels for transverse and lon- ditions through observations based on experience provides
gitudinal contraction joints, but care must be exercised to en- assurance that the desired results are being achieved.
sure placement in proper position with thick pavements.
Edge slump (sagging of the plastic concrete at the pave- Finishing
ment edge) may sometimes become a problem with slipform Mechanical finishing operations behind the paver include
paving, especially with thicker pavements. Excessive edge use of wide transverse floats, rollers, and nonrotating pipe
slump can often be corrected by adjusting the moving forms floats operated at an angle to the center-line of the lane. Use
of the paver to squeeze in more, and by varying the consis- of rotating-type pipe or drum floats or screeds is usually un-
tency and proportions of the concrete mixture, particularly desirable because they work too much mortar to the surface.
changing the sand content. A commonly used limit for max- Hand-finishing operations behind the paver include:
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
imum allowable edge slump is 1/4 in. Many projects do not Occasional smoothing with long handled floats and
permit repair of excessive edge slump, and require removal straightedges;
and replacement of the entire slab. Edging; and
Pavers for fixed-form paving are self-propelled and ride on Correcting minor surface defects.
top of the forms with flanged wheels, or on the adjoining pave- Modem pavers are designed to produce pavements of
ment slab with hard rubber-tired wheels (Fig. 13.8). Most specified cross section and riding quality with a minimum of
fixed-form pavers have oscillating transverse screeds to strike hand finishing. If significant hand-finishing is required, the
off and finish the concrete (Fig. 13.9).Some have a type of ex- paver should be stopped and properly adjusted. Vibrators,
trusion plate. All wheels riding on the forms should be equipped conforming screeds, extrusion plates, and pan floats can be

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1999 Obb2949 0 5 4 8 2 5 2 4 b 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Fig. 13.10-Components of slipfonn paver that extrudes

concrete to exact width, depth, and crown: ( I ) primary con-
crete spreader screw; (2) primary concrete feed meter; (3)
vibrator mounting arm; (4) secondary concretefeed meter;
(5)primary oscillating extrusion finishers; (6)final oscillat-
ing extrusion pnishers; and 7)jloatingfine surface finishe,:
Fig. 13.11-Machine producing brushed texture in freshly
quickly adjusted to regulate the amount of concrete surge be- paved concrete.
hind the paver, so that the completed surface is at the speci-
fied elevation with the required crown (Fig. 13.10). Quick phenomenon, known as hydroplaning, occurs during high-
crown-change adjustments to screeds and mechanical floats speed travel when the depth of water on the surface is at a
permit smooth changes in crown as necessary. critical level in relation to vehicle speed.
Even if the screeds and floats are initially in correct adjust- For low-speed street and parking-lot pavement, adequate
ment, some changes will be required as the work progresses. texture can be provided by dragging burlap over the plastic
Be aware of changes in weather, mixture proportions, and concrete. Make sure at lea& 3 ft of burlap is in contact with the
other variables that may affect the finishing characteristics of surface for the fui1 width of the pavement. The operation
the concrete. If the surface begins to tear, for example, hand should begin as soon as possible behind the finisher, certainly
floats can be used to close the surface. Correct the condition before the water sheen has disappeared from the surface of the
immediately by adjusting the paver or concrete mixture pro- pavement. Good texture can also be provided for low-speed
portion (for adequate workability), so that hand work can be pavements by dragging stiff-bristled brooms transversely
reduced or eliminated. across the pavement at a time when they will not cause exces-
Excessive finishing, either by mechanical equipment or by sive tearing. They may be hand brooms or attachments to a
hand, creates a weakened layer at the surface of the pavement machine (Fig. 13.11).
that tends to deteriorate under traffic and weather. Especially
For high speed pavements, a burlap drag texture in itself
avoid adding water during hand finishing because this liter-
may not provide adequate skid resistance. One method used
aily washes cement and entrained air out of the surface layer.
for producing deeper texture employs combs with wire tines to
During íinishing, add water to the surface only in emergen-
mechanically form grooves in the surface to permit faster
cies, such as when rapid drying conditions cause tearing of the
drainage and better tire contact with the pavement (Fig. 13.12).
surface and the formation of plastic-shrinkage crack. Under
such conditions, add water only in the form of a pressurized fog Grooves may be either transverse or longitudinal. Transverse
spray, just enough to restore the surface sheen. Promptly repair grooves provide better drainage; longitudinal grooves are
quieter. Groove spacing should average approximately 1/2 to
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
dripping nozzles, leaky pipes, and other defects in the system.

A good entrained-air system at the surface is essential for 1/4 in. for highways. Wider spacings up to 2 in. or more are
freezing climates. Close control of air content and the avoid- satisfactory for airfield pavements. For highways, the
ance of excess finishing behind the paver will help prolong grooves are about 1/8 in. wide and 1/8 in. deep. Groove
the skid-resistant texture provided during construction. depths and widths for airports range up to 3/16 in. The timing
for forming grooves in plastic concrete is extremely critical,
Texturing and an experienced operator is necessary.
The two major factors affecting the initial skid resistance Another method of grooving concrete pavement is to saw
of concrete pavement are: the grooves after the concrete has hardened, using machines
The fine aggregate in the surface mortar; and equipped with multiple diamond-tipped blades (Fig. 13.13).
The texture formed in the surface. The grooves provide an escape path for the water between
The fine aggregate should have a high percentage of sili- the wheel and pavement and thus prevent hydroplaning.
ceous particles, and the proportion of fine aggregate in the Sawing grooves in the longitudinal direction improves the
concrete mixture should be near the upper limit of the range directional control of vehicles and is often done on high-
that permits proper placing, finishing, and texturing. ways, especially on curves. This has dramatically reduced
Surface texture determines how fast water escapes from wet-weather skidding accidents. Sawing the grooves trans-
between the tire and the pavement, and also how fast water versely increases the coefficient of fiction to a greater degree
drains from the surface during rain. Water on the pavement and is often done at locations where stopping or speed reduc-
can result in loss of contact between tire and pavement, caus- tions are common. Grooves in airfield runways are sawed
ing loss of vehicular direction control and skidding. This transversely (Fig. 13.14).

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1999 Inbb29Y9 05Li8253 3T0
Fig. 13.12-Machine forming grooves in freshly paved Fig. 13.13-Skid-resistant grooves sawed into harded con-
concrete. crete pavement by multiple diamond-tipped blades.
Producing a satisfactory surface texture that will last under

traffic depends upon the enforcement of high standards during
construction. High-quality materials, close control of mixture
proportioning, construction methods that produce a durable
pavement surface, and adequate curing are necessary,
Curing
Adequate curing is especially important in achieving the
desired concrete properties for pavements. It is essential for
obtaining the concrete strength and durability levels upon
which the pavement design is based.
The most common means of curing concrete pavements is
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
by spraying on liquid membrane-forming compound. Cover-
age should be complete, and no further attention is required Fig. 13.14-Machine grooving hardened concrete pavement.
during the curing period, except to see that areas are resprayed
when the membrane is damaged by construction traffic.
ods employing loose covers require large amounts of materi-
Curing compounds for pavements generally contain white
al on hand for large production jobs, such as those averaging
pigment to indicate when coverage is complete and to reduce
1 mile or more per day.
concrete temperatures by reflecting sunlight. To ensure uni-
form dispersion of pigment, agitate the compound before Plastic covers should always be on hand to protect the pave-
and during application. ment surface in case of rain before hardening. If exposure con-
Curing compound should be applied by power sprayers to ditions are likely to produce plastic-shrinkage cracking,
the surface and to the exposed edges. If fixed forms are used, immediate measures must be taken to protect the concrete.
it should be applied to the edges as soon as the forms are re-
moved. Spray all exposed concrete surfaces as soon as pave- ACCEPTANCE
ment texturing is completed. Final acceptance requirements contained in contract docu-
The specified rate of application of curing compound var- ments for concrete pavement logically vary with the class of
ies with types of pavement and surface texture. It is usually project. It is more important to pay for specifying and enforc-
applied in a double coat with a typical application rate for ing closer tolerances for a runway on a major airport than for
each coat ranging from 300 to 400 ft2/gal.; slightly heavier a residential street pavement.
coats are applied when the surface is heavily textured. The A common requirement is strength, which is determined
inspector should check the amount actually being applied. from beams or cylinders cast from the concrete being placed
Means should be provided for protecting against wind loss or NDT (Chapter 19). Another is slab thickness, determined
of the liquid. from cores removed from the hardened concrete. Specified
Other means of curing concrete pavement include water- sampling or NDT plans vary with the type and volume of traf-
proof paper, plastic sheeting, or wet burlap. All require con- fic the pavement is expected to serve. Sophisticated and sta-
stant attention during the specified curing period. Waterproof tistically based plans are drawn up for many larger projects.
covers are hard to keep in place on windy days and must be Evenness of surface may be specified for pavements serv-
constantly checked if proper curing is to result. Burlap covers ing large volumes of high-speed traffic. This is often deter-
must be constantly wet during the curing period. This requires mined by measuring vertical deviations of the hardened
close attention and repeated applications of water. All meth- concrete from the underside of a 10 ft straightedge. The use

STDmACI SP-Z-ENGL 1779 D Dbb2747 054825ii 237
of profilometers (devices on wheels that measure surface de- with diamond or carbide-tipped blades after the concrete has
viations in in. or mm/mile) is increasing. Where profilometer hardened.
measurements are specified for the pavement, contractors The initial cracking and opening at contractionjoints provide
should also use a profilometer to check the subbase surface sufficient space to accommodate later expansion cycles if the
prior to paving. joint remains free of incompressible foreign material. Clogged
Pavement evenness is usually considered acceptable for joints, however, result in concrete spalling and pavement blow-
high-speed tratlic if veaical deviations from the underside of a ups as expansion occurs during warm weather. Joints are fiiled
10 ft straightedge do not exceed 1/8 in. The straightedge itself with joint sealant to block the intrusion of foreign material.
should be checked by a string line to ensure that it is straight. It Proper joints are critical in reducing maintenance costs and
is picked up and set down on the plastic concrete at intervals not prolonging pavement life. A vertical fin normal to the bottom
exceeding half its length. It can also be used as a finishing tool of a hand float is sometimes used to form the weakened plane
to scrape off high spots and fill in low spots when necessary. in parking lot and residential pavements. Delay its use until it
Pavement evenness is critical for freeways and airfield is ensured that the depression it forms is permanent and that a
runways. Contract documents may be less strict for low crack will form below it. Temporary inserts are also used for
speed pavements, such as on intersection ramps, residential forming the weakened plane. They should not be removed until
streets, parking lots, and airfield parking aprons, where even- the danger of damage to the concrete has passed. Sometimes
ness is more difficult to achieve and is not so important. Tol- these inserts are removed by sawing after the concrete has
erances of 3/16 or 114 in. in 10 ft are often specified for such hardened. Make permanent inserts of material that will not de-
applications. teriorate under traffic and weather. Asphalt-impregnated fiber
board is economical and has performed satisfactorily.
Another requirement that is being enforced more often for
high-speed pavements is average texture depth, an indication Timing is critical for sawing contraction joints in the hard-
ened concrete. Sawing can begin as soon as it does not cause
of skid resistance. This is determined by spreading a known
excessive raveling of the concrete; it must begin before the
volume of fine, dry sand on the pavement surface in a circu-
lar area and measuring the area covered. The test is described concrete starts to crack. This timing varies with weather con-
ditions, concrete materials, and the type of pavement founda-
in AC1 325.6R.
tion. It is generally within 8 to 24 h after concrete placement
Follow specified sampling and testing methods for deter- and may occur at any time, day or night. Therefore, make
mining these concrete pavement properties to ensure fairness sure adequate lighting is available for night sawing and that
to all parties and to avoid expensive legal disputes. a standby saw is available in case of equipment breakdown.
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
One final factor to be considered in final acceptance of a

project is the cleanup of all construction residue. Expansion joints
Expansion joints consist of vertical, compressible inserts
JOINTS extending the full depth of the pavement, permitting move-
In constructing abutting pavements separately, it is impor- ment of adjoining slabs or isolating slab movements from
tant that the pavement surface not sag at the edges. Careful fixed structures, such as bridge approach slabs or concrete
adjustment of equipment and concrete mixture proportions is walls and directional changes and blockouts. Premolded ex-
critical in achieving specified surface tolerance near the pansion joint material is installed to form these joints.
pavement edges. With close attention and good cooperation The expansion filler must be in contact with the grade
among all concerned, however, it can be accomplished. throughout its length, and must extend the full width of the
Checks by straightedge will determine if surface tolerances lane to exclude plugs of concrete from the expansion space.
are being met at longitudinal construction joints. To con- Keep the filler vertical during concrete placement and hard-
struct a joint that will function properly, it is necessary to un- ening. Otherwise, when movement occurs, one slab will tend
derstand the purpose of the joint. Pavement design engineers to ride up over the other, possibly causingjoint faulting, spal-
have carefully tailored a number of different joint types. ling, or a blowup.
Each is intended to serve a special function in the pavement. The expansionjoint filler should extend to within only ap-
If these joints are not constructed as shown on the contract proximately 1/2 in. of the pavement surface to provide space
documents and at the proper locations, trouble will result. for the joint sealant. This is often formed with a removable
insert on the top of the filler.
Contraction joints
Normal concrete pavement shrinks upon hardening and Pavement dowels
drying and will never again be as long (occupy as much vol- For heavy-duty pavements, mechanical load transfer may
ume) as when first constructed. This causes cracking, partic- be specified for transverse joints. This is provided by smooth,
ularly transverse cracking, because of the long paving lanes round or square steel dowel bars. Dowels in transverse joints
normally used. Contraction joints are weakened planes in- are usually installed in wire baskets staked in the grade ahead
stalled to predetermine the locations of transverse cracks and of paving. The dowels are intended to transfer loads across
to ensure that they occur in straight lines. The weakened the joint and reduce deflections at the joint. At the same time,
planes may be formed in the plastic concrete by special tools, they must permit unrestricted horizontal movement as the
by removable or permanent inserts, or they may be sawed joint opens and closes. Therefore, they must be completely

smooth and free of burrs. They are painted and lightly oiled
on one end to prevent bonding to the concrete. Some dowels
are manufactured with plastic coatings to reduce bonding to
the concrete and to prevent corrosion.
To function properly, the dowels must be installed parallel
to the centerline and surface of the pavement. Specified tol-
erances often require that misalignment shall not exceed I/S
to 12 in. Alignment can be checked by levels and measuring
tapes and templates. Stiff concrete can shove baskets and
dowels out of alignment unless precautions are taken in the
way the concrete is placed.
Special caps, designed to provide space for concrete ex-
pansion, are installed on the free-moving ends of dowels at
expansion joints (Fig. 13.15). This space provides for con-
crete movement without the buildup of critical stresses that Fig. 13.15-DoweZs in place with cups for expansion joint.
could shatter the concrete.
Machines are available for mechanically inserting dowels Extra steel is often at constructionjoints in
at transverse and longitudinal joints. The dowels are inserted ousiy reinforced pavement,
from the surface after the concrete has been placed. Some
types of dowel inserters do not function properly for longi-
Longitudinal contraction joints
tudinal construction joints in thick slipformed pavements. If
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Where concrete pavement is placed in one wide pass, a

the inserters cannot be used for these pavements, cement the
weakened plane is required to prevent uncontrolled longitu-
dowels with epoxy resin into holes carefully drilled into the
dinal cracking. Such cracking is due to warping stresses
hardened concrete. Check the dowel positioning frequently
caused by the tendency of concrete to curl when temperature
for compliance with the specified tolerances.
or moisture differences exist between the top and bottom of
the slab. Because of this, these joints in two-lane pavements
Transverse construction joints
Transverse construction joints are constructed by instali- are often referred to as hinge joints. Unlike transverse joints,
ing transverse forms (commonly called “headers”) at the end they are not intended to open and close. In road pavements
of a day’s run, or whenever placement may be interrupted and in outer lanes of wide aprons, deformed steel tie bars are
long enough that there is danger that the concrete in place normally instailed across longitudinal joints to keep them
may begin to harden. Wooden forms with holes drilled for tightly closed. The depth of the weakened plane for longitudi-
placing dowels or tie bars are usually employed. Consider- nal joints is extremely critical in preventing longitudinal
able hand finishing is required at headers. cracks, and should be of constant concern to the inspector. The
If the last delivered concrete does not quite reach the Specifieddepth is often 1/4the pavement thickness plus 114 in.
header, there is a temptation to use excess grout carried One way to form the joint is with a strip of polyethylene
over from normal paving operations to extend the pave- tape of the specified thickness and width, installed automat-
ment up to the header. Transverse construction joints cause ically from a reel through a special attachment on the paver.
more than their share of pavement problems, however, and The top of the tape should be at or slightly below the pave-
concrete at these locations should be of the highest quality. ment surface. Make sure that the installed tape is vertical.
Have extra concrete delivered to finish the day’s run, or The other common way to construct longitudinal, weak-
move the joint back. Run the paver entirely past the header, ened-planejoints is by sawing after the concrete has hardened
carrying a roll of concrete with it. Careful hand vibration is (Fig. 13.16).Timing is not as critical as for sawing transverse
required on both sides of transverse construction joints to contraction joints, because shrinkage in the transverse direc-
ensure adequate concrete consolidation. tion is less because there is not the length of concrete to move.
Where possible, locate transverse construction joints at Both types of joints, however, are usually sawed at the same
planned contraction joint locations. When a constructionjoint time. Complete the longitudinal joint within 3 days and be-
occurs at the normal location of a contraction joint, smooth fore any traffic, including construction traffic, is allowed on
dowels are usually installed, even if they are not provided at the pavement. Be aware that saw blades wear rapidly, result-
the other joints on the project. If a constructionjoint is required ing in saw cuts of insufficient depth if not checked frequently.
at other than the normal contraction joint spacing, instail de-
formed tie bars to prevent subsequentjoint movements. This is Longitudinal construction joints
done to prevent cracking in pavement abutting previously Longitudinal constmction joints occur in concrete pave-
completed lanes. ments at the edges of the paving lanes. When one or more
In continuously reinforced pavement, the longitudinal steel lanes are constructed separately, longitudinal construction
extends through the transverse construction joint for a speci- joints, at which new concrete abuts previously placed pave-
fied length and is lapped by new steel when paving resumes. ment, are required. Either a tongue or groove keyway can be
Maintaining the specified lap lengths is extremely important. extruded in the edge of the first-placed slab to provide load

S T D - A C 1 SP-Z-ENGL 1779 Obb29q9 0 5 4 8 2 5 b OOT H
Fig. 13.16-Sawing longitudinal contractionjoint.
transfer. Dowels are commonly used for load transfer for

heavy-duty pavements.
Fig. 13.17-Seazing expunsionjoint in airport runway.
For slipformed pavements, deformed tie bars (not dowels)
bent at right angles can be mechanically inserted into the slab Backer rod is better than jute or rope for this application. The
keyway. They are later straightened before the adjoining slab latter rots.
is placed.
On warm days, install liquid sealant to a level near the
pavement surface. On cooler days, apply it to a level 1/4 in.
Joint sealing
or so below the pavement surface to prevent extrusion when
Joint sealing prevents the entrance of incompressible
the joint begins to close as the temperature rises. Immediately
material, which can cause extreme stresses in the concrete
remove liquid sealant spilled on the pavement surface.
and resulting pavement damage during expansion cycles.
Joint sealing also reduces the penetration of water into the When preformed compression seals are installed, a liquid
foundation. Joint sealing is a critical operation on heavy-duty adhesive-lubricant is first applied to the sides of the joint.
pavements. It is often not required on low-volume street and The preformed seals should be installed mechanicallyto pre-
parking-Iot pavements if joints are closely spaced, so that the vent excessive stretching of the material. Contract docu-
joint movements are minimal. ments usually limit stretching of the material to 1%during
installation to ensure satisfactory performance.
Hot-poured rubber asphalt is one usual material for sealing
concrete pavement joints. Cold-applied mastics, single or
multiple component types, are also used. On pavements with WEATHER PROBLEMS
high-traffk volumes, longer-lasting prefomed neoprene Contractors cannot afford to wait for ideal weather to
compression seals are often inserted into sawed joints. The pave. To meet completion dates, they must use all potential
dimensions and configurations of preformed seals are de- paving time, including days when weather conditions may
signed for individual joint widths, to always be in compres- require special precautions to produce an acceptable product.
sion and to maintain a tight seal. When weather conditions occur that may adversely affect
Joints must be clean and completely dry at time of sealing. paving operations, notify the appropriate person to obtain in-
Do not allow curing compound in the joints because it pre- structions. Requirements for concreting during both hot and
vents bond of the sealant to the joint faces. Joints are often cold weather are described in Chapter 10.
abrasive-blasted to present clean faces for good bond, Clean Before concreting operations start, all materials necessary to
the joints of foreign material with compressed air before protect the concrete should be in place. Agree upon materials
sealing. If preformed seals are to be installed, all spalls at the and procedures to be used in case of sudden changes in weath-
joints must be repaired by epoxy patches or other acceptable er (rain, snow, wind, and drastic temperature change) before
methods. Otherwise the seals will not remain in place. concreting commences.
Heat hot-applied liquid sealant in a double-boiler-type kettle
with positive temperature control to prevent chemical break- Hot weather
down by overheating. Never reheat material. Apply liquid During hot weather, it is sometimes difficult to saw joints
sealants through a nozzle inserted into the joint (Fig. 13.17), soon enough to prevent uncontrolled shrinkage cracking. It
and fill the joint from the bottom up to prevent voids. In some may be useful to minimizeevaporation by wetting the surface
cases, jute cord or rope is installed in the joint ahead of time to by fog spraying. Forms, stabilized subbases, and existing
a s p i f i e d depth to control the shape factor of the sealant and pavements being resurfaced may also be cooled by water be-
to prevent it from bonding to the bottom of the sealant space. fore concrete placement. Set-retarding admixtures often facil-
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

S T D - A C 1 SP-Z-ENGL 1999 Obb27'47 05'48257 T'4b
PAVEMENT SLABS AND BRIDGE DECKS 1o9
itate finishing during hot weather. Pavement construction is

sometimes limited to the cooler hours of the day or night.
Rain
When newly placed concrete is exposed to unexpected
rain, the first priority is to apply protective covers immedi-
ately. Keep materials such as plastic sheeting or burlap on
hand at all times. A roll of plastic sheeting is often carried on
the curing machine for such emergencies.
It is sometimes specified that temporary side forms be in-
stalled on slipform paving projects when it rains. If this de-
lays the placement of protective covering, however, surface
water may flow to the pavement edge and down between the
concrete and the forms, damaging the edge. Temporary
forms may be set for the repair of any edge damage when the
rain stops.
If the rain stops before the concrete has hardened, restore
texture damaged by the protective covers and apply addi-
tional curing compound. If the concrete has hardened, leave
it undisturbed until after the curing period. Texturing can Fig. 13.18-Placing concrete by bucket for railroad bridge
span.
then be restored by sawing grooves in the surface.
Before paving, adjust the finishing machine to produce the
PROTECTION FROM PREMATURE TRAFFIC specified crown. This is checked by ascertaining that screeds
One of the most difficult tasks on paving projects is keep-
and floats match the crown of the dam plates at the ends of
ing traffic off the new pavement until the concrete has at-
tained its specified strength. Ban all public and construction the deck sections.
traffic during this period except the equipment for sawing The depth of the top reinforcing steel is critical to bridge
and sealing joints. deck performance. If sufficient cover is not provided, cracks
Adequate barricades and warning signs must be in place. may develop in the concrete over the steel. These will permit
Employ special precautions on projects involving improve- water and deicing chemicals to penetrate to the steel, causing
ments of existing roads on which traffic is maintained during corrosion and subsequent spalling of the concrete. A mini-
construction. mum cover of 2 in. is normally specified where deicing salts
Do not allow traffic on the new pavement until the joints are to be used.
have been sealed and adequate strength attained. The position of the steel can be checked by making a dry
run with the paver and measuring down from a screed or pan
BRIDGE DECKS float. Wet down reinforcing steel and forms before concrete
The quality of bridge decks depends upon the same fac- placement.
tors as those for concrete pavements on grade (AC1 345).
Space limitations, however, require somewhat different Concrete placement
equipment and techniques for delivering, placing, and fin- Concrete for bridge decks is usually placed by crane buck-
ishing the concrete. ets (Fig. 13.18)or through hoses from concrete pumps. When
The same principles of quality concrete apply. Uniformity cranes are used, two buckets are often provided so that con-
of the concrete among and within batches is essential for sat- crete is being placed in one while the other is discharging.
isfactory performance. The inspector must be constantly
Place the concrete as close to its final position as possible
alert for changes in air content and consistency, as indicated
to reduce segregation and differential settlement. The close
by tests and observed variations in finishing characteristics
spacing of reinforcing steel in bridge decks requires special
and in the tendency for bleeding.
attention to concrete placement and consolidation to prevent
To achieve the proper amount of entrained air,check the air
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the formation of voids and to provide adequate bonding of

content of every batch of concretedelivered to the job. A pocket
the concrete and steel.
air indicator is useful in detecting variations in air content, but
do not use it for acceptance or rejection of the concrete. Spud vibrators are often used to consolidate the concrete
In bridge-deck paving, grade control is based on the around the reinforcement, or vibrating screeds are used to
screed rails that support the paver. They are positioned on finish the concrete. Do not use vibrators to move the concrete
supports with adjustable nuts for correcting the elevation. horizontally. Do not operate vibrators in one location long
Position the rails to produce an accurate grade line, taking enough to cause segregation of the concrete materials.
into account deflections from dead loads. Check the eleva- The finishing machine should move slowly at a constant
tion of the rails by instrument, and make final minor adjust- rate, timed to concrete delivery. Provide an excess of concrete
ments by sighting along the rails to ensure a smooth line. for the full length of all screeds and floats on the machine.

S T D * A C I SP-2-ENGL 1999 D Ob52949 0548258 982 D
Final finishing If hot weather causes finishing difñculties, night paving may be
Because of limited space, hand-finishing is done from consided in the interest of improved bridge deck performance.
work bridges. Do not allow workers to walk in the concrete Make a final check of surface evenness with a 10 ft
behind the finishing machine. straightedge. Correct any deviations of more than 1/8 in.
Hand floats are usually provided for closing the surface before the concrete hardens.
where necessary. Their use should not be required for the The final texture is applied by a burlap drag. Additional
entire surface. If much hand floating becomes necessary, skid resistance on bridge decks can be applied by metal
make adjustments to the finishing machine or concrete mix- tines forming grooves in the plastic concrete. Just as for
ture proportions. pavement on grade, the timing of the texturing operation is
Delay finishing by long-handled, 10 ft scraping straight- critical for achieving optimum results and should be deter-
edges as long as possible to allow concrete to settle. Some- mined by an experienced operator.
times the concrete is revibrated after bleed water has Apply curing material as soon as finishing operations are
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disappeared from the surface to eliminate voids below the completed. Spraying white-pigmented curing compound on
reinforcing steel caused by unequal concrete settlement. the surface is an effective means of curing. In hot weather,
Studies of cores removed from scaled bridge decks con- however, a curing method involving water may be desirable
structed with air-entrained concrete indicate that scaling is to control concrete temperatures. If burlap is used, it must be
invariably associated with areas deficient in entrained air at constantly wet throughout the curing period. At the end of
or near the surface. Nonuniform distribution of entrained the curing period, allow the burlap to dry completely before
air bubbles is attributed to disturbance of the air-void sys- removal, to prevent rapid drying of the concrete surface.
tem during final finishing operations. Therefore, avoid ex- Bridges are usually completed ahead of other paving op-
cessive manipulation of the concrete surface during erations. Paving equipment can then cross the bridges, ex-
finishing. In particular, prohibit the addition of water to the pediting completion of the project. Make sure the bridge
surface during finishing. concrete has reached its specified strength first.

STD.ACI SP-2-ENGL 1994 m Obb2949 0548259 819 D
ARCHITECTURAL CONCRETE 111
CHAPTER 14-ARCHITECTURAL CONCRETE
The term “architectural concrete” is applied to concrete

elements for which unusual care is taken to produce un-
blemished surfaces or in which the exposed surfaces have
been treated to enhance their visual appearance. Many sur-
face treatments are possible. Common treatments include:
Aggregate exposure, ranging from slight to deep;
Surface abrasion, or removal of part of the surface;
Color, either by the addition of coloring agents to the
concrete mixture, by the selection of aggregates for a
specific color, or by the use of a specific color of cement;
Patterns or textures, produced in unformed surfaces
by tooling and other treatments, and in formed sur-
faces by the use of textured or patterned sheathing or
liners (Fig. 14.1) or by various treatments after form
removal (Fig. 14.2).
Architectural concrete also includes concrete elements de-
signed with unusual, sometimes complex, shapes for esthet-
ic appeal.
Architectural concrete may be either cast-in-place or
Fig. 14.1-Rough wood grain surface formed in concrete by
jberglass form liner carrying impression of wood pattern.
precast, and either load-bearing structural elements or
non-load-bearing facing units (Fig. 14.3).
Contract documents
As with all other concrete construction, the primary
guides for the inspector are the contract documents, consist-
ing of project specifications and drawings. This manual
gives information and instructions intended to provide back-
ground to help the inspector understand the contract docu-
ments and recognize the extra importance of many of their
requirements and to provide guidelines that will be helpful
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where items and procedures are inadequately covered by
contract documents.
For architectural concrete, specifications may be the per-
formance criterion by which the appearance of the finished
product is evaluated to determine compliance. This is ac-
complished by comparison of the finished surfaces with the
appearance of approved preconstruction mockups, photo-
graphic and other illustrative examples referenced in the
specifications, and by comparison with the requirements of
narrative descriptions in the specifications. It may not be
possible to adequately describe and handle all acceptance re-
quirements in this manner, however, and prescriptive
(“how-to-do-it”) specifications may be necessary. Another
reason for prescriptive requirements is that when an element
of a structure fails to meet a performance requirement there
is usually a reluctance (often justified) to require removal Fig. 14.2-Vertical ribs formed in concrete hacked after
and replacement when repair is impossible. When prescrip- form removal to provide rough appearance.
tive specifications are used, the contractor must perform
with total and uniform compliance. It is often impossible to construction and the practicality of attaining the desired ap-
correct the effects of noncompliance. pearance. Some typical design items that make it difficult to
I achieve a pleasing appearance are:
Design considerations Large panels of fiat surfaces, unbroken by visible
Obviously, the inspector has no control over the design of joints, rustication strips, patterns, or textured surface;
the structure or the preparation of the contract documents. The White or colored concrete in large panels of uninter-
designer, however, should have considered the feasibility of rupted flat surfaces;

STD*ACI SP-Z-ENGL 1979 E Obb29Li9 05982bU 530
This understanding is best accomplished by having the three

parties simultaneously inspect finished work of adequate
quantity to permit the architect to point out acceptable areas,
minimally acceptable areas, and (where present) unacceptable
areas. Any dispute between the architect and contractor regard-
ing acceptability should be settled before furîher work is start-
ed. These identified acceptable areas can be used for
comparison in judging future work. Trials of methods and fin-
ishes can be demonstrated on less important parts of the struc-
ture, such as basement walls that will not be visible after
completion.
Preconstruction considerations
The contract documents for architectural concrete can de-
scribe the desired surface only in general terms. The color of
the cement may be specified, as well as the color, size, shape,
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Fig. 14.3-Mural formed of assembled precast concrete and gradation of the aggregates. In some cases, the source of
panels. these materials may be specified. Surface texture may be de-
scribed in general terms, such as “light sandblasting,” ’
Concrete requiring coloring pigments when the concrete “heavy exposure of coarse aggregate,” or similar terms. Al-
must come from a commercial ready-mixed concrete though the specifications should be precise, it is difficult to
plant that is simultaneously serving other customers; describe an artistic rendering with the written word.
Unnecessary use of intricate designs, particularly with Design reference sample-Because the written contract
fragile details in the member, subject to easy breakage documents cannot fully communicate the desires of the archi-
during form removal and subsequent operations. tect, a design reference or prebid sample is often required. The
design reference sample should be at least 18 x 18 in. in area
References and 2 in. thick to adequately indicate the desired color and tex-
Prior to starting of any job involving appreciable quantities ture. The sample can be prepared for the architect and made a
of architectural concrete, the inspector should obtain and part of the contract documents, or the specifications can re-
study AC1 303R. quire the contractor to prepare various samples based upon
specified requirements, from which the architect can select
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND COOPERATION one to be the design reference sample.
Acceptability The primary purpose of the design reference sample is to
in addition to the requirements applying to all concrete supplement the written specification; it brings the architect,
work, a prime consideration of the acceptability of architectur-
inspector, and contractor to a closer understanding. It cannot
al concrete is the visual appearance of the exposed surfaces.
be assumed, however, that each and every small area of the
Unfortunately, visual appearance is difficult to describe or
finished structure will precisely match the sample, because
measure in exact terms.
the reference sample can be and usually is cast with greater
Ideally, the architect establishes criteria of acceptability
precision than is attainable with a larger mass of concrete.
as the structure is conceived. No method, however, has yet
been found to completely convey those criteria to the con- Concrete mockup-For architectural concrete, the contract
tractor through the contract documents. Demonstration documents may require the contractor to construct a full-scale
panels or areas are often necessary. mockup section prior to initiation of construction (Fig. 14.4).
Even if such a mockup is not required, the contractor should
consider constructing one. The mockup should represent a
Cooperation
Because evaluation cannot be based upon precise measure- typical portion of the structure, and be built using the proce-
ment, general acceptability requires realistic cooperation dures and equipment intended for the structure, including
among all parties. Aithough perfect uniformity in color and formwork; placement of reinforcement; mixture proportion-
texture may be desired, materials in concrete have an inher- ing, placement, and curing of the concrete; and surface treat-
I ment. The primary purpose of the mockup is to provide a
ent degree of nonuniformity, and the uniform placing and
finishing of a heterogeneous material over a large area can- large sample of work that can be judged fairly by the archi-
not be guaranteed. One would not expect uniformity of color tect. Approval of the mockup by the architect is usually re-
and texture of marble or granite over large areas. Neverthe- quired before starting work on the architectural concrete.
less, the contractor should realize that the owner is entitled to The mockup may deliberately include variations in the fin-
a surface appearance of special quality. ish to demonstrate a range of acceptability (Fig. 14.6). It
It is vital that the architect, engineer, and inspector develop, should include form tie holes and joints between form panels.
early in the construction project, a common understanding of Imperfections requiring repair should be deliberately included
what constitutes acceptable work on each aspect of the project. so that repair operations can be demonstrated.

~
S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1999 sl Obb27‘49 n5‘482bL Li77

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Fig. 14.5-Close-up view offormedjuted rusticated surface.
Fig. 14.4-Sample panel with formed rusticated susace.
The inspector should reach an understanding with the archi-

tect and contractor regarding the acceptability of the mockup,
and how much variation from the mockup is acceptable. The
mockup should be built at or near the job site so that it is readily
available for comparison with future site work. It could even
be an inconspicuous part of the structure at the basement level.
Precast concretefinishdemonstration-For precast archi-
tecturai concrete, the mockup concept as discussed above
can be used, or acceptability of finish can be demonstrated
by the fabrication of a typical unit for inspection and approv-
al by the architect. For inspection at the plant, this unit
should be among the last scheduled for erection on the job so
that it will be available to the inspector for comparison with
day-to-day production. If there is no such plant inspection,
the typical unit should be among the first delivered to the job
for future comparison. Comparison units, as well as produc-
tion units, should be clean at the time of comparison.
The design reference sample and the mockup represent
steps in the common understanding by the inspector and
contractor of the desires of the architect. The combined in-
spection by these three parties at an early stage of construc-
Fig. 14.6-Preconstruction mockup with varied finishes.
tion, as mentioned previously, is another important step, as
is periodic inspection by the architect together with the in-
spector throughout the duration of the job. uniformity of operations (including scheduling); and unifor-
mity of workmanship.
UNIFORMITY Where feasible, obtain each matenal from a single source,
“Uniformity” is the key word for acceptable architectural and for manufactured or processed materials, from a single
concrete: uniformity of materials; uniformity of equipment; production run. If possible, all materials should be obtained

STDSACI S P - Z - E N G L 1991 m ObL2949 0 5 4 8 2 b 2 303 m
procedures of inspection covered elsewhere in this manual

apply to architectural concrete as well. Because architectural
concrete is a specialized product, however, more careful ap-
plication of the general procedures of inspection is required.
FORMS
Structural design of the forms must, in general, meet the
same requirements as forms for other concrete construction.
Tighter limits,however, are often set for form deflection. The
materials, textures, and patterns of the form sheathing or lining
are governed primarily either by direct specification require-
ments or by the requirements to match the preconstruction
mockup. Tolerances for setting forms are usually more restric-
Fig. 14.7-Repairing impeifections in form suiface to pro- tive than for ordinary exposed building concrete. of course,
vide unblemished ceiling covers when wa$le slab is cast. workmanship in fabricating forms is more critical than with
ordinary construction (Fig. 14.7). Detailed information on
and stockpiled or stored at the site before construction begins. forms is given in AC1 SP-4 (Hurd, 1989).
The materials must be suitably stored to protect them from de-
terioration, contamination, intermingling, or, in case of aggre- Form sheathing or lining
gates, segregation. The inspector should be constantly alert to Form sheathing and lining can be made from many ma-
detect any change in quality or appearance of any material terials. These include wood, plywood, metal (aluminum,
during progress of the work, as revealed either by test results steel, and magnesium), plastic (reinforced and nonrein-
or visual observation. forced), plaster waste molds, and rubber liners. Each materi-
Uniformity of product is best attained by using the same al has advantages and limitations.
equipment in the same manner throughout the job. Two con- Wood or plywood used for sheathing or lining can affect
crete mixers may not mix materials with the same degree of the color of the stripped concrete through variations in ab-
uniformity. Changes of vibration equipment may affect the sorption of different portions of the board, particularly be-
distribution of aggregate near the surface. Alternate jet noz- tween the springwood and summerwood rings. The more
zles may produce different sandblasted textures. pervious portions will absorb more water from the fresh con-
Workmanship is in the same category. Two laborers with crete, and thus lower the water-cementitious materials ratio
two vibrators can achieve different distributions of aggregate (w/cm), causing a darker surface color. Organic substances
near the surface if they have not been trained to use the vibra- in the wood can result in a dark-coloredconcrete surface, and
tors in the identical manner. The concrete must be mixed to sometimes cause dusting. Release agents can correct for
the same consistency and must be placed in the same manner these conditions when using wooden forms. To reduce the
day after day. For architectural concrete, the work force must effect of these variations during the fmt use of wood forms,
be trained to work as a single unit. Laborers on vibrators, treat the wood surface with a lime-water solution or a cement
sandblasting nozzles, bush hammers, rubbing blocks, or any slurry that will react with and neutralize the organic sub-
operation affecting the appearance of the finished product, stances and will fill porous surfaces. After the first use, wood
must be trained to perform their function with equal ability. forms produce much less variation in color.
Indiscriminate replacement of work crew members should
not be tolerated. Textures and patterns
The operations of concrete batching, mixing, transporting, The textures and patterns produced by different form
placing, vibrating, form removal, finishing, and curing sheathing and liner materials vary widely. Some liners are
should be performed in the same manner from day to day factory-cast from plastics or rubbers; some are job-built
with the same timing, except as necessary to accommodate sheathing and liners constructed to produce specific
varying conditions of weather and varying structural ele- large-scale patterns on the concrete surface; some sheathing
ments. Variation in the manner or timing for any of these op- and liners are materials having specific texture when sup-
erations can cause variation in appearance of the concrete plied by the manufacturer or a texture produced by treatment
surface. on the job. The inspector must ensure that the texture and
Although an owner’s inspector may not presume to advise surface of each set of forms are the same as all others and that
a contractor regarding the use of equipment or distribution of the texture and surface of reused forms are not altered from
the work force, it is the inspector’s duty to insist on unifor- one use to the next. Form surfaces must be thoroughly
mity of the finished product. cleaned and forms retightened between uses without degrad-
ing the surface pattern or texture.
INSPECTION PROCEDURES
Except for the appearance of the surface, there is no basic Form joints
difference between architectural concrete and conventional Joints between form sheathing or lining panels must be
cast-in-place or precast concrete. Consequently, the general completely tight and sealed to prevent all leakage. Leakage
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S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 2 9 9 7 W Obb2947 0548263 2 Y T
of water or paste produces sand streaks on the surface (rock REINFORCEMENT

pockets in extreme cases); slower leakage or absorption of Reinforcement must be located where shown in the contract
moisture will produce hydration discoloration (dark documents. If it is too close to the surface, coarse aggregate
streaks), particularly on sand-blasted surfaces. It is nearly may be prevented from getting between bars and the forms,
impossible to remove either of these imperfections, although and the reinforcement pattern will be mirrored on the concrete
hydration discoloration may become lighter and hardly visi- surface, particularly with smooth surfaces of light colors. Re-
ble after several years of weathering. Leakage can be pre- inforcement too close to the surface also tends to produce rust
stains at the surface. Sometimes coated reinforcement is used
vented by staggering joints of form lining from the joints in
in critical areas to prevent rusting. Avoid locating reinforce-
the sheathing by use of special rubber gaskets and, when fur-
ment supports adjacent to exposed surfaces. If supports must
ther treatment of the concrete surface will occur, by use of be used on exposed surfaces, the supports should be made of
pressure-sensitive tape. Caulking of joints, together with plastic, plastic-coated metal, precast concrete block, or stain-
batten backing strips, can be used if carefully inspected. less steel. Ends of tie wires should always be bent back toward
the interior of the concrete. On vertical faces, tie support
Form sealers and form release agents (form coatings) blocks with one diagonal vertical for better undersealing as
Form sealers are often used on wood or plywood forms to concrete is placed.
seal the surfaces to correct nonuniform absorption, prevent
emphasis of grain pattern, and prolong the life of the forms. CONCRETE MATERIALS
Release agents (form coatings) are used to prevent the forms Some contract documents may limit the materials to be
from sticking to the concrete surfaces. Numerous kinds of used (particularly cement, aggregates, and pigments) to spe-
release agents are available. Be sure to use a release agent cific materials from specific sources. Other contract docu-
that is compatible with the form material or sealer, and that ments do not contain such a limit, but simply require the
will not stain the concrete surface. The release agent should contractor to locate suitable materials to produce concrete
also be compatible with joint sealants and caulking com- with an appearance matching the design reference sample.
pounds to be used later. Test all release agents in mockups
or on unexposed surfaces to determine performance before Cement
using on exposed surfaces. Release agents are usually fluid Cement normally must meet the quality requirements for or-
dinary concrete construction. The color is usually controlled by
materials applied in a thin coating. Avoid thick coatings of
requiring that the color of the concrete match that of the design
viscous materials. If oily coatings are applied to the forms
reference sample, and that all cement come from one mill, pref-
too far in advance of placing concrete and are not suitably erably from one grind. There are presently no reference speci-
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protected, dirt can collect on the coating and cause problems. fications controlling the color of white or colored cement.
Some colored cements, particularly those in the buff-yel-
Form ties low-brown range, are produced by special grindings and burn-
Holes left by removal of form ties must be filled or other- ing operations using normal raw materials; other colored
wise treated as required by the contract documents. Filling cements are produced by intergrinding mineral pigments at the
of form tie holes is also discussed in Chapter 11. Even if not cement mill. Cement produced by the first method is some-
required by the contract documents, it is highly desirable to times specified because of its better uniformity of color. Some
have form ties installed in a uniform patten so that holes in of these special cements have unusually high water demands
the concrete surface, whether filled or not, form a similar that may result in low strengths.
uniform pattern for a more pleasing appearance. Sometimes
form-tie holes are designed to be plugged with manufactured Aggregates
plugs, usually plastic, driven into the hole. Aggregates for architectural concrete are required to meet
the same quality requirements as aggregates for ordinary
Form removal concrete. Additional limits are often placed on the maximum
Form removal is especially critical for architectural con- permissible quantities of particles (principally iron com-
pounds) that can cause staining on the concrete surface, and
crete, both to prevent ordinary surface marring and to pre-
of unstable compounds that can produce popouts during
vent damage to any intricate surface design. Normally,
weather changes. The color of the fine aggregate has much
wedges should not be used. If used, they should be nonme- more effect on the color of the concrete than does the color
tallic. For white or colored concrete, forms for similar sur- of the coarse aggregate. The grading of coarse aggregate
faces should be removed at the end of similar time periods, should be controlled more closely for exposed architectural
except when necessary to vary the time because of weather concrete than for conventional concrete.
conditions. Remove forms carefully to prevent a sudden
drop in concrete surface temperature, which can cause sur- Admixtures
face cracking. During cold weather, the surface temperature Air-entraining, water-reducing, and retarding admix-
should drop gradually, no more than 40 F in 24 h, and that tures-quality requirements are usually the same as for or-
drop should occur evenly over the 24 h period. dinary concrete.

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1 9 9 9 111 Ubb29ri9 05482bri 1öb
Calcium chloride-Many contract documents prohibit the and depositing the concrete in the forms. Such delays (which
use of calcium chloride in architectural concrete. Even if not cause the concrete to be held in mixers, transporting equip-
prohibited, its use should be discouraged. Calcium chloride ment, buckets, pump lines, conveyor lines, or elsewhere) tend
may cause mottling or surface checking. to cause nonuniformity in the placed concrete.
Pigments-Until recently, pigments for use in concrete
were usually restricted to mineral pigments. Recently, some PLACING AND CONSOLIDATION
satisfactory organic dyes have become available. Never use This stage is the major factor in achieving acceptable
more pigment than necessary to achieve the required color. architectural concrete. The rate of placement must be slow
Excess pigment may reduce the quality of the concrete. enough to permit proper vibration, yet rapid enough to pre-
vent cold joints. All vibrating must be done by workers spe-
MIXTURES AND MIXTURE PROPORTIONS cifically trained to use vibrators in the correct manner, with
Mixture proportions, other than for gap-graded mixtures, emphasis on the fact that vibrators in concrete must be mov-
are usually selected in the same manner as for ordinary con- ing at all times. The vibrator should be lowered rapidly
crete. It is common to keep the w/cm low (not over 0.46) and through the bottom of the lift, then raised slowly to the sur-
to limit the slump to 4 in. maximum. Slightly drier mixtures face. As the vibrator is raised slowly and steadily, air bubbles
are sometimes used for the top part of walls to prevent the dislodged from the form surface have time to rise ahead of
color variation that may be caused as excess water rises from the vibrator to the surface of the concrete. Keep the vibrator
below into the concrete in the top part of the wall. When min- away from the form to prevent damage to the form surface.
eral pigments are being used, trials must be made to deter- To minimize bug holes:
mine that the required color is attained after hardening and Place concrete in relatively shallow layers of not more
drying. than 15 to 18 in.;
Where concrete surfaces are to be treated to expose the ag- Vibrate the concrete 50%longer than otherwise necessary;
gregate, gap-graded mixtures are often specified to provide a Double-vibrate drier batches of concrete. Tko inser-
higher percentage of coarse aggregate with better distributions are much more effective than a single insertion for
tion in the concrete surface and thus a more pleasing appear- twice the time;
ance as the aggregate is exposed. A relatively large coarse Always revibrate the lower layer with each new layer
aggregate with a narrow size range is used, along with inter- placed (preferably to a depth of at least 6 in.); and
mediate-sized aggregates, and fine aggregates consisting of Revibrate the top of the placement as late and as deep
concrete sand or, often, masonry sand. as the running vibrator will sink of its own weight, then
withdraw it slowly.
BATCHING, MIXING, AND TRANSPORTING If forms are sufficiently rigid, form vibrators are satisfactory
Uniformity of materials and uniformity of mixing are ex- although internal spud vibrators may also be required to re-
tremely important. They become even more critical when move air bubbles (the source of bug holes) from the formed
colored pigments are used. surface. If the forms are not sufficiently rigid, form vibrators
All batching, mixing, and transporting equipment must be may cause nonuniform distribution of the coarse aggregate in
completely clean before stasting production of architectural the vicinity of the vibrator. There is no universally superior vi-
concrete each day and each shift, particularly when produc- bration technique; one that works best on a particular job may
ing white or colored concrete. Separate equipment should not be satisfactory on the next. Experimentation to attain an
preferably be reserved for this use. acceptable technique can be permitted in the early part of the
Aggregate storage piles should be controlled to prevent job. Once established and approved, however, the technique
contamination, intermingling, or segregation. As much as must be applied uniformly for the remainder of the job. For the
possible, the fine aggregate and the smallest-sized coarse ag- uniformity and consistency of concrete required for architec-
gregate should be maintained at a uniform moisture content tural concrete, over-vibration is better than under-vibration.
to prevent variations in the water content of the concrete and
in the consistency of the batches of concrete. -
FINISHING SURFACE TREATMENT
Contract documents may require on-site batching and mix- As with other operations, uniformity of workmanship is
ing for large, importantjobs. critical. Surface treatments normally applied to formed con-
Close control must be maintained on air content and slump crete surfaces consist of various degrees of abrasive blasting
of the concrete to provide uniformity. Temperature of the (including not only sandblasting, but blasting with steel slag,
fresh concrete should be maintained reasonably uniform and, corn cobs, walnut shells, and rice hulls), water-jet blasting
if possible, from 65 to 85 F for optimum color uniformity. with or without the use of surface retarders, acid etching,
Concrete at higher temperatures is harder to handle properly, bush hammering, and manual tooling.
and tends to have decreased setting time, visible flow lines, Sandblasting is a common surface treatment and is not a
and possible cold joints. Segregation must be guarded difficult operation. As much as possible, however, the sand-
against at all stages of operations. blasting crew and equipment should remain the same
Transportation from the mixers to the forms should be rea- throughout the job. Changes in either tend to produce varia-
sonably rapid. Carefully control scheduling of operations to tion in the appearance of the finished surface. Everyone con-
prevent any delays in the period between charging the mixers cerned should be aware that the lighter degrees of
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~
S T D a A C I SP-2-ENGL 1991 = Obb2949 0 5 4 8 2 b 5 O12 m
Fig. 14.8-Exposed-aggregate retaining wall retains Fig. 14.9-Appearance of smooth concrete panels spoiled
appearance afer 60 y~ by stains while adjacent exposed-uggregate panels are
unmarred.
sandblasting emphasize visible defects, particularly bug High-pressure water-jet blasting (1500 psi or more) can be
holes, and reveal defects previously hidden by the surface used to cut the surface. In general, it produces an exposed ag-
skin of the concrete. Sandblasting seldom removes hydration gregate surface somewhat similar to that described as follows.
marks or defects in surface texture. For the heavier degrees of Although the previously cited treatments are generally
sandblasting, the concrete must be strong enough (at least considered for use on formed surfaces, they can be used on
2000 psi) to prevent dislodging particles of coarse aggregate. unformed surfaces too. More common treatments for un-
Sandblasting can be used to produce an exposed-aggregate formed surfaces are to impress a pattern in the plastic con-
finish but has the disadvantage that it produces a frosted ap- crete or to give it an exposed-aggregate finish.
pearance on the surface of the coarse aggregate.
Various degrees of sandblastingare often defined as follows: EXPOSED-AGGREGATE FINISH
Brush-Remove coating, expose fine aggregate, no Exposed-aggregate finish is produced by removing, usually
reveal. Reveal is defined as the projection of coarse by combined water jet and brushing with a fiber brush, the
aggregate from the matrix after exposure; cement-sand paste from the concrete surface and exposing
Light-Expose fine aggregate and some coarse aggre- the coarse aggregate (Fig. 14.8 and 14.9). An attractive
gate, color uniform, maximum reveal 1/16 in.; coarse aggregate usually is used in the concrete. Gap-graded
Medium-Generally expose coarse aggregate, maxi- mixtures are often used to increase the amount of coarse ag-
mum reveal 1/4 in.; and gregate available for exposure.
Heavy-Expose coarse aggregate to maximum projec- For unformed surfaces, this exposure method is relatively
tion of one-third its dimension, reveal 3/8 to 1/2 in.; simple. The main point to watch is timing. Expose the aggre-
produces rugged and uneven surface. gate as soon as the concrete has hardened enough that the
Experience has shown that sandblasting of slipformed coarse aggregate particles will not be dislodged. Sometimes
concrete surfaces does not produce a desirable finish. surface retarders are sprayed on the surface of the fresh con-
Bush hammering is done with pneumatic tools fitted with crete, in which case timing is not so critical. In place of hav-
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a bush hammer, comb, or multiple-pointed attachment. Most ing a specially selected attractive coarse aggregate in the
bush hammering will remove about 3/16 in. of concrete. concrete mixture, a layer of it can be seeded on the surface of
Care should be taken next to edges and corners. The concrete ordinary concrete at the end of the finishing operation, and
should have a strength of at least 4000 psi before bush ham- floated into the surface.
mering is performed. For formed surfaces, the process is more involved. Some-
Grinding is normally done with power grinders and must times a surface retarder is applied to the inside of the forms
not be done until the concrete has reached a strength of at immediately before concrete is placed. This retards setting of
least 3000 psi. Hand grinding with a mason’s stone can be the concrete surface sufficiently that the coarse aggregate
done on green concrete provided it goes no deeper than will can stili be exposed by washing and brushing the surface
barely contact the coarse aggregate. Deeper hand grinding when the forms are removed after 24 h. Another method used
must be delayed the same as power grinding. is the aggregate-transfer method, in which the attractive aggre-
A common manual treatment consists of breaking off the gate is glued to the inside of the forms with water-soluble glue
tops of ridges in heavily fluted or similarly textured formed before the concrete is placed. Cement-sand paste surrounds
concrete to produce a broken surface appearance on the flutes. the particles, and can be removed from the surface after forms

STD-AC1 SP-Z-ENGL 1977 Obb2949 0 5 4 8 2 b b T57
gregates, epoxies, or other polymers so that the repaired area

cannot be detected with the unaided eye.
The contractor should employ or have available artisans
skilled in such work. Some damage or blemishes must be ex-
pected in production of architectural concrete; therefore, a
specification that does not allow repairing is unrealistic. On
the other hand, any repair so poorly made that it is obviously
noticeable should be rejected immediately. Chapter 11 gives
detailed information on repairs to architectural concrete.
PRECAST MEMBERS
Storage of precast members
Sunlight and weathering can affect the color and appear-
ance of concrete surfaces. When practical, precast units
Fig. 14.lû-One method of providing exposed aggregate should be stored so that they will obtain equal exposure. This
sulface in tilt-up wall panel is to spread layer of concrete on problem is not extremely serious, as color variation due to
bed of sand, then place concrete over aggregate. Sometimes,
aggregate is grouted to hold it in position before place con- exposure will equalize itself with time after the units have
crete. Afrer panel has cured, it is raised and any clinging been placed on the structure. Stacking units on top of each
sand is washed 08 other can cause problems. Blocking should be used between
units to prevent damage. Wood blocking and wedges should
are removed. A third method used is the patented Arbeton not discolor the architectural surface.
method, in which attractive aggregates are held against the
forms by small-mesh wire fabric and only the paste from the Transportation of precast units
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concrete seeps through the mesh to anchor the aggregate. For Improper blocking and supportingduring hauling is one of
tilt-up panels, coarse aggregate can be spread on a bed of sand the most common causes of cracked members. Also, road
(Fig. 14.10). For additional information, refer to PCA miblica- dirt can cause unsightly stains on precast concrete. Because
tion No. SP021A (1980). such stains may be difficult to remove, it is best to avoid dirt
stains by covering the members during transport.
CURING
Methods used and timing of curing operations must be Erection of precast units
maintained consistent to produce uniform color in the con- Erect precast units carefully to prevent damage to exposed
crete. surfaces. Location and use of lifting inserts should be spelled
Be careful that protective coverings do not mar the surface out on shop and erection drawings for approval prior to pro-
of immature concrete. Uneven application of steam or water duction and erection.
can cause more-or-less temporary blotching. If plastic sheets
are used, they must not be allowed to wIinkle. Wrinkles lead POST-FINISHING PROTECTION AND ERECTION
to a dappled appearance caused by uneven moisture condensa- Acceptable architectural concrete can be ruined by the
tion. thoughtlessness of other trades following completion of
When wood forms are used, curing in the forms (with the work on the exposed concrete surface. Temporary erection
forms kept wet) is a good method. The form surfaces must of non-protected steel above the concrete can produce un-
have been sealed to prevent staining. sightly rust stains. Weld spatter can produce pock marks.
When using moist curing, be sure that the water is nonstain- Similarly, an acid wash of the architectural concrete can per-
ing. No iron or steel pipes should be used. If plastic sheeting is manently damage glass or other concrete if not removed im-
used for curing, the sheets must fit tightly against the concrete mediately. The only real solution to these problems is proper
at ail points; otherwise, mottling will occur (greenhouse ef- care. However, sealing the surface of precast architectural
fect). When membrane curing is used, a colorless material, concrete before placing concrete or grout above will enable
usually with a fugitive dye, should be used. Try the material grout leak and drip to be removed more easily.
first on an unexposed surface to be sure it does not cause stain-
ing a few days after application. FINAL ACCEPTANCE
The considerations and attitudes described previously in
REPAIRS this chapter should lead to a successful working relationship
Some damage or blemishes are inevitable in architectural among the architect, inspector, and contractor. The primary
concrete. Therefore, specifications should include provisions consideration for understanding and harmony is the realiza-
for repair, and the inspector should be able to distinguish poor tion that perfection is an ideal, although unattainable, goal.
repairs from good ones. A poor repair in architecturai concrete The more predominant problems faced at the time of fi-
can look worse than the initial defect, and should be rejected nal inspection are cracks, surface defects, blow holes or
immediately. For example, a handful of gray cement mixed bug holes, and variations in color. There is a misconception
with two handfuls of sand should not be accepted. On the other that sandblasting magically cancels out these defects, but
hand, skilled artisans are available who can blend cements, ag- experience has shown that sandblasting magnifies them.

S T D = A C I SP-2-ENGL 1991 H llbb29'i9 0 5 4 8 2 b 7 9 9 5
Sandblasting intended for surface improvement, such as Bug holes-Given the present state of the art, bug holes
grime removal, must be very light and used with care. are as much a part of concrete as sand and cement. They can
Cracks in cast-in-place concrete are usually associated be reduced, but not eliminated, by proper vibration tech-
with drying shrinkage. Although cracks may be patched by niques. As with other surface defects, bug holes should be
a skilled artisan, they are best controlled by providing suffi- evaluated from the vantage point of a potential observer.
cient built-in crack-control joints in the architectural design, Color variation-Even if all reasonable precautions are
or by the use of sufficient crack-control reinforcement to taken, some variation in color can be expected. In general,
minimize potential crack widths. disputes concerning color variation are more likely to occur
Surface defects include honeycomb areas, bug-hole with precast units rather than with cast-in-place work. Often
groupings, aggregate popouts, and local damage from han- the problem can be minimized by selective placement of the
dling. Acceptability of surface defects has been difficult to precast units on the basis of color or texture, rather than on
define, and depends greatly on the distance of the inspector's the schedule of loading and delivery.
or other viewer's eye from the surface of the concrete. As pointed out in a previous paragraph, however, color
By comparison, a surface defect at the third story can be variation is often caused by variable conditions in curing.
tolerated more easily than the same defect located adjacent Therefore, time, sunlight, and exposure to the elements may
to the entrance of the structure. Consequently, the inspector even out the variation to a great extent. Color variations can
should evaluate defects from the vantage point of a potential often be reduced by using a hose to subject the surface to a
observer, rather than from the scaffold. series of wetting and drying cycles.
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J S T D I A C I SP-2-ENGL 1797 O b b 2 l q 7 05Y82bd 821
CHAPTER 15-SPECIAL CONCRETING METHODS
Preceding chapters cover inspection of more common

types of concrete construction under normal conditions. In-
formation in this chapter is supplementary and briefly covers
the special kinds of concrete work listed below, with special
reference to inspection. For satisfactory production of this
special work, it is important that the inspector study more de-
tailed discussions, such as those references listed at the end
of each topic in this chapter.
SLIPFORMING VERTICAL STRUCTURES

Slipform construction is basically to an extrusion process.
The forms are lifted at a controiied rate. Fresh concrete placed
at the top of the form becomes physically stable by the time the
forms move upward enough to leave it below. Typical slip-
formed structures include silos, chimneys, storage bins, bridge
piers, water tanks,shaft liners, and service cores and bearing
walls for buildings (Fig. 15.1 and 15.2). (Note: A form that
does not move continuously is not a slipform. A form that is
stationary during placing of concrete, and is moved upward in
steps, as in Fig. 8.3, is called a climbing form, jump form, or lift
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form.) Vertical slipforming may be done continuously around
the clock, or stopped at desired elevations and resumed.
Mixture requirements
Concrete for slipforming may require a greater percentage
of fine aggregate than conventionally placed concrete. The
maximum size of aggregate should be less than 1/2 the thick-
ness of the cover over the reinforcement.
When selecting a mixture, the setting time is of prime im-
portance.A penetration resistance of between 50 and 200 psi,
measured in accordance with ASTM C 403, is normally re-
quired at the trailing edge of the formwork. Concrete with a
peneîration resistance of about 15 psi or below is susceptible Fig. 15.1-Slipfomd service core of ofice building over
550ft high
to sagging or fallout. Concrete with a penetration resistance of
500 psi has reached initial set. As initial set is approached,
friction makes slipping difficult and the form tends to lift the
concrete, resulting in horizontal checks and cracks or worse
still, binding of the forms and stopping the operation; the
forms tend to score wall faces, and surface finishing becomes
difficult. Laboratory tests should be conducted to measure the
precise setting rate for the chosen mixture, at the temperature
that will exist in the forms but field conditions will govern.
Formwork
As concrete is placed, the forms are slowly jacked upward
at a rate based on the actual concrete setting rate. The jacks
climb on smooth rods or structural tubing embedded in the
hardened concrete.
F O m S are normally about 4 ft tall, and Sfip rates are about 6 Fig. 15.2- Slipforming the core of high-rise building.
to 15 in./h. The forms should be slightly tapered so that the con-
crete will detach itself from the forms as set occurs. A taper of and lifting a~ to occw-but also keep the structure with-
1/16 in./fî of form depth is normal. The width of the forms at in t&rance.
about midheight should be equal to the desired wall thickness. Blockouts for openings in the walls are formed by fixing
Keep forms level as they move upward, or binding, scoring, polystyrene, cardboard, precast concrete, or wood frames so

S T D e A C I SP-2-ENGL 1’179 D Obb2749 0 5 4 8 2 b 9 7bô m
SPECIAL CONCRETING METHODS 121
that they remain in place as the forms move by. The block- the forms can be readily corrected. Small holes are normally
outs are usually attached to the reinforcement. filled and a uniform appearance achieved with a sponge
float. Avoid steel-troweled finishes because the troweled
Reinforcing steel surface is more susceptible to crazing, map cracking, and
Simple reinforcement details are essential because of time other blemishes.
constraints on placing and inspection during construction. In A curing compound is normally applied immediately after
slipform construction, it is particularly important that all re- finishing. Water curing is also possible, by means of a wet skirt
inforcement be carefully placed, as shown on the drawings. of suitable length carried by and wetted from the finisher’s plat-
Vertical bars are normally positioned by templates that are form. Problems with wind, variations in pressure, and clogging
mounted on the forms and move with them, or by spacer bars nozzles have made the first method more generally used.
attached to the top of the form. Vertical laps should be stag-
gered. Horizontal bars are placed one layer at a time as the SLIPFORMING CAST-IN-PLACE PIPE
work progresses. A large number of horizontal bars cannot Cast-in-place pipe is constructed in a previously excavated
be placed in advance, and because the horizontal steel is con- trench with near-vertical sides and a circular bottom. The
tinually disappearing into the concrete as the forms rise, outside bottom portion of the pipe is formed against the cir-
monitoring the horizontal bar spacings is difficult. Horizon- cular trench bottom, whereas the inside is formed by a spe-
tal bars must be tied or firmly held in place. Lap splices of cially designed slipform.
horizontal bars should be staggered rather than in a vertical
Slipformed pipes are used for flow line or low-pressure
line to avoid the so-called “zipper”action.
sewers, storm drains, and agricultural purposes. Pipes have
To facilitate placing and inspection of the horizontal rein-
been built in diameters of 12 to 120 in.
forcement, place scribe marks, crayon marks, or tie-wire in-
dicators on selected vertical bars. Alternatively, devise other
types of spacing controls. Unless longer bars can be easily Forms
placed, keep reinforcing bars relatively short (10 to 12 ft), to Because the trench is a portion of the form, check its
permit easy handling. shape, line, and grade frequently to ensure correct wall thick-
ness of the pipe. The circular bottom of the trench, which is
the forming surface, should also be checked frequently to en-
Control of concrete placement
Concrete is normally placed at the top of the forms in layers sure that it is dense, clean, and free of serious irregularities.
approximately 6 to 9 in. deep. Keep the forms as full as possi- Any standing water in the trench should be removed. If the
ble to allow the concrete the expected time to set before it be- trench is very dry, it should be dampened for better curing of
comes exposed. the concrete.
Vibration of concrete is normally restricted to the most re- The inside of the pipe is formed either by metal forms or by
cently placed layer of concrete, with penetration into the lay- a specially designed inflated tube. The top of the pipe is ordi-
er below, and is done no longer than necessary. Extra or narily hand-finished, but may be partially formed at its sides.
deeper vibrations with usual rates of slipping can retard the
essential early stiffening of the mixture, and even more seri- Control of concrete placement
ously, may cause sagging or fallout below the forms. Moni- The concrete can be placed in a two-stage manual opera-
tor the setting time of the concrete frequently, with timely tion, or in a one- or two-stage mechanical operation. In the
adjustment of the slip rate as necessary. two-stage operation, the lower portion of the pipe is placed
To check on the progress of the concrete set, forcefully first, followed shortly thereafter by the top portion. Check
push a 1/2 in. diameter rod vertically into the concrete. If the the condition of the top of the walls of the lower portion fre-
rod is stopped by hard concrete above 2/3 of the form height quently before placement of the upper portion. Laitance or
or below 3/8 of the form height, the rate of form lift should foreign matter, which may adversely affect watertightness of
be increased or decreased, respectively. the construction joint, should be removed.
Mixture uniformity is indicated by slump, and should Continuously inspect the concrete pipe as it leaves the
also be visually apparent to an experienced observer. For a forms, to detect and resolve problems in the shortest possible
given mixture, increases in slump imply a slower set, and travel distance. To properly inspect the pipe, it must be
decreases in slump, a faster set. Keep concrete slumps viewed both from the outside and the inside. For additional
within specified limits. information on slipforming cast-in-place concrete pipe, refer
Some slipformed work has difficulty meeting the toler- to AC1 346 and AC1 346R.
ances of conventionally formed work. Vertical tolerances of
1 in. per 50 ft of height (but not more than 8 in.) and toler- TILT-UP CONSTRUCTION
ances of 1/2 in. are normally considered acceptable when no In tilt-up construction, walls of a building are cast horizon-
tolerances are specified. tally on the site, tilted or lifted into vertical position, in place,
and connected to form an integral structure (Fig. 15.3). Walls
Finishing and curing up to three stories high are commonly constructed in this
A secondary (“trailing”) platform is usually provided for manner. The walls may be architecturally finished, utilitarian,
finishing and curing. Defects in the plastic concrete leaving load-bearing, or simply closure walls (Fig. 15.4).
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S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1999 IULb29Y9 0548270 4 8 T I
Fig. 15.5Sandwich construction places rigid insulation

Fig. 15.3-Tilt-up panel during erection. overflrst layer of concrete, with a second layer of concrete
cast over insulation where a durable interior surface is
needed.
Fig. 1.5.4-Tilt-up constructionpermits unlimited expression

of architectural treatment in design und exterior3nishes.
Fig. 15.6-Wood edge form for tilt-up wall panel with tex-
Casting platform (field casting) tured liner in place.
A surface called a casting platform is selected or constructed
at the field site to provide a base for casting the panels. Surface
imperfections of the casting platform will show on the wall Bond prevention
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panel. Platforms for special architecturally treated wall panels Liquid-membrane curing compounds are commoniy used to
may require a high-quality finish to achieve the specified sur- prevent bonding of the tilt-up walls to the floor slab. They
face. Where surface appearance is not critical, earth is some- should be applied in two or more coatings, with the first coat
times used. Usually the building floor slab serves as the casting sealing the slab surface soon after placement and the final coat
surface (Fig. 15.5), occasionally with some patching or top- applied shortly before placement of the wall concrete to pre-
ping. Tolerances for floor slabs used as casting platforms must vent bonding. The inspector should c o n f m that both coats of
also satisfy wall tolerances, normally 114 in. in 10 ft. The slab the membrane are placed uniformly and that they completely
surface must be carefully inspected for surface defects that cover the casting surface. The bond breaker should be applied
might mechanically bond the wall to the slab and inhibit tilt- in two approximately perpendicular directions.
ing. Cracks and joints located in the casting surface for tilt-up
panels should be filled temporarily with a nonabsorptive ma- Concrete
terial to prevent reflection into the surface of the panel. Concrete should be placed with the minimumpractical slump
and worked in place without damaging the platform coating.
Forms Particular care should be taken to obtain dense homogeneous
The only forms normally required in tilt-up construction concrete along all edges of the panel. Some special architect4
are around the wall edges and at openings. Edge forms surface treatments, such as a pebble finish, should be cast face
should be sufficiently stiff and well-braced to maintain the up to better control the uniformity of texture. Jitterbugs should
edges in good alignment, particularly those forming the top not be used to compact concrete surfaces that will have exposed
and bottom edges of the wall (Fig. 15.6). aggregate, especially with lightweight aggregate.

Fig. 15.7-Erecting tilt-up panel with pipe bracing already

attached. Bracing stabilizes wall panel until whole structure
is tied together.
Erection
The inspector should verify that the erection procedure is
the one specified in the project construction documents.
Walls must develop sufficient strength to prevent cracking
during tilt-up. Field-cured compression test specimens are
often specified to confirm concrete strength before lifting.
Cracking may also be caused by lifting the panel at points
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other than those indicated by the design; by lifting too
strongly when it is difficult to break bond; or by jerking or
impacting the panel.
Tilt-up walls may be set vertically before, during, or after
the erection of the structural frame. If the walls are set before Fig. 15.8-Lip-slab construction of a 13-story building
or during the erection of the structural frame, temporary brac- employs post-tensioned concrete slabs supported by steel
columns and slipformed concrete towers.
ing is required (Fig.15.7). The inspector should observe care-
fully to see that the erector gives adequate attention to bracing Bond prevention
needs. Walls are normally anchored to the structure frame by Liquid-membrane curing compounds are normally used to
bolting, welding, or keyed to precast or cast-in-place columns. prevent bonding of lift slabs. The inspector must confirm
Because of the extremely critical nature of the transfer of that the membrane is placed uniformly and that it completely
stresses through the precast concrete wall connections, do not covers each slab. Poor application of bond breakers has been
permit even apparently minor deviations from the design doc- a major problem in lift-slab construction.
uments without the architect-engineer's approval. Polyethylene sheets are excellent materials for preventing
For additional guidance on tilt-up construction, refer to bond. They may wrinkle during concrete placement, however,
AC1 55 1R. causing a poor finish. When they are used, special care should
be taken to prevent wrinkling if the ceilings are exposed.
LIFT-SLAB CONSTRUCTION
In lift-slab construction, the floors and roof slabs of a build- Erection
When the concrete has gained sufficient strength, the slabs
ing are cast in layers, one on top of another at or near ground
are successively lifted into their final position by jacks
level. Openings are left around the building columns. When the
mounted on top of the building's columns. The inspector
slabs have cured sufficiently, they are successively jacked up
should verify that the lifting procedures to be used are the
into proper position and connected to the columns (Fig. 15.8). ones for which the slabs were designed. This is also an ex-
tremely sensitive operation and one that highly influences
Forms overall construction-site safety.
The only forms normally required for casting lift slabs are
around the edges and at openings. The bottom form is the top PREPLACED-AGGREGATE CONCRETE
of the previously piaced slab. If the ceilings in the building Preplaced-aggregate concrete is produced by first placing
are to be exposed, slab finishing requires special care. Any well-graded coarse aggregate, and then filling the voids by
imperfections in the top of one slab will be transferred to the injection of grout. Preplaced-aggregate concrete contains a
underside of the slab above. Rough finishing can also inhibit higher percentage of coarse aggregate than conventional
lifting by developing a mechanical bond between slabs. concrete and, because of point-to-point contact of the coarse

- .
S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGLsL799 W llLb2949 U548272 252 W
95% passing the No. 16 sieve, and with a fineness modulus

between 1.2 and 2.0.
A vertical-spindle, paddle-type mixer or horizontal-shaft
mixer (similar to a large plaster mixer) may be used. Conven-
tional revolving-drum concrete mixers are not recommended
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unless the mixing is prolonged, because mixing action is less

effective here than in the high-speed types. A grout-agitator
tank may be provided to permit optimum effective use of the
mixing equipment, and also to provide storage capacity, de-
pending on the type and size of job. A screen with openings
not smaller than 3/16 in. or larger than 3/8 in. should be locat-
ed ahead of the pump to remove oversized material.
Use a standard flow cone to control the consistency of
grout containing fine sand in accordance with ASTM C 939.
Test cylinders should be made and tested in accordance with
ASTM C 942.
Grouting operations
Grout is typically injected through insert pipes 314 to 1 in.
in diameter, spaced between 6 and 8 ft on center. The insert
pipes may extend horizontally through the formwork or ver-
tically from above. Vertical insert pipes should extend to
within at least 6 in. of the bottom of the form.
Grout can be injected in horizontal layers or by advancing-
slope techniques. With either system, grout should start from
the lowest point in the forms. Grout is injected through each
inseri pipe in sequence to raise the grout at each point from
3 to 5 ft, or as necessary to ensure that the next layer will go
Fig. 15.9-Placing aggregate for preplaced-aggregate con- on while the one below is still soft. The inserts are then with-
struction byflowing washed aggregate through rubber “ele- drawn an appropriate distance, and grouting continued.
phant trunk.’’
In the advancing slope method, intrusion starts at one end
aggregate, has approximately 1/2 the drying shrinkage of of the form and pumping continues through rows of inserts,
conventional concrete. the surface of the grout assuming a gentle slope.
Vent pipes should be provided at all locations where water
Aggregate placement or air may be trapped under form surfaces by the rising grout.
The coarse aggregate should be well graded from approxi- Use sounding wells, horizontal insert pipes, or electroni-
mately 31‘4in. up to the largest size that can be placed without cally calibrated detector wires to constantly monitor the rise
excessive segregation. The void content of the coarse aggre- of the grout. Sounding wells may be left in place.
gate after placement in the form customarily ranges between Clean all caked grout from equipment and all grout lines
38 and 48%. Test blocks using crushed trap rock have been after each shift. The inspection team should verify that the
made with a void content as low as 25%.The aggregate should grout flow is occurring at each insert pipe and that flow is
be washed and screened immediately before placement in the uniform throughout the placement; otherwise, rock pockets
forms (Fig. 15.9) so that it will be free of undersize material and severe honeycombing may result.
and wili be surface-moist at the time of grout injection. Dry ag-
gregate of less than saturated-surface-dry condition may cause For additional guidance on preplaced-aggregate concrete
premature initiai setting of the grout and could result in voids construction, see Concrete Manual (USBR, 1981) and AC1
in the coarse aggregate not being filled adequately. 304R and 304.1R.
Grout materials and mixing UNDERWATER CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

The grout is basically composed of portland cement, sand, Concrete should not be placed under water unless place-
and water, Admixtures such as pozzolans, fluidifiers, expan- ment in air is impractical, and then only as explicitly permitted
sion agents, air-entraining agents, or coloring materials are by the contract documents or architect-engineer. Underwater
effective modifiers. Cement-sand ratios commonly range placement is used primarily for cofferdams, caissons, bridge
from 1: 1 to 1:2 by weight. Although ratios as lean as 1:3have piers, and dry-dock walls. Concrete placed under water is sel-
been used for structural grout, it is usually not desirable to dom as uniform as the concrete placed in the dry, and therefore
exceed 1:2. Sand for the grout should be well graded, with is not suitable for small or thin sections.

S T D e A C I SP-2-ENGL 1999 U b b 2 9 4 7 0548273 149
Fig. 15.10-Underwater tremie for concreting.
Equipment and method

Concrete is normally placed under water by the preplaced-
aggregate method, the pumped-concrete method using anti-
washout admixtures, or the tremie method, or occasionally
in woven cloth bags. With the preplaced-aggregate method
discussed earlier in this chapter, water is displaced from the Fig. 15.1 I-Tremie.
forms by the rising grout.
Tremie concrete is placed under water by gravity feed
VACUUM-TREATED CONCRETE
through a vertical pipe with one end above water for charg-
Vacuum dewatering is a method of extraction of excess
ing with concrete, and the bottom immersed in the concrete water from concrete shortly after it is placed. This permits
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being placed. The tremie pipe diameter should be approxi- concrete to stiffen rapidly through reduction of the water
mately eight times the maximum aggregate size (Fig. 15.IO). content. The resulting reduced w k m may also increase the
The tremie is first plugged and lowered into position (Fig. 28-day compressive strength of the concrete as much as
15. I l ) . After the tremie is filled with concrete, the plug is 25%, reduce shrinkage cracking, and improve wear resis-
pushed out and the concrete forms a seal around the bottom tance. The method is used almost exclusively on slabs, aí-
of the tremie pipe. The pipe is lifted slowly during place- though it can also be used on vertical surfaces and on forms
ment, always keeping the bottom of the pipe embedded in for precast concrete.
the concrete. Placing rates normally vary from 1-1/2 to 10 ft
of height per h. See AC1 304R for additional information on Reduction in thickness
tremie placement. Removal of water by the vacuum process can noticeably re-
In difficult locations or where flowing water cannot be duce a slab’s thickness. Ordinarily, a 6 in. slab cast with con-
avoided, it may be necessary to use coarsely woven cloth crete having a 6 in. slump will be reduced in thickness 1/8 to
bags partly filled with concrete. A diver carefully places the 1/4 in. If the slump is 3-1/2 in. or less, the thickness reduction
bags in a header and stretcher system so that the whole mass is usually less than 1/8 in. When necessary, the thickness of the
is interlocked. The bags should be free from harmful con- slab as placed should be increased so that the full design thick-
ness is obtained after dewatering. Slumps of concrete used in
taminants such as sugar, fertilizer, and organic materials.
adjacent areas should be approximately the same; otherwise,
surface elevations will vary.
Mixture requirements for tremie concrete
Tremie concrete should contain at least 650 lb of cement
Processing
per yd3. The fine aggregate is usually 40 to 50% of the total
Vacuum mats should be arranged to permit dewatering of
aggregate by weight. Water-reducing retarders, air-entrain-
the concrete soon after it is deposited, struck off, and bull-
ing admixtures, and pozzolans are often added to improve floated. Preferably, processing should begin within 30 min in
flow. The mixture should be sufficiently plastic to flow normal weather, somewhat later in cold weather, and some-
readily into place without vibrating. A maximum w/cm of what earlier in very hot, dry weather. Most specifications re-
0.44 by weight is normally recommended. Slump between quire vacuum processing to continue for 1 to 3 midin. of slab
6 and 9 in. is necessary for the concrete to move properly thickness. The effectiveness of water removal decreases with
under water, where it weighs less than in air. For additional depth. It is seldom practical to reduce the w/cm below a depth
guidance on underwater concrete construction, refer to of 12 in. The inspector should principally check the extent
Concrete Manual (USBR, 1981), USACE Manual NO. and uniformity with which water is extracted, through obser-
1110-2-2000(1994), and AC1 304R. vation of the vacuum and of the timing and duration of ex-

S T D m A C I SP-2-ENGL 1999 OLb294Y 0548274 025
traction. Final finishing operations should commence as be used at locations such as curves, difficult placement areas,
soon as processing is complete. and connections to movable cranes. Rubber hose should not be
used close to the pump if a long line will follow.
Maintenance of equipment Aluminum pipe should not be used for pumped concrete.
Vacuum mats should be kept clean and in good mechanical Concrete pumped through aluminum pipe has sometimes ex-
condition. If any mat shows a tendency to pick up surface hibited abnormal expansion, caused by the formation of hy-
concrete, it should be wetted down thoroughly at the start of drogen gas, generated by the aluminum flakes abraded from
work, washed at noon, and very thoroughly washed at the the surface.
end of the day to prevent the retention of cement film in the Line couplings should be rated to resist the anticipated line
pores of the muslin. If the mat shows considerable wear, the pressures. Couplings should be designed to allow replace-
muslin should be replaced and the wire-screen backing ment of any line section without moving any other line sec-
scrubbed clean. tions, and should provide a full internal cross section with no
For additional guidance on vacuum-concrete construction, constrictions or crevices to disrupt the smooth flow of con-
refer to AC1 302.1R. crete. Leaky couplings should be replaced immediately.
PUMPED CONCRETE Mixture requirements

Pumped concrete may be defined as concrete that is con- Although the ingredients of both pumped mixtures and
veyed by pressure either through rigid pipes or flexible hose, those placed by other methods are the same, more emphasis
and is discharged directly into the desired area. Pumping may on reducing variability is essential to the production of a suc-
be used for almost all types of concrete construction. cessful pump mixture.
A steady supply of pumpable concrete is necessary for sat- The maximum size of angular coarse aggregate should be
isfactory pumping. hmpable concrete, like conventional mix- limited to 1/3 of the minimum inside diameter of the pipe or
tures, requires good quality control; that is, properly graded, hose, and the maximum size of well-rounded aggregate
uniform aggregates, consistently batched and thoroughly should be limited to 40% of the inside diameter. Coarse, nor-
mixed with other required materials. malweight aggregate and sand should meet the grading re-
quirements of ASTM C 33, with the additional requirements
Types of equipment that 15 to 30% of the sand particles pass the No. 50 screen
Piston pumps and squeeze pressure pumps are the two pri- and 5 to 10%pass the No. 100 screen. Sands having a fine-
mary types presently available. ness modulus less than 2.40 or greater than 3.0 should gen-
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A piston pump includes a hopper equipped with remixing erally not be allowed. To improve pumpability, the volume
blades for receiving the mixed concrete, an inlet valve, an of normalweight, coarse aggregate per unit volume of con-
outlet valve, and a piston in a cylinder. The outlet valve is crete may need to be reduced by up to lo%,compared with
located in the discharge line. When the piston starts its back- concrete placed by other methods, depending on aggregate
ward stroke, the inlet valve opens and the outlet valve clos- shape, cement and fly ash contents, or the use of a pumping
es, and concrete fills the cylinder. On the forward piston admixture as well as the capability of the pumping equip-
stroke, the inlet valve closes and the outlet valve opens, and ment and operator.
the piston pushes the concrete from the cylinder into the Lightweight aggregates absorb more water than normal-
pipeline or hose. Some pumps have two cylinders, so that weight aggregates, and under pumping pressures, may ab-
one pumps on the forward stroke while the other fills on its sorb considerably more. This can result in water loss from
backward stroke. the concrete in the line, and thereby impair its pumpability.
A squeeze-pressure pump has a receiving hopper with Lightweight aggregate should be thoroughly presoaked prior
remixing blades, a flexible hose, and rollers operating in- to being used in concrete for pumping. The minimum mois-
side a metal drum maintained under a high vacuum. The ture content after soaking should be equal to or in excess of
flexible hose is connected at the bottom of the receiving hop- the average 24 h absorption of the aggregate. To permit con-
per and enters at the bottom of the drum. The hose runs around sistent control of slump, allow free water to drain from pre-
the inside surface of the drum and out at the top. The hydrau- soaked stockpiled aggregates for 2 to 4 h before mixing to
lically powered roller assembly rotates within the drum so that permit uniform slump control.
the rollers roll along the flexible hose and squeeze the concrete Lightweight aggregates should meet the grading limits of
out at the top. The vacuum helps restore the tube to normal ASTM C 330, and, in addition, 20 to 35% of the sand should
shape after it is flattened by the roller and thus keeps a steady pass the No. 50 screen and 10 to 20% should pass the No. 100
supply of concrete in the tube from the receiving hopper. screen.
Rigid pipe, or a combination of rigid pipe and heavy-duty Lightweight sand having a fineness modulus of less than
flexible hose, is normally used to carry pumped concrete to the 2.20 or greater than 2.80 should generally not be ailowed.
placement area. Rigid pipe (normally made of steel) is avail- Much of the lightweight concrete to be pumped contains all
able in diameters from 3 to 8 in. Flexible hose in diameters natural sand for the fine aggregate. Gradation of this natural
from 3 to 5 in. is made of rubber, spiral-wound flexible metal, sand should conform to requirements for sand for normal-
or plastic. Although flexible hose offers greater resistance to weight concrete. Experience indicates that concrete with
the movement of concrete than pipes do, it can advantageously slumps (measured at the intake) less than 2 in. are impractical

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1797 Dbb2.7'49 0548275 T b l
SPECIAL CONCRETINGMETHODS 127
for pumping, whereas concrete with slumps above 6 in.

tend to segregate. Because of the usually higher range in
slump and aggregate sizes, and gradings requiring more
mixing water, pumped mixtures usually require more ce-
ment than conventionally placed concrete. Lightweight
mixtures normally require even more cement as they usu-
ally require even higher slump to compensate for the
slump losses under pumping pressure.
Admixtures frequently used in pump mixtures are wa-
ter-reducing admixtures, air-entraining admixtures, and
finely divided mineral admixtures or pumping aids. Properly
used, these admixtures can provide desirable effects such as
improved lubrication, reduced segregation, improved work-
ability, and decreased bleeding. Loss of air content during
pumping should be considered in establishing the mixture
requirements. Fig. 15.12-Placement boom supports und positions hose to
Prepare and test trial mixtures intended for pumping in a deliver pumped concrete.
laboratou in accordance with all applicable ASTM standards. the concrete to lubricate the pipes and reduce friction. Make
For normalweight concrete, follow the method described in sure that the lubricating mixture is wasted and is not placed
AC1 21 1.1, to select the volume of coarse aggregate per unit
with the concrete. As soon as concrete is received, the pump
volume of concrete. For lightweight concrete, follow the
should be operated slowly until the lines are completely full
methods described in AC1 21 1.2 and AC1 304.2R as guides to
and the concrete is moving steadily.
select the volume of atmospherically soaked coarse aggregate,
and that of AC1 304.2R for vacuum-saturated or thermally Monitor the point of discharge carefully to ensure that seg-
regation, displacement of reinforcement, and damage to
saturated aggregates.
forms do not take place. Pneumatic systems should be
Because there is no standardized way to test the pumpability
equipped with a blending box at the end of the lines to avoid
of a mixture in the laboratory, it is recommended that a mixture
segregation or spraying. Monitor the pump end to ensure that
be accepted for a pumping job based on a test under actual field
water is not added to the concrete in the pump hopper.
conditions. Testing for pumpability involves duplication of an-
ticipated job conditions including the batching and truck mix- During hot weather, reduce slump loss and concrete temper-
ing, the pump and operator, the pipe and hose layouts, and (if ature rise by shading, covering the pipe with damp material, or
possible) temperature. Prior use of a mixture on another job painting the pipe white.
may furnish evidence of pumpability, but only if ali conditions Continuous pumping is desirable because, if the pump is
are essentially the same. stopped, movement of the concrete in the line may be diffi-
cult or impossible to start again. When a delay occurs be-
Control of placement cause of concrete delivery, form repairs, or other factors, the
The pump should be located as near to the placing area as pump should be slowed down to maintain some movement
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
practical, and the delivery to the pump should not impede the of the concrete to avoid plugging. If, after a delay, concrete
continuous supply of concrete. Pump lines should be laid out cannot be moved in the line, it will be necessary to clean out
with a minimum of bends, firmly supported, using alternate one line section, several sections, or even the entire line, and
lines and flexible pipe or hose to permit placing over a large start over.
area directly into the work without rehanding (Fig. 15.12). When the form is nearly full, and there is enough concrete
For important concrete placements or large jobs, standby in the line to complete the placement, the pump is stopped
power and pumping equipment should be readily available. and a go-devil is inserted and forced through the line to clean
When pumping downward 50 ft or more, it may be desir- it out. Either water or air under pressure may be used to push
able (depending on the manufacturer's recommendations) to the go-devil. When water is used, the go-devil should be
provide an air release valve at the middle of the top bend to stopped several feet from the end of the line so that the water
prevent vacuum or air buildup. When pumping upward, it is in the line will not spill into the placement area. If air is used,
desirable to have a valve near the pump to prevent reverse both the air supply and pressures must be carefully regulated,
flow of concrete during the fitting of cleanup equipment, or and a trap should be installed at the end of the line to prevent
when working on the pump. the go-devil from being ejected as a dangerous projectile. An
The pump operator should maintain direct communication air release valve should also be installed in the line to prevent
with the concrete placing crew. Good communication be- buildup of pressure. After all concrete has been removed
tween the pump operator and the batch plant is also impor- from the lines, all lines and equipment should be immediate-
tant. As a final check, the pump should be started and ly and thoroughly cleaned.
operated without concrete to be certain that all moving parts concrete samples-To monitor the effect of pumping on
are operating properly. Mortar or a batch of regular concrete the final quality of the concrete being placed take samples as
without coarse aggregate should be fed into the line ahead of required at the placement end of the line, with corresponding

S T D * A C I SP-Z-ENGL 1997 Obb27Li7 05Li827b 7T8
air is not lost. For additional guidance on pumping concrete,

refer to ConcreteManual (USBR 1981), USACE Manual No.
1110-2-2000 (1994), and AC1 304R and 304.2R.
SHOTCRETE
Shotcrete is mortar or concrete pneumatically projected at
high velocity onto a surface. Because shotcrete is generally
used without exterior forms, the mixture should have a min-
imum slump so that sagging of the shotcrete is avoided, par-
ticularly for vertical or overhead applications. Shotcrete in
the past has been commonly called air-blown mortar,
sprayed concrete, pneumatically applied mortar, or gunned
concrete (also known by proprietary terms such as Gunite
and Jetcrete). Shotcrete equipment can apply shotcrete with
maximum size aggregate up to 3/4 in.
Fig. 15.13-Undulating concrete shell covered with neoprene
after shotcreting, then coated with plustic-based paint. Shotcrete is used for new construction and for repair work.
The economy of shotcrete comes from reduced forming costs
and the use of small, portable plants for mixing and placement.
Common uses of shotcrete are new structures with more
complex forming requirements such as folded or curved
roofs or walls (Fig. 15.13), prestressed tanks,reservoir and
canal linings, and swimming pools. A more recent develop-
ment in North America has been the use of shotcrete for tun-
nel support during driving and sometimes for tunnel lining.
Shotcrete is widely used for repair of existing structures,
for example, reservoir linings, dams, tunnels, waterfront
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structures, pipe, bridge and stadium superstructures, and ma-
sonry and concrete structures damaged by earthquake or fire.
Shotcreting processes
There are two basic shotcreting processes: dry-mix and
wet-mix.
In the dry-mix process, cement, sand, and possibly coarse
aggregate are mixed dry and fed with compressed airthrough
hose lines to a mixing nozzle. Depending upon the exact
technique employed, the sand may be damp or dry before
mixing, and the mixture may be dry until reaching the nozzle
or may be dampened before delivery to the nozzle. A sepa-
rate line delivers water and admixtures (if used) to the noz-
zle, which provides final mixing. The mortar or concrete is
then jetted at high velocity onto the surface to be shotcreted.
In the wet-mix process, all ingredients (except possibly
Fig. 15.14-A wet-mix shotcrete. super-fast accelerators) are mixed, inserted into the delivery
hose, and conveyed to the nozzle by compressed air or pump
samples taken at the point of delivery to the pump. Periodi- pressure. Additional compressed air is injected at the nozzle to
cally, it may be advantageous to take additional concrete jet the shotcrete at high velocity onto the surface (Fig. 15.14).
samples at the outlet end of the pump line to detect any Either process can produce shotcrete suitable for normal
changes in slump, air content, or other significant mixture construction requirements. Differences in equipment, main-
characteristics. Extra care of specimens sampled at the place- tenance, and operational features may make one or the other
ment site is necessary to ensure no damage during the setting process more attractive for a particular operation. The
and initial curing period of the concrete. It is preferable to wet-mix application, however, is not subject to variation and
take a sufficiently large sample at the pump outlet, immedi- to inclusion of lenses of rebound to the degree that is often
ately lower the sample to the ground, and make control mea- found in dry-mix shotcrete. AC1 506 R provides a compari-
surements and specimens in the same manner as for control son of the processes (Table 15.1).
sampling and testing.
The angle of the boom and free fall of the concrete have a Qualifications and duties of shotcrete operators
role in air loss. Do not add additional air to compensate for The quality of shotcrete in structures depends largely on
large air losses, as this practice will lead to low strengths if the the skill of the application crew. All members of the crew

S T D * A C I SP-2-ENGL 1999 W Obb2947 0548277 834 =
Dw-mix process Wet-mix process

Instantaneous control over mixing water Mixing water controlledat delivery
and consistency of mixture at nozzle to equipment and be accurately
meet vaiable field conditions. meawed.
Better suited for placing mixtures con- assurance that mixing water
taining lightweight aggregates,
refractory materials, and for shotcrete i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ! y
mixed with Other
requiring early-strength properties.
Capable of being transported longer Less dusting and cement loss
distances. laccomoanies gunning operation.
Start and stop placement characteris- Noma,ly has lower
tics better with minimal waste and resultingin less w~te.
greater placement flexibility.
Caoable of hieher strengths. ICauable of areater oroduction.
and the inspector should provide evidence of training and

experience in satisfactory work in similar capacities.
The inspector should observe the nozzle operators as they
perform the following duties:
1. Verify that all surfaces to be shot are clean and free of
laitance or loose material, using air, air and water, or sand-
blast from the nozzle as required. Fig. 15.15-Shotcrete should be built up gradually in layers,
without sagging. Blow pipe clears away loose material.
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2. Verify that the operating air pressure is uniform and

provides proper nozzle velocity for good compaction.
3. Regulate the water content so that the mixture will be trapped rebound can be readily removed by the nozzle oper-
plastic enough to give good compaction and a low percent- ator). The helper also assists the nozzle operator in other as-
age of rebound, but stiff enough not to sag. In the dry-mix signments as required.
process, the nozzle operator directly controls the mixing wa- The nozzle operator's other assistant is the hose operator,
ter, whereas in the wet-mix process, he calls for changes in who helps with the delivery hose, keeping it advanced for
consistency as required. efficient progress. On some jobs, the helper also acts as
4. Hold the nozzle at the proper distance and as nearly hose operator.
perpendicular to the surface as the type of work will per-
mit, to secure maximum compaction with minimum re- Equipment
bound (Fig. 15.15). Original shotcrete equipment (Gunite) was developed ap-
5. Follow a routine that fills comers with sound shotcrete, proximately 80 yr ago for dry-mix fine-aggregate shotcrete.
and encase reinforcement without porous material behind it, Such equipment is in considerable use today.
using the maximum practical layer thickness.
Since that time, other types of equipment have been devel-
6. Determine necessary operating procedures for place-
oped to apply both wet- and dry-processshotcreteusing coarse
ment in close quarters, extended distances, or around unusual
aggregate. There is no consensus regarding superiority of one
obstructions where placement velocities and mixture consis-
process over the other. Each process should be assessed in re-
tency must be adjusted.
lation to particular job conditions. The choice of process is the
7. Direct the crew when to start and stop the flow of material,
contractor's unless the contract documents limit it.
and stop the work when material is not arriving uniformly at
the nozzle. Shotcrete equipment should be kept in good condition to
8. Ensure that sand or slough pockets are cut out for re- avoid reduced pressure and consequent reduced velocity of
placement. material. The interior of the drums, the feed gearing, and the
9. Bring the shotcrete to finish lines in a neat and work- valves should be cleaned as often as necessary, but at least
manlike manner. once every 8-h shift, to prevent caking of material on critical
10. In repair work, confirm that old concrete or masonry parts. Nozzle liners should be replaced when worn to the point
is properly prepared, thoroughly moistened, and free of sur- where uniformity of material flow is lost. For rough or heavy
face water prior to shotcreting. work, a pressure of 50 to 60 psi is required at the nozzle. This
1 1. Sound hardened surfaces with a hammer to detect in- pressure should be increased up to 75 psi for high lifts or for
clusions of rebound or the presence of hollow spots. hose lengths over 100 ft to prevent clogging. For finishing
The nozzle operator's helper operates an air blow pipe at work, best results are obtained with nozzle delivery pressures
least 3/4 in. in diameter, to assist the nozzle operator in keep- between 25 and 50 psi. Both water- and air-supply pressures
ing all rebound and other loose porous material out of the must be constant, and water pressure should be maintained ap-
new construction (except in classes of work where the proximately 15 psi higher than the highest air-supply pressure.

S T D = A C I SP-2-ENGL 1997 Obb2949 0,548278 770
Mixture proportions should either provide experienced operators or provide for

For dry-mix fine-aggregate shotcrete, mixture proportions training them.
should ordinarily be one part cement to three to four and one- Ali sand pockets, sloughed material, and rebound must be
half parts damp sand, measured by volume. The sand should continually removed to avoid being covered by shotcrete. In
contain 3 to 6% moisture, both to ensure a homogeneous most cases, rebound is best removed with a compressed air jet.
mixture and to prevent discomfort to the nozzle operator Provided that rebound is properly cleared away, the nozzle
from buildup of static electricity. operator may work from bottom to top. Corners should be
With either dry- or wet-mix, coarse-aggregate shotcrete, filled first. The distance of the nozzle from the work is gen-
weight batching is preferred. Mixtures may contain 560 to erally about 3 ft. Direction of the gunning should be as per-
850 lb of portland cement per yd3 and generally contain more pendicular to the surface as possible. When placing shotcrete
sand than conventional concrete. A typical coarse-aggregate behind reinforcing bars, the nozzle should be at a slight angle
shotcrete, prior to application, might have proportions of ce- and the concrete should be built up from both sides to permit
ment, fine, and coarse aggregate ranging from 1:3:2to 1:3:1
better encasement of the bars. Full thickness of shotcrete
depending upon job requirements (refer to AC1 506R).
should be built up in layers that will not result in sloughing
These mixture proportions do not represent the shotcrete in
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
or sagging.
place because they will be changed by loss due to rebound of
Placement should be temporarily halted if high winds sep-
the solid ingredients. In place mixture proportions of shot-
arate sand and cement at the nozzle, if freezing of the shot-
Crete are fairly indeterminate. The in place quality should be
established by tests as discussed as follows. Crete seems imminent, or if damaging rain occurs.
Shotcretes containing quick-setting admixtures or fast-set-
ting modified portland cements are required for underground Forms and ground wires
structurai support. Such shotcrete should have a high early Where forms are required, they should be designed to per-
strength of 500 to lo00 psi or higher at 8 h. mit the escape of air and rebound. Forms need to be placed
on only one side of a wall. Adequate ground (gaging) wires
Both liquid and powdered admixtures have been used for
should be used to establish the thickness, surface planes, and
high-early-strength shotcrete. In most cases, these admix-
finish lines of the shotcrete. They should be taut, secure, and
tures have been transmitted by air or water to the nozzle, as
an almost instant set is required. The initial set time may be true to line and plane. Forms need to be adequately braced to
1 min or less. withstand the considerable application force and vibration.
Fast-setting, modified portland cement may be beneficial
in shotcrete, producing higher early and later strengths than Time between coats
shotcrete with other admixtures. In sloping, overhanging, or vertical work, wait long
enough between successive applications to permit the con-
Any concrete, including shotcrete, that has high early
crete to become strong enough to support the next layer.
strength will have lower strength gain at later ages than that
While the initial set is developing, the surface should be
containing normal portland cements.
lightly and carefully broomed to remove any film and to pro-
vide a better bond for the next application.
Preparation of surfaces
Wherever shotcrete is to be placed against earth surfaces,
as in canal linings, such surfaces should first be thoroughly Construction joints
compacted and trimmed to line and grade. Shotcrete should Construction or day’s-end joints should be sloped off to a
not be placed on any surface that is frozen, spongy, or has thin, clean, regular edge, preferably at a 45 degree slope.
standing water. The surface should be kept damp for several
hours before applying shotcrete. Surface finish
Where shotcrete is used for repairing deteriorated concrete, In surface finishing, the shotcrete should be brought up to
it is essential that all unsound material first be removed. Chip- an even plane and well-formed comers by working to ground
ping should continue until there are no offsets in the cavity that wires or other thickness and alignment guides. Reduced
would cause an abrupt change in the surface to be repaired. No placing pressure assists in forming the comers. If screeding
square shoulders should be left at the perimeter of the cavity; is required, it should be performed with a thin slicing edge
all edges should be tapered. The fmal cut surface should be worked up against gravity to trim off high spots and expose
critically examined to ensure that it is sound and properly low spots. A thin finish or flash coat may be applied to re-
shaped. Improper preparatory work causes more shotcrete fail- move rough areas after the ground wires have been removed,
ures in repair work than any other single factor. or the flash coat may cover the ground wires. If a float finish
is desired, the final surface should be lightly rubbed with a
Placing flat burlap or rubber pad, with a circular or spiral motion. If
The quality of dry-mix shotcrete, either mortar or concrete, a troweled finish is desired, the steel troweling should follow
depends particularly on the skill and understanding of the careful screeding to obtain satisfactory results with the least
nozzle operator. Contractors for application of shotcrete trowel pressure. Troweling should be performed within 1 h
I should understand the importance of the nozzle operator and of placement.

S T D - A C 1 SP-Z-ENLL. 1977 m ObL29V9 0 5 Y ô 2 7 9 b 0 7 M
Curing and protection panels properly reflect the quality of the concrete. Obtain and
Curing and cold-weather protection should follow ap- test the cores in accordance with ASTM C 42.
proved concrete practices, unless otherwise specified. Ap- A measure of strength within less than 8 his desirable, par-
plication of curing compounds is generally the most ticularly for underground support structures. The shotcrete at
practical type of curing procedure (see Chapter lo), but not this early age usually cannot be cored without damage to the
necessarily the best. Water curing is the most desirable. specimen. Promising research has indicated that the cone
pullout apparatus may have ment for the purpose. Good cor-
Control testing relation between pullout and formed cylinder strengths were
There is no successful method of directly forming test obtained.
specimens by the shotcrete method. The most reliable spec-
imens are obtained from cores either from the structure or Safety
from special test panels. These test panels should be fabri- Shotcreting requires special regard to safety. The nozzle op-
cated by the nozzle operator doing the on-site work, holding erator and crew should wear safety glasses with side shields to
the nozzle at the same angle as used on the structure. For prevent eye damage from flying rebound. In particularly dusty
fine-aggregate shotcrete, test panels are generally about 18 x situations, such as sandblast cleanup, air-ventilated helmets
18 x 3 in. and the cores about 3 in. in diameter with a finished may be required. It is often necessary for the applicators to
length somewhat less than 3 in. For coarse-aggregate shot- turn the nozzle away from the work during periods of unsatis-
Crete, panels should be larger and at least 6 in. thick. The factory feed conditions; they should be most careful to avoid
core diameter should be a minimum of 3 in. When coring directing the nozzle at other members of the crew. Care should
test panels for test specimens, avoid areas near the edges of be taken to prevent caustic accelerators from contacting skin
the panel to obtain material typical of that in the structure. If or eyes.
test specimens are obtained from panels, cores should occa- AC1 506R is a good reference on shotcreting. Concrete
sionally be taken from the structure to ensure that the test Manual (USBR 198I ) also contains pertinent information.
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STD.AC1 SP-2-ENGL 1999 0bb2999 0548280 329
CHAPTER 16-SPECIAL TYPES OF CONCRETE
STRUCTURAL LIGHTWEIGHT may change if the moisture content of the lightweight aggre-
AGGREGATE CONCRETE gate is not corrected.
Structural lightweight-aggregate concrete is generally used The net w/cm of most structural lightweight-aggregate
when reduced density will affect economy in buildings and concretes cannot be established with sufficient accuracy to
bridges. For most stnictures, designs generally require the use as a basis for mixture proportioning. This is due to the
same compressive strength levels as those used for normal- difficulty of determining the percentage of the total water
weight concrete. Structural lightweight aggregate concrete is that is absorbed in the aggregate and thus unavailable for hy-
sometimes defined as having a 28-day Compressive strength dration of the cement.
over 2500 psi and an air-dry density less than 115 lb/ft3. Con-
Regardless of exposure conditions, entrained air is desir-
cretes having compressive strengths that exceed 5000 psi,
able in lightweight-aggregate concrete. In addition to im-
however, can be economically produced with most manufac-
proving durability, the entrained air enhances workability
tured lightweight aggregates available in the U.S. and Canada.
and decreases bleeding. Recommended air contents are 4 to
A strength ceiling will generally be found at higher strengths,
8%with 3/4 in. maximum-sized aggregate and 5 to 9% with
the level depending on the particular aggregate. Some light-
3/8 in. aggregate. Do not use pressure air meters for measur-
weight aggregates are suitable to consistently produce con-
ing air content of lightweight-aggregateconcretes; the com-
cretes with strengths in excess of 5000 to 6000 psi.
pression of air into the aggregate particles during the test
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
There are two general classes of structural grade light-

often makes the test results unreliable. The volumetric meth-
weight aggregates:
od (ASTM C 173) provides the most reliable results. In some
Those produced by extruding, calcining, or sintering
areas, however, low-pressure (3 psi) air meters have been
products, such as blast-furnace slag, clay, diatomite, fly used with apparent success.
ash, shale, and slate: and
Mixture proportioning methods are presented in detail in
Those produced by processing natural materials, such
AC1 21 1.2. This reference presents three methods of propor-
as scoria, pumice, and tuff.
tioning. Two of these, the weight method and the pycnome-
ter method, have not been widely used even though they may
Aggregates provide more accurate procedures. With some lightweight
Most structural-grade, lightweight aggregates are pro-
aggregates, particularly those having a low rate of absorption
duced using rotary kilns; some are produced using sintering
and low total absorption, the same proportioning procedures
grates. Complete details of the manufacture of structural
may be used for normalweight concrete (Chapter 6).
lightweight aggregate are given in AC1 213R.
To be acceptable for use in structural concrete, lightweight The most widely used method of proportioning structural
aggregatesmust meet the requirementsof ASTM C 330. This lightweight-aggregate concrete is by making tnal mixtures to
specification covers such items as grading, density, deleteri- determine the relation between cement content and compres-
ous substances, and concrete-making properties. sive strength. This method is used instead of the traditional
method (standard charts of compressive strength versus w/cm)
Although many structures have been built with concrete
because lightweight aggregates can absorb water, making it
containing both coarse and fine lightweight aggregatesto ob-
difficult to calculate w/cm. For large or especially important
tain the lowest possible density at the required strength level,
structures, make separate mixture proportioning studies. Make
much structural lightweight-aggregateconcrete contains nat-
trial mixtures at three different cement contents (for example,
ural sand for the fine aggregate. Natural sand is usually more
economical and also provides improvement for certain con-
500,600, and 700 Ib of cement per yd3) with slumps of less
than 4 in. and air contents of 5 to 6%.
crete properties, such as tensile strength, modulus of elastic-
ity, creep, and drying shrinkage. Make the proportioning studies with the lightweight ag-
gregate presaturated. Otherwise, rapid slump loss will occur
Mixture proportionlng and control as additional water is absorbed by the aggregate when it is in-
Mixture proportioning methods for structural lightweight troduced into the mixer.
aggregate concrete generally differ somewhat from those for To start, make a trial batch at one of the selected cement
normalweight concrete. The principal properties that require contents. If the lightweight aggregate has not been presatu-
modification of proportioning and control procedures are the rated, all of the aggregate (including the sand) should be pre-
greater total water absorption and rate of absorption of light- mixed with approximately 2/3 of the estimated water for 1
weight aggregates, plus their low weight, per se. Absorption min or so. Then the cement and most of the additional water
of water by the aggregate has little effect on compressive (including water with the air-entraining agent mixed in)
strength, provided that enough water is supplied to saturate should be introduced. The last of the water should be added
the aggregate. The moisture content of the aggregate must be carefully, and the total water should be adjusted to achieve
known, and adjustments must be made from batch to batch to the proper slump as estimated by the operator. Water held
provide constant cement and air contents, similar slumps, and back or increased from the original estimated amount should
a constant volume of aggregates. The yield of the concrete be carefully weighed and recorded to arrive at the total water

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 3999 W Obb2747 0548283 2 b S
SPECIAL TYPES OF CONCRETE 133
actually in the batch. When mixing is complete, measure Batching and mixing
slump, density, and air content. The principles of batching and mixing structural light-
This first triai batch should be examined for workability, weight concrete are the same as for normalweight concrete.
over- or undersanding, harshness, and proper air content. It If delivered by truck mixer, the mixer should be rotated 10
will probably be necessary to make a second trial mixture at revolutions at mixing speed to reduce segregation.
the same cement content, adjusting quantities of sand, coarse The lightweight aggregate should be prewetted to as uni-
aggregate, water, and air-entraining agent, as determined form a moisture content as possible, or premixed with the mix-
from the results of the first trial. See AC1 21 1.2 for informa- ing water prior to the addition of the other ingredients of the
tion on these adjustments. concrete. This will help to avoid slump control problems at the
The proportions for this second trial mixture can be obtained mixer, and also help to avoid slump loss after discharge from
through the use of the specific gravity factor method. This fac- the mixer if the lightweight-aggregate is relatively dry. Slump
tor is obtained by summing the absolute volumes of cement, control can be aggravated further if the concrete is pumped.
sand (SSD), water, and air content (per yd3 of fresh concrete) With lightweight aggregates that have a low water absorp-
based on the final proportions of the first triai mixture. This sum tion, special prewetting may not be required prior to batching
is then subtracted from 27 ft3 to find the in place volume of the and mixing. In many cases, the absorptive nature of the light-
coarse lightweight aggregate. The specific gravity factor for the weight aggregate will require prewetting to a fairly high and
dry lightweight aggregate is then computed from: uniform moisture content to minimize slump loss as dis-
cussed previously. If the concrete will be exposed to severe
cold before sufficient drying occurs, complete saturation of
specific gravity factor = weight of coarse aggregate
in place volume x 62.4 the aggregate during prewetting operations may have to be
avoided to maintain good durability.
This factor can then be used for adjustment of proportions as If the structural lightweight-aggregate concrete is to be
if it were a true specific gravity. It cannot be used to find w/cm, placed by pumping, it will often be necessary to completely
as part of the total water has been absorbed by the aggregate. saturate the aggregate to prevent severe slump loss during
After a satisfactory set of proportions has been achieved pumping. Under these conditions, the concrete should have a
with one selected cement content, compressive strength long drying period before exposure to freezing and thawing.
specimens should be cast for testing at 7 and 28 days and AC1 2 13R and AC1 304R should be carefully studied before
other ages as desired, and specimens for plastic (wet) density planning the pumping of structural lightweight-concrete.
and air-dry density (see as follows) should be prepared. Water-reducing admixtures, accelerators, and retarders
Mixtures with the other two selected cement contents can be used in structural lightweight-aggregate concrete in
should then be made to obtain strengths and densities for essentially the same manner as in normalweight concrete.
these cement contents. In establishing the proportions for Pozzolans can be used for partial replacement of portland ce-
these mixtures, the weight of coarse lightweight aggregate ment, just as they are used in normalweight concrete.
and total water will not change appreciably. Absolute vol-
ume of sand should be varied inversely as cement content is Placing, consolidation, and finishing
changed, and the air-entraining agent dosage adjusted as Placing of structural lightweight-aggregateconcrete (except
necessary for each cement content. if by pumping, as noted previously) differs little from proper
Once the compressive strengths have been obtained, a placing of normalweight concrete. As with all concrete, segre-
curve of strength versus cement content can be established. gation of coarse aggregate from the mortar should be avoided.
The proper cement content for the specified strength (plus When consolidating lightweight-aggregate concrete, be care-
necessary overdesign) can then be found. This strength ful not to overvibrate. The coarse aggregate particles are the
should be confirmed by further trial mixtures. lightest solid ingredients in the mixture, and overvibration can
cause the particles to rise, so that finishing problems result
Testing from floating aggregate and strength is nonuniform through
The specifications for structural lightweight-aggregate the depth of the member. In addition to care in vibration, the
concrete often require laboratory testing in addition to that use of slumps less than 4 in. greatly helps in avoiding segrega-
for minimum compressive strength (ASTM C 39) and max- tion during handling, consolidating, and finishing.
imum air-dry density (ASTM C 567). These additional tests Properly proportioned structural lightweight-aggregate
are usually for modulus of elasticity (ASTM C 469) and concrete can generally be finished earlier than is practical
splitting tensile strength (ASTM C 496). with normalweight concrete. Avoid overworking of the sur-
Field testing of structural lightweight concrete is generally face even more so than with normalweight concrete. Over-
limited to slump, fresh density, air content, temperature, and working will drive the heavier mortar away from the surface
compressive strength. Note that AC1 3 18 states that the split- and tend to bring excess lightweight coarse aggregate to the
ting tensile strength tests shall not be used as a basis for field surface. Surface preparation of structural lightweight-aggre-
acceptance of concrete. gate concrete prior to troweling is best accomplished with
All field testing and molding of specimens should be done magnesium or aluminum screeds and floats. The use of these
at the site after all water has been added and the concrete tools will minimize surface tearing and pullouts. Grate
thoroughly mixed. tampers Cjitterbugs), both fixed and roller type, may be of ad-
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STDnACI SP-Z-ENGL 1999 Obb2949 0548282 LTL
Fig. 16.1-Flowable$ll material place in a trench. concretes are &e same as for insulating concretes described
as follows.
vantage in depressing coarse particles and developing a good Water-reducing admixtures, accelerators, and retarders
mortar surface, providing their use is light, closely con- can be used in lightweight fill concrete in essentially the
trolled, and limited to only one pass over the surface (refer to same manner as in normalweight concrete. Pozzolans can be
AC1 302,1R, Section 7.2.1). If grate tampers are used, it is used for partial replacement of portland cement, as in nor-
even more necessary to keep the slump low-not over 2 in. malweight concrete.
Vibrating grate tampers should never be used for structural
lightweight-aggregateconcrete. Testing
The laboratory and field testing procedures for lightweight
Curing and protection fill concrete are identical with the applicable details given
The curing and protection of structural lightweight con- above and below for structural lightweight-aggregate con-
crete is no different from that of normalweight concrete. See crete and insulating concrete, respectively.
Chapter 10 of this manual.
Production
LIGHTWEIGHT FILL CONCRETE Methods of batching and mixing, placing and consolida-
The term “lightweight fill concrete,” as used in this manu- tion, and curing and protection are essentially the same as the
al, designates concretes with oven-dry densities between 50 applicable details in the preceding and following sections of
and 90 lb/ft3 and generally with compressive strengths less this chapter.
than 2500 psi. Applicationsfor such concretes range from in-
sulating fills to structural elements (Fig. 16.1). The aggre- LOW-DENSITY CONCRETE
gates in fill concrete include not only the aggregates of As used in this manual, low-density concrete is concrete
ASTM C 330, but also those of ASTM C 332. Cellular con- made with or without aggregate and having an oven-dry den-
crete with added sand or other fine aggregatesis also used for sity of 50 lb/ft3 or less. Field-placed, low-density concrete
fill concrete. (lightweight insulating concrete) is commonly used to pro-
Aggregates and cellular concretes conforming to ASTM C vide thermal insulation and added stiffness in roof decks
332 are described in the following discussion of insulating (Fig. 16.2). Such concrete may also be used to reduce heat
concretes. Detailed information regarding lightweight fill transmission through floors and walls. Low-density concrete
concrete is provided in AC1 523.3R. is of two generic types:
Aggregute type-concrete made predominantly with
Aggregates low-density mineral aggregates such as expanded per-
Lightweight coarse aggregates of these types are generally lite or vermiculite, or low-density synthetic aggregates.
used with similar lightweight fine aggregates, but may at Cellular type-loncrete made by forming a cement
times be used with natural sand. All aggregates for fill con- matrix around air voids that are generated by preformed
cretes should meet the requirements of ASTM C 33, C 144, foams or special foaming agents, with or without the
C 330, or C 332, whichever is applicable. addition of mineral aggregates.
Mixture proportioning and control Aggregates

The general objective for proportioning lightweight fill Aggregates for low-density concrete must meet the re-
concrete is achievement of the proper strength without ex- quirements of ASTM C 332. AC1 523.1R provides detailed
ceeding the specified density. This is accomplished by trial information on low-density concrete. Detailed information
mixing. The details of trial mixing with expanded or sintered on aggregates, foams, and mixture proportions is also avail-
shales, clays, or processed natural materials are the same as able from producers and their trade associations. There are
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S T D O A C I SP-2-ENGL 2999 Obb2949 0548283 O38 D
two kinds of mineral aggregates for low-density insulating Aggregate-type insulating concrete-Mixtures that con-
concrete: tain lightweight aggregate are frequently specified in terms
Group I consists of aggregates made by expanding of ft3 (bulk volume) of aggregate per bag of cement. A 1:6
products such as perlite and vermiculite. They gener- mixture would contain one bag of portland cement and 6 ft3
ally produce concretes having air-dry densities between of aggregate. A better method is to specify such mixtures in
15 and 50 lb/ft3; and terms of weight per yd3 of concrete. In these units, cement
Group II aggregates consist of the same materials listed contents may vary from 330 to 630 lb of cement per yd3 of
for structural lightweight concrete aggregates. They concrete.
generally produce concrete having air-dry densities An air-entraining admixture is usually included in insulat-
between 45 and 90 Ib/ft3. ing concrete made with lightweight-aggregates. The air-en-
The most commonly used natural aggregates for low-den- training admixture acts as a wetting agent, lowers the
sity insulating concretes are the expanded minerals, vermic- specific gravity of the paste, and increases relative specific
ulite, and perlite. Vermiculite is a mica-like mineral. When gravity of the coarse particles. Thus, the tendency of the ag-
expanded by heat, the particles are accordion shaped. Its gregates to float is substantially reduced. Further, mixing
dry-loose density is 6 to 10 lb/ft3, and it is usually produced water content is also reduced. This is particularly important
in graded sizes. with fluid mixtures that are to be pumped through small (2 to
Perlite is a naturally occumng glassy siliceous rock; when 4 in.) hose lines. Such mixtures are nearly self-leveling. The
expanded by heat, it produces light-colored, generally spheri- amount of air entrainment is often adjusted to attain the re-
cal particles. The particles contain closed air cells. Perlite ag- quired dry density of the concrete produced.
gregate, which has a dry-loose density of 7-1/2 to 12 lb/ft3, is Water requirements of insulating concretes made with
also produced in graded sizes. lightweight-aggregates vary greatly with the absorption of
Other aggregates used to produce insulating concrete are the aggregates and the desired fluidity of the mixture. Ver-
primarily synthetic materials and include ceramic and glass miculite aggregate is highly absorptive and typically requires
granules, hollow or low-density polystyrene beads, ground 600 to 700 lb of water per yd3 for fluid mixtures. Most per-
paper, and sawdust. Most of these particles are single sized. lites are less absorptive, and the water requirement may be
Sand used in low-density concrete should meet the re- between 300 and 500 lb/yd3.
quirements of ASTM C 33 (concrete sand) or ASTM C 144 Foam-type (cellular) insulating concretexement con-
(mortar sand). Aggregates used for insulating concrete sel- tents for cellular concrete may range from 470 to 940 lb/yd3.
dom exceed 3/8 in. maximum size, and frequently are less When densities greater than 30 Ib/ft3are desired, fine sand is
than U8 in. maximum size. usually added, and the cement contents then are generally
470 to 550 lb. No aggregate is used when the desired dry
Foams (cellular concrete) density is less than 30 lb/ft'. The water contents of cellular
Both preformed and mixer-generated foams are used in insulating concretes without aggregate are generally 300 to
low-density concrete. Preformed foam is generated by intro- 500 lb/yd3; with sand in the mixture, water varies between
ducing controlled quantities of air, water, and foaming agent 200 and 375 lb.
under pressure into a foaming nozzle. The foaming agent is Eflect of pumping on mixture proportions-If insulating
often a protein-type material similar to that used for concrete is to be conveyed by pumping, whenever possible
foam-type fire extinguishers. The preformed foam is blend- all laboratory mixtures should be trial-pumped under field
ed with a cement slurry or cement-aggregate slurry either in conditions prior to construction whenever possible. Pumping
batched volumes or continuous batching. The foam must can influence the water requirement, change wet and dry
have sufficient stability to maintain its structure until the densities, and improve mixture uniformity. It may be neces-
concrete hardens. sary to start with additional amounts of air or foam to make
Mixer-generated or in place foams are generated with up for losses in blending, pumping, and placing of insulating
high-speed, high-shear mixing of water, foaming agent, ce- concretes.
ment, and aggregate (if required) with simultaneous air en-
trapment. Initially, large air bubbles are reduced in size as Testing
mixing proceeds. Laboratory tests of insulating concrete trial mixtures are
The quantity of preformed foam or foaming agent re- generally limited to compressive strength and plastic (that is,
quired is determined by trial mixing and depends on the freshly mixed) and dry densities. Compressive strength and
type, the efficiency of the mixer, and the desired density of dry density specimens are molded (3 x 6 in. cylinders) and
concrete. Up to 80% of the final concrete mixture volume tested in accordance with ASTM C 495. Plastic densities are
may be air. determined in a manner similar to that for other concretes
(ASTM C 138) except that the concrete is generally consol-
Mixture proportioning and control idated by tapping the sides of the container rather than by
For most applications, the proportions for insulating con- rodding. The plastic (wet) density should be correlated with
crete are chosen to provide a specified dry density, since the dry density to permit construction control to be based on
thermal properties are primarily a function of density. plastic density.
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STDmACI SP-Z-ENGL 1999 Obb2947 0548284 T 7 4 M
Once satisfactory mixture proportions have been estab- rarely used. External vibration may sometimes be used for
lished, other laboratory tests may be required. Because these molded shapes or formed cavities.
concretes are used for insulation, the thermal resistivity and re-
sistance are measured with a guarded hot plate (ASTh4 C 177) Curing and protection
or a calibrated hot conductometer (ASTM C 518). Specific Do not allow the surface of freshly finished low-density
heat and thermal diffusivity are sometimes needed for design concrete to dry appreciably for the first 3 days. Vermiculite
PurposeS. and perlite concretes with their high water content do not
Tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, Poisson’s ratio, generally require a membrane or curing water under mild
and drying-shrinkage measurements are infrequently re- weather conditions. In hot, dry,windy weather, membranes
quired. The techniques for these are the same as for structural should be used.
concrete. The equipment used, however, should have suffi- Cellular concretes typically have higher cement and lower
cient sensitivity for the generally low values encountered. water contents than the aggregate concretes. Specific curing
Drying shrinkage of insulating concrete is high relative to procedures, such as membranes or curing water, should be
structural concrete and can be as much as 0.5%. specified and used with cellular concrete to prevent prema-
Penetration resistance is sometimes used to define the abil- ture drying. If such curing is not used, strengths will be low
ity of low-density concrete to sustain normal construction and excessive drying shrinkage may result.
foot traffic. For acceptable resistance to foot traffic, the Proc-
tor penetrometer should indicate an average bearing value in HIGH-DENSITY CONCRETE
excess of 10 lb with a 1/4 in. penetration of a 1/20 in.2 needle. Concretes having densities substantially above the 150Ib/@
When using low-density concrete, a measure of nailing of normalweight concrete are used as shielding to protect peo-
characteristics may also be required. Satisfactory nailing ple and equipment from harmful radiation such as x-rays,
characteristics for low-density concrete include the ability to gamma rays, and neutrons.
receive a specified type of nail without shattering and the These concretes are made with heavy aggregates that
ability to withstand a withdrawal force of 40 lb. range in density up to about 350 lb/ft3. For neutron shield-
Field control tests are generally limited to compressive ing, high-density concrete also includes concretes that con-
strength, as described above, and wet (plastic) density. Be- tain hydrous ores as aggregate and high cement contents to
cause of variances in weights of aggregates, cement, and wa- increase the amount of hydrated water. Such concretes may
ter, density measurements accurate within plus or minus 1% not be heavier than normalweight concretes, but they are
are generally considered acceptable. Unless otherwise speci- more efficient in neutron shielding as they contain more hy-
fied, an ordinary galvanized 10-qt pail (approximately 1/3 fi3) drogen. High-density concretes are usually used where
or similar calibrated container, along with a spring-balance there is insufficient space for an equal weight of normal-
d e , can be used for density determination. Calibrate the pail weight concrete. The desired high density must be obtained
before using, and check the scale least once a week during use. if the concrete is to provide the desired shielding.
Batching and mixing Aggregates

In batch-mixing operations, first pour the required amount Heavyweight aggregates for preparing high-density concrete
of water into the mixer followed by the cement, air-entrain- include such natural minerals as barite, ferrophosphorus, goet-
ing or foaming agent, aggregate, prefonned foam, and other hite, hematite, ilmenite, limonite, and magnetite, plus
additives. Materials should be mixed so that the design plas- man-made materials such as steel punchings and shot. Where
tic (wet) density is obtained at the point of placement. Allow high fmed-water content is desirable, as previously described,
for any mixture changes that may result from the method of hydrous iron ore, serpentine (slightly heavier than n o d -
placement, such as mechanical or pneumatic pumping. weight aggregate), or bauxite may be used. Table 16.1 provides
When transit-mixing equipment is used for low-density specific gravity and percent of fmed water for some of these
concrete containing aggregate, the mixer should not be oper- materials. To produce concrete weighing 230 to 240 lb/fí?, the
ated on the way to the job site. aggregate should have a specific gravity of at least 4.5. To pro-
To ensure uniform density at the point of placement, add duce concrete weighhg around 300 lb/ft3,the aggregate should
all materiais at a constant rate, in their correct proportions, have a specific gravity of at least 6.0.
and in the correct sequence in the mixer. In general, the selection of an aggregate is determined by
physical properties, availability, and cost. Heavyweight aggre-
Placing and consolidation gates should be reasonably free of deleterious material, oil,
Most insulating concretes are pumped as extremely fluid and foreign coatings that affect either the bonding of the paste
mixtures. Generally, only screeding and minor floating oper- to the aggregate particle, or cement hydration. They should
ations complete the placing and finishing. When an aggre- also be non-reactive with alkalies. For good workability, max-
gate is highly friable or when higher strengths are desired at imum density, and economy, aggregates should be roughly cu-
a specified dry density, keep the water content lower and bical in shape and free of flat or elongated particles.
place without pumping. Screeding and finishing are still ex- Natural aggregates and ferrophosphorus should be well
tremely simple when compared with structural concrete. The graded and within the limits shown in AC1 304.3R for coarse
concrete is light and easily pushed into place. Vibration is aggregates and for fine aggregates.
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S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1779 U Obb2747 0598285 900 H
Table 16.1-Specific gravity of aggregates used in density determinations, assume even greater importance in en-
shielding concrete forcing strict quality control. Give special attention to the fol-
Natural mineral Synthetic lowing:
gravel
Calcareous
(2.5 to 2.7)*
Siliceous (2.5 to 2.7)
Crushed
:'Es-
-
i Heavy slags
('.O)
Ferrophosphorus
(5.8 to 6.31
Prevent contamination with normalweight aggregate in
stockpiles and conveying equipment;
Avoid overmixing because some heavyweight aggre-
Basaltic (2.7 to 3.1) Ferrosilicon (6.5 to 7.0)
gates are subject to breakage;
Bauxite (1.8 to 2.3) Purge all aggregate handling and batching equipment,
Sheared bars (7.7 to 7.8) premixers, and truck mixers before batching and mix-
115 to 25%]+
Serpentine (2.4 to 2.6) Steel punchings ing heavyweight concrete;
Il0 to i3%] Metallic (7.7 to 7.8)
Hydrous iron Check accuracy and condition of conveying and scale
Ore
Goethite (3.4 to 3.8) products
[8 to 12%] equipment, aggregate storage, and concrete batching bins.
Iron shot (7.5 to 7.6) Because of the greater weight of heavyweight aggregate,
Limonite (3.4 to 3.8)
[8 to 12961 the permissible volume batched in a bin is considerably
Barite (4.0 to 4.4) Boron frit (2.4 to 2.6) less than the design capacity. For example, a 100 ton
Magnetite (4.2 to 4.8) Ferroboron (5.0) aggregate bin designed for 75 yd3 of normalweight aggre-
Heavy oreIIImenite(4.2tri41811
I l
7
I
earth í.1.O1.
Boron carbide
gate should be loaded with only 20 to 55 yd3 for the range
of specific gravities shown previously;
Hematite (4.2 to 4.8) (2.5 to 2.6) Check condition and loading of mixing equipment. For
II Calcium borates 11 concretes weighing approximately 4800 to 9500 lb/yd3,
the volumetric capacity of a truck mixer, without over-
loading, is reduced by from 20 to 60%;
Weigh aggregate accurately to maintain w k m ;
'Specific gravity shown in parentheses. Check fresh density frequently; and
'Water of hydration indicated by brackets.
Because of the high loads placed on mixing equipment,
avoid stopping and starting while loading mixers.
Mixture proportions and control AC1 2 i 1 . 1 gives additional details regarding the propor-
Concrete of normal placing characteristics can be proportioning, batching, and mixing of high-density concrete.
tioned for densities as high as 350 lb/ft3by using heavy aggre-
gates such as iron ore, barite, or iron shot and iron punchings. Placing, consolidation, and finishing
Although each material has its own special characteristics, it Methods used for normalweight concretes are generally
can be processed to meet standard requirements for grading, applicable, but because of high density, be careful not to
soundness, and cleanliness. The acceptability of the aggregate overload conveying equipment. Forms must be designed to
depends on its intended use. For radiation shielding, deter- withstand the high densities of the concretes. High-density
mine which trace elements in the material may become reac- concretes can be pumped, but the maximum feasible height
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tive when subjected to radiation. In the selection of materials or distance is less than for normalweight concretes.
and proportioning of heavyweight concrete, the data needed Segregation of dense coarse aggregates can occur. Keep
and procedures used are similar to those required for normal- slump low and avoid overvibration. Coarse aggregate is
weight concrete, except for the following items. sometimes preplaced (Chapter 15).
In selecting an aggregate for specified density, the specific Puddling is another method used to obtain a uniform
gravity of the fine aggregate should be comparable with that coarse-aggregate distribution, Mortar is placed in layers of
of the coarse aggregate to reduce settlement of the coarse ag- controlled thickness, and a measured quantity of coarse ag-
gregate through the mortar matrix. Some of the materials gregate is placed over and vibrated into the mortar.
used as heavy aggregates are shown in Table 16.1.
Ferrophosphorus and ferrosilicon (heavyweight slags) Curing and protection
should be used only after laboratory mixture tests have Requirements for curing and protection are the same as for
shown the suitability of the materials. Hydrogen evolution in normalweight concretes.
heavyweight concrete containing these aggregates has been
known to result in a self-limiting reaction that produces over MASS CONCRETE
25 times its volume of hydrogen before the reaction ceases. Mass concrete is concrete for which consideration must be
Antifoam agents can help reduce entrapped air. given to temperature rise caused by the hydration of the ce-
ment and the subsequent drop of temperature to ambient con-
Batching and mixing ditions. Mass concrete is usually required to be placed at a
The techniques and equipment for producing heavyweight low temperature, often 60 F or less. Using ice to replace part
concrete are the same as those used with normalweight con- of the mixing water often helps control the temperature. In
crete, but, because of the importance of meeting a weight practice, mass concrete has two principal applications:
specification, testing and quality-control measures, especially 1. Concrete for large structures such as dams; and

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1799 H Obb2747 05q82Ab A47
solute volume may be as low as 21% with natural aggregates;

with crushed aggregates, the ratio may range from 25 to 27%.
Testing
Make some compressive-strength specimens containing
the full-sized aggregate; they should have a diameter not less
than three times the maximum-sized aggregate and should be
tested at the specified design strength age. Job-control cylin-
ders of necessity must be tested at earlier ages if they are to
be useful in monitoring control and uniformity of the con-
crete. For job-control specimens, wet-screen or hand-pick
the fresh concrete sample to remove all aggregate larger than
Fig. 16.3-Highly magnìjìed particles of portland cement 1-112 in., and then mold standard 6 x 12 in. cylinders. Mea-
(Zefr) and f l y ash (right) reveal spherical shape of f l y ash
that makes it flow easily and improve mixture workabili@. sure slumps and air contents on similarly wet-screened or
hand-picked concrete.
2. Concrete for deep, thick structural members, such as Because 6 x 12 in. cylinders are used for job control,
heavy mats and walis for nuclear containment or other struc- whereas design strength is confirmed with cylinders of suit-
tures or for heavy, long-span spandrel beams. able diameter, correlation tests of the relative strengths of
Because the concretes for these two types of structures dif- these specimens should be made in the laboratory well ahead
fer widely, they are discussed separately. AC1 309R gives in- of construction (refer to USBR 1981; AC1 207.1R).
formation on inspection and vibration of mass concrete.
Special equipment and procedures
MASS CONCRETE FOR DAMS Proper batching of mass concrete requires the same accu-
To save cement and reduce temperature rise, concrete in rate, uniform, reliable batching procedures that are essential
dams has low cement content, large maximum-sized aggre- for other classes of concrete. Because of the unusually low
gate (generally 3 or 6 in.), a low percentage of fine aggregate, amount of mortar in mass concrete for dams, the critical
and often contains a pozzolan as a replacement for part of the workability is more sensitive to usual variations in batching.
portland cement. Concrete Manual (USBR 1981), AC1 Fortunately, it is economically feasible on large mass con-
207. lR, and AC1 304R provide detailed information on concrete jobs to specify the most effective methods and equip-
crete for dams. Only the most important aspects of inspection ment for batching. Among these are:
and concrete for dams is presented here. Further information Finish screening of coarse aggregate;
is available in the cited references. Refinements in batching equipment;
Automatic weighing and cutoff features;
Mixture proportioning for mass concrete Interlocks to prevent recharging when material remains
Mass concrete mixture proportioning should consider selec- in the hopper;
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tion of materials whose type and quantity will provide econo- A device for instant reading of sand moisture content; and
my, low temperature-rise potential, and adequate properties of Recording of the various weighing and mixing operations.
workability, strength, durability, and permeability. To achieve Bins and dispensers are required for such materials as poz-
this objective, it is common to use Types II or IV portland ce- zolans, ice, and &-entraining, water-reducing, and set-con-
ments along with pozzolans or portland-pozzolan cements. In trolling admixtures.
gravity dams, stresses are low and develop slowly; permitting Mixers for mass concrete for dams are stationary, central
the use of low-strength concrete with low cement content. The plant mixers, with a tilting discharge arrangement and usually
design compressive strength is usually specified to be achieved of at least 4 yd3 capacity. Specifications for mixing time re-
at 90 days or 1 yr. Arch dams may require somewhat higher late to mixer capacity-ranging from a minimum of 1 min
strengths at those ages, but stresses again develop slowly. for the first yd3 plus 15 s for each additional yd of mixer ca-
Water-reducing and air-entraining admixtures are used pri- pacity to l-1/2 min for the first 2 yd3 plus 30 s for each addi-
marily to reduce cement content. tional yd. Mixer performance tests are usually required;
Experience has shown that a rather wide range of coarse criteria for these are given in ASTM C 94, Table 1. During
aggregate (maximum size 6 in.) grading may be used. Grad- mixing is the last opportunity for observation and adjustment
ing limits are usually about 20 to 35% retained on each of the to obtain the desired uniform consistency and slump. This re-
3, 1-1/2, 3/4, and 3/16 in. screens. Sand grading limits are quires alertness on the part of the inspector and operator. To
generally somewhat more restrictive in range than that pro- judge if the slump is correct or if adjustmentof water is need-
vided by ASTM C 33. ed, operators should be stationed where they can see the
Triai mixture proportions for mass concrete for dams are batch in the mixer.
generally selected following the recommendations of AC1 Prior to placing of mass concrete for dams, horizontal con-
21 1.1 (refer to Chapter 6 of this manual). Slumps are generally struction joints must be cleaned, preferably by wet sand-blast-
limited to 1-1/2 to 2 in. to prevent segregation. With natural ing or by high-pressure water jet. Surface retarders have not
aggregates, the ratio of fine aggregate to total aggregate by ab- been an effective way to ease the cleanup of horizontal joints

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1999 Obb2947 0548287 783
in mass concrete. Protruding coarse aggregate is unnecessary.

Wet sand-blasting provides the most satisfactory surfaces un-
der varying circumstances, and the cost varies slightly from
the cost of other methods. Brooming of a thin layer of
sand-cement mortar may be specified on horizontal construc-
tion joints, but the value of this practice is questionable (AC1
207.1R).
When fresh concrete is placed, joint surfaces should be
damp or approaching dryness, with no surface moisture.
Mass concrete with a maximum aggregate size of 6 in. is
best placed in layers not exceeding 18 to 20 in. thick. Shal-
lower layers give better consolidation. The layers should be
carried forward and added in the block by successive rows
of bucket dumps, so that there will be a setback of about 5 ft
between successive layers. Fig. 16.4-Thick mat foundation with both top and bottom
Vibration is the key to successful use of lean, low-slump reinforcement is an example of structural mass concrete in
which mixture ingredients should be kept cool and other
mass concrete. In recent years, vibrators for this purpose have special precautions should be taken in hot weather:
been large, spud types operated by one person. One-person
air-powered vibrators now available are better than the When less expensive cooling measures are ineffective,
two-person electric vibrators that were considered best some embedded pipes circulating refrigerated water can be used.
years ago. Assuring full vibration at the interface between the Pipe cooling may also be required to ensure contraction joint
two batches requires special attention. Vibrators operated in a openings if grouting of these joints is required. For other rec-
vertical position should penetrate several inches into lower ommendations. refer to AC1 207.1R.
layers; vibration should continue until large air bubbles have
ceased to escape from the concrete. Overvibration of
low-slumpmass concrete is unlikely. Refer to AC1 309 for de- STRUCTURAL MASS CONCRETE
tailed recommendations for mass concrete vibration. Structural mass concrete is concrete that is 3 ft thick or more.
Roller-compacted concrete (RCC) is a zero-slump con- Limitation of temperature rise is important in structural mass-
crete that is transported, placed, and compacted using earth concrete elements such as heavy mat foundations (Fig. 16.4)
and rockfill construction equipment. Instead of vertical con- for tall buildings or power plants, heavy bridge piers, thick nu-
struction with virtually monolith blocks, the placement of clear containment walls, or heavy, thick, spandrel beams.
RCC involves thin lifts placed over a large area, basically AC1 has not prepared guides or recommended practices for
stacking pavement slabs on top of one another. Information structural mass concrete. AC1 349 and AC1 359, however,
on the use, design and properties of RCC for mass-concrete provide information useful to inspectors of nuclear plant con-
placements is contained in AC1 207.5R. struction. Whereas many of the recommendations for normal
and mass concretes will apply, structural mass concrete dif-
Temperature control fers from that in dams in several respects. Structural mass
Temperature must be controlled in mass concrete for two concretes generally require compressive strengths higher
reasons. The first is to reduce the cracking from large differ- than for massive structures such as dams. Required strengths
ential thermal strains, which are due to differences between may range from 3000 to 5000 psi or higher. Strength is often
high internal temperatures and lower ambient temperatures. specified to be achieved at 28 days of age, but ages up to 90
The second reason is to reduce strength loss at later ages. It days are sometimes used. The maximum size of aggregate is
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is common practice with the efficient equipment now avail- usually 1-1/2 in. or less. Slumps are generally specified be-
able to produce concrete at temperatures less than 50 F in tween 3 and 4 in. Air contents, when deemed necessary, are
practically any summer weather. The use of finely chipped generally specified in the range of 4 to 6%.
ice in place of mixing water and shading of damp (not wet)
aggregate will reduce concrete temperature to near 50 F in The means used for cooling concrete ingredients in dams
all but the hottest weather. Coarse aggregate can be cooled are generally too costly for structural mass concrete.
by passing frigid air through the bins or by passing the Chipped ice is often used to replace mixing water in hot
coarse aggregate through ice water. Aggregate can also be weather. Maximum placing temperatures are often specified
cooled by vacuum processes, but, unless the moisture con- as 70 F; lower values are preferable and practical.
tent of the aggregate is quite uniform, this can lead to diffi- For nuclear construction, particular care is taken. All con-
culties with slump control. For other recommendations, crete ingredients are carefully specified and tested prior to use
refer to AC1 305R. in the structure. Portland cements are usually specified to be
Temperature rise can be minimized by: 1) using steel Type II. Aggregates are carefully sampled and tested for grad-
forms for quick heat transfer, by spraying them with cold ing and are examined petrographically for quality and identifi-
water if necessary; and 2 ) water curing of horizontal con- cation of deleterious materials. Efforts are made to minimize
struction joints with controlled evaporative spraying. the chert content of fine aggregates. Air-entraining admixtures,

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1999 m Obb2949 05Liô288 b L T m
Table 16.2-Trial mixture guide for shrinkage-

compensating concrete, from AC1 223
I Absolute w/cm bv weight
Compressive strength Non-air-entrained
at 28 days, psi concrete Air-entrained concrete
6Ooo 0.42 to 0.45 -
~
5000 I 0.51 toO.53 I 0.42 to0.44
4Ooo 0.60to 0.63 0.50 to 0.53
3000 0.71 to 0.75 0.62 to 0.65
mately 90%of expansive cement consists of the constituents

IF NOT FREE TO SHRINK
TEWSILE STRESS DEVELOPS I STRESS LOSS DUE TO SMRIWCAGE] 1 of conventional portland cement with added sources of alu-
minate and calcium sulfate. Thus, the oxide analysis as
I I
=-\-a
LWSIL SI LE s i m s is
GñEëTER THAN TENSILE
'
R E I W A L EXPAüSIûü
OA CWLO BL SMALL CONTRACTION
IN SHRIHKAGE CWPENS&TING
CONCRETE
I, shown on mill test reports will not differ substantially from
ASTM C 150 portland cements.
Two basic factors are essential to the development of ex-
STRENûTH.COMCRETE QIACKS
pansion: an appropriate amount of soluble sulfates and the
Fig. 16.5-Tensile stresses resulting from shrinkage may availability of sufficient water curing for hydration. Ettring-
cause cracks in portland cement concrete (le@). Initial ite begins to form almost immediately when water is intro-
expansion compensates for drying and hydration shrinkage duced, and its formation is accelerated by mixing. To be
in shrinkage-compensating concrete (right).
effective, a major part of the ettringite must form &er attain-
water-reducing admixtures, and fly ash are tested for compli- ment of some strength; otherwise, the expansive force will
ance with ASTM C 260, C 494, and C 618, respectively. dissipate in deformation of the plastic concrete. Extended
Trial mixture proportioning is done in accordance with mixing is detrimental to expansion, and for long ready-mixed
AC1 21 1. Compressivetest specimens are generally 6 x 12 in. concrete hauls, this must be considered in proportioning and
cylinders. tnal mixing. Cement fineness above the optimum also accel-
Stnictural mass concrete may be placed by any convention- erates formation of ettringite.
al method, including pumping. It is consolidated like other The use of admixtures in shrinkage-compensating con-
structural concrete. As in mass concrete for dams, avoid cold crete may be either beneficial or detrimental to expansion.
joints and thoroughly clean planned construction joints before During warm periods, slump loss has been experienced
resumption of concreting. with shrinkage-compensating concrete, and an admixture
may be desirable. In all cases, test admixtures in trial mix-
SHRINKAGE-COMPENSATING CONCRETE tures with job materials and proportions under simulated
Shrinkage-compensating concrete is used in various types of job conditions. Air-entraining agents are as effective in in-
consûuction to minimize cracking caused by drying shrinkage creasing durability of shrinkage-compensating concrete as
of hardened concrete. Such shrinkage compensation is achieved with portland cement concretes.
through the use of expansive cements. These expand after set-
ting to compensate for subsequent shrinkage (Fig. 16.5). Mixture proportioning and control
The characteristics of shrinkage-compensating concretes Trial mixture proportioning of shrinkage-compensating
are similar in most respects to other types of portland cement concrete is generally achieved with the methods and recom-
concrete. The proportions, placement, and curing, however, mendations of AC1 21 1.1 for normalweight concrete and
must be such that expansion for shrinkage compensation is AC1 21 1.2 for lightweight concrete.
achieved in the structure in the amount and at the time re-
The best data for cement content and required w/cm for a
quired. In addition, the reinforcement must provide the prop-
specified compressive strength may be available from the
er restraint to the expansion. Detailed information regarding
producer of the expansive cement. If past performance data
shrinkage-compensating concrete is given in AC1 223. It is
are not available, AC1 223 offers the guide to required w/cm
essential that the proposed mixture design be tested in accor-
shown in Table 16.2. Concrete made with shrinkage-com-
dance with ASTM C 878 prior to any placements.
pensating cement has a high water demand.
Materials When determining the required w/cm and corresponding
ASTM C 845 defines three types of expansive cement: cement content, consider the effect of restrained expansion.
5peK; Expansion increases with increasing cement and decreases
TypeM;and as the cement content is lowered. A lower limit of 5 15 lb of
Types. cement per yd3 of concrete is recommended to achieve the
Although each type is produced by a different process, required expansion with minimum reinforcement (O. 15%). It
each results in formation of the same compound, ettringite, in is always advisable to have a qualified laboratory determine
the concrete. The formation of this compound is the source the expansion of the concrete by means of restrained 3 x 3 x
of the expansive force in the hardening concrete. Approxi- 10 in. prism specimens according to ASTM C 878.
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S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1999 Obb2999 0598289 55b
When used with expansive cements, some pozzolans may mum range specified by AC1 2 11.1 for the work involved
cause the loss of the benefits of the cement. Do not use poz- when concrete temperatures do not exceed 75 F. At higher
zolans with expansive cement without performing mixture concrete temperatures, the following maximum slumps are
proportioning studies. recommended:
Trial mixtures using job mateiials should be made in the
laboratory at the approximate concrete temperatures antici- Type of construction SlumD
pated in the field. The following procedures have been suc- Reinforced foundation walls and footings 5 in.
cessful in developing satisfactory batching plant and job- Plain footings, caissons, and substructure wall 4 in.
control programs under differing conditions. Slabs, beams, and reinforced walls 6 in.
For shrinkage-compensatingconcrete where delay between Building columns 6 in.
mixing and placement is not more than 15 min, such as pre- Pavements 4 in.
cast-plant or job-site mixing, the total mixing water required Heavy mass construction 4 in.
will not be much greater than that of a Type I or Type II port-
land cement concrete for the specified slump. Trial batches to With ready-mixed concrete, the delivery time of concrete be-
develop satisfactory aggregate proportions, cement content, tween the batch plant and placement may at times be as short
and the water requirement should follow the procedures of as 20 min or as long as 1-112 h. Ettringite will begin to form
AC1 21 1.1 and AC1 21 1.2. during this period in some shrinkage-compensatingconcretes,
When the water is added at the batch plant and delivery resulting in a stiffening and significant slump loss. To ensure
will require 30 to 40 min travel time or expected concrete that the specified slump is obtained at the job site, it is therefore
temperature will exceed approximately 75 F, some slump necessary to have greater slump at the batch plant, yet remain
loss can be expected and must be compensated for by a rel- within maximum allowable water limits. The importance of
atively high initial slump to produce the slump required at taking this slump loss into account in the mixture proportioning
the job site. Under such conditions, both Procedure A and for shrinkage-compensating concretes cannot be overempha-
Procedure B for trial batch tests have been used successfully. sized. It becomes even more important during hot weather
Procedure A- when concrete temperatures are relatively high and reactions
l . Prepare batch according to ASTM C 192, but add 10% are accelerated. Under adverse hot-weather conditions, ready-
more water than normally used for Type I cement; mixed, portland-cement concrete has a significant slump loss
2. Perform initial mixing in accordance with ASTM C 192 during normal delivery times. Under the same conditions,
(3 min mix followed by 3 min rest and 2 min remix); some shrinkage-compensatingconcretes have an even greater
3. Determine slump and record as initial slump; slump loss.
4. Continue mixing for 15 min; In hot weather, slump-loss controls that are effective for
5. Determine slump and record as placement slump. Expe- portland-cement concretes in general, are also effective for
rience has shown this slump correlates with that expected for shrinkage-compensating concretes. These control measures
a 30 to 40 min. delivery time. If this slump does not meet the must be strictly enforced when expansive cements are used be-
required placement specification limits, discard and repeat cause of the possible greater slump loss. Recommended con-
the procedure with an appropriate water adjustment; and trols include cooling concrete, reducing speed of truck mixer
6. Cast compressive strength and expansion specimens drum to a minimum during travel and waiting time, and effi-
and determine plastic properties-density, air content, and cient truck scheduling to reduce the period between mixing
temperature. and delivery to an absolute minimum. When job locations re-
Procedure 3- quire extended travel time, dry-batched truck delivery with
1. Prepare the batch according to ASTM C 192 for the job-site mixing is effective. Refer to AC1 305R for a more
specified slump; complete discussion of hot-weather concreting.
2. Mix in accordance with ASTM C 192 (3 min mix, 3 min Provided that slumps are proper, no special techniques or
rest, 2 min remix) and confirm slump; equipment are required for placement of shrinkage-compen-
3. Stop mixer and cover batch with wet burlap for 20 min; sating concrete. Methods common to portland-cement con-
4. Determine slump; crete are satisfactory. Fig. 16.6 shows different in placement
5. Remix 2 min, adding water to produce the specified patterns for slabs. Precautions that are advisable to obtain the
placement slump. The total water (initial plus the remix wa- benefits of expansion include:
ter), is that required at batching plant to give the proper job- Soak base material;
site slump after 30 to 40 min delivery time; and Take measures to avoid plastic-shrinkage cracking and
6. Cast compressive-strength and expansion specimens uneven moisture loss;
and determine plastic properties-density, air content, and Set reinforcement in the proper position to provide
temperature. required restraint;
Avoid placing delays when using truck mixers; and
Production, placing, and finishing Limit temperature of fresh shrinkage-compensating
Control of slump is most important in production of concrete to 90 E At concrete temperatures of 85 to 90
shrinkage-compensating concrete. Good results can be ob- F, limit time between mixing and placing and finishing
tained using slumps at time of placement within the maxi- to 1 h.
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STDOACI SP-Z-ENGL 1999 Obb29Li9 05ii8290 278
Curing and protection

Shrinkage-compensating concrete, like all portlandement
concretes, requires continuous curing at moderate temperatures
for several days after final finishing to prevent early drying
shrinkage and to develop strength, durability, and other desired
properties. Curing deficiencies may also reduce the amount of
initial expansion, which is needed to offset later drying shrink-
a n
I I I I I JOINTS
(column lines) age. Such drying shrinkage will occur when wet curing stops.
To ensure enough water for etûingiteformation and expansion,
4on 4on aft 120 ft curing methods that add moisture to the concrete (such as pond-
ing, continuous sprinkling, or wet coverings) are preferred.
I I 1 For best results, water curing of shrinkage-compensating
,
concrete should be continued for a minimum of 7 days.
During the initial curing period, protect shrinkage-compen-
iiiii VCONSTRUCTION sating concrete from extremes of heat or cold. The former can
4 0 ~ , iiiii JOINTS
(column lines) cause thermal-shrinkage cracks and plastic-shnnkage crack-
ing; the latter can reduce expansion and result in no growth.
AC1 305R and 306R describe recommended methods.
SAW
-. ... -- .
CUT
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
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a n
(control joints) High-performance concrete
High-performance concrete (HPC) is a term used more
commonly today to define concrete that meets specific de-
Fig. 16.6Companson of concrete placement for slab on sign concerns, such as ease of placement and compaction
grade using (a) shrinkage-compensated concrete; and (b) without segregation, enhanced long-term mechanical prop-
portland-cement concrete. Shrinkage-compensating con-
crete can be case in longer sections, without saw cuts and erties, high early strengths, high toughness, volume stability
open space around cohmns. and long life in severe environments,The term implies a con-
crete with properties and uniformity that cannot be obtained
routinely using normal mixing, placing, and curing practices.
Finishing qualities of shrinkage-compensating concrete HPC can therefore be described as optimized concrete.
are similar to those of air-entrained concrete. Generally, HPC is more dependent than normai concrete on material
there is littie bleeding, and there may be a tendency for fin- selection, proportioning, mixing, placing and curing. Inspec-
ishers to start too soon. In general, however, finishing should tors must thoroughly understand the specific concrete perfor-
start earlier than with comparable portland-cement concrete mance requirements, the role that they and others perform in
because of a faster set. Thus, finishing may require more the qualiîy-assurance process, and the lines of communication
workers for a shorter period. established by that process. Careful inspection is quired.

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1999 = Ubb2949 05'48291 L0'4
PRECAST AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 143
CHAPTER 17-PRECAST AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Precast concrete refers to members that are cast at some lo-

cation other than their final position in the structure. When
they have cured to sufficient strength for handling, they are re-
moved from the forms and placed in the structure (Fig. 17.1).
Precast concrete may be either structural precast concrete or
architectural precast concrete, either of which may be conven-
tionally reinforced or prestressed concrete.
Structural precast concrete usually includes beams, gird-
ers, T-beams, joists, purlins, lintels, columns, posts, piers,
piles, pile caps, slab or deck members (Fig. 17.2), and
load-bearing wall panels. This concrete may be convention-
ally reinforced or prestressed concrete.
Architectural precast concrete usually includes all precast
elements intended to achieve the textures or decorative fea-
tures specified by the designer. Typical architectural precast
concrete elements include wall panels, window-wall panels,
mullions, and column covers. This concrete may be plain
(unreinforcedj, conventionally reinforced, or prestressed.
In prestressed concrete, internal stresses induced by tensile
reinforcement counteract the tensile stresses induced by im-
posed loads. Prestressed concrete is normally achieved by
pretensioning, post-tensioning, or a combination of the two.
In pretensioning, concrete is placed around reinforcing
tendons that have been piaced in the specified configuration
and stressed as specified. The concrete is consolidated and
cured to ensure adequate bond to the tendons.
After the concrete has developed the necessary minimum Fig. 17.1-Service cores of airport trafic control tower are
strength, the tensile anchors of the tendons are released and, assembledfrom hollow precast modules.
through the bond between steel and concrete, the initial tension
in the steel produces the required compression in the concrete.
In post-tensioning, the tendons are tensioned after the con-
crete has hardened. Concrete is placed around voids or ducts.
Before or after placing concrete, steel tendons are inserted in
the channels or tubes so that the tendons will be free to move
after the concrete has hardened. After the concrete has devel-
oped the necessary minimum strength, the tendons are
stretched to the required tension and anchored to the concrete
at the ends to retain tension in the steel and thus develop com-
pression in the concrete. Tendons may remain unbonded with
grease or wax inserted between tendons and ducts, or may be
bonded by grout inserted into the ducts. Some tendons are en-
capsulated in heat-sealed plastic sheathing over part or all of
their length to prevent bonding where desired.
Prestressed concrete may be either precast or cast in place.
When precast, tension is applied by either pretensioning or
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post-tensioning. When it is cast in place in the structure, the Fig. 17.2-Constructing prestressed bridge superstructure
tendons are stressed by post-tensioning. by assembling hollow precast members. Keys cast in box
PCI Manuals 116 and 117 (1990j, Architectural Precast girder walls align euch member with previously installed
membel:
Concrete (PCI 1989), and AC1 423.3R and AC1 523.2R con-
tain detailed information concerning precast and prestressed
concrete and should be studied by personnel involved in procedures that may be applicable for cast-in-place work
such construction. At a minimum, each inspector should re- can be used as standard practice when fabricating precast
view PCI Manual 116. components. Consequently, inspections of precast concrete
Much of the information presented in other chapters of fabrication and erection should follow recommendations
this manual is also applicable to precast concrete. Some developed specially for the type of work being reviewed.

the plant staff to minimize the impact on schedules and pro-

duction.
Occasional discrepancies may occur between the contract
specifications and typical plant practices. Each such instance
should be reported to the plant QC Manager and to the Engi-
neer-of-Record for clarification.
Inspection operations should be so managed that produc-
tion is not delayed as long as specified procedures are being
followed. A quality product can be produced most efficiently
through teamwork between production personnel and QC
staff. Thus, these groups should make every effort to cooper-
ate. Inspectors employed by the plant should be responsible
to the chief engineer or management rather than to the pro-
Fig. 17.3-Precast trafic dividers stored afer removal from
foms. duction superintendent.
Inspection during production in the precasting plant may
This chapter is not intended to restrict individual plant tech- consist of quality-control testing and quality assurance (ac-
niques, nor should the inspector do so. At a particular plant, the ceptance) testing. Quality control and quality assurance are
inspector may be exposed to manufacturing methods that vary defined in AC1 3 11.4R (refer to the Appendix of this manu-
from those at other plants. New methods should not be al). For quality-control inspection, plant certification by the
condemned out-of-hand, but should be objectively evalu- PrecastfPrestressed Concrete Institute requires that plant
ated. The inspector must not share proprietary methods of management maintain a quality-control group independent
fabrication with other plants. of the production staff. The term “inspector” or “inspection”
as used in this chapter, may apply to either quality control or
PRECASTIPRESTRESSED CONCRETE INSTITUTE quality assurance.
No manual of this type can be all-inclusive. This chapter The inspector should have a complete and up-to-date set of
presents an outline of some of the inspection requirements contract documents covering the precast members being fab-
unique to precast and prestressed concrete. Much of the infor- ricated. It is the inspector’s responsibility to veri@ that the
mation provided in this chapter has been summarized from members are fabricated in accordance with those documents
the various Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute manuals and with any other documents to which those documents refer.
referenced previously. Those references delineate and explain It is the purpose of this chapter to guide the inspector, but
quality-control requirements for precast and prestressed con- not to overrule the designer’s intent. If tolerances or other
crete components. items from this chapter are at variance from the contract doc-
uments, the latter govern.
PRECAST CONCRETE
Scope of inspection
Precast reinforced concrete (Fig. 17.3) has much in com- In general, inspection to be performed in precasting plants
mon with cast-in-place concrete. The many details of inspec- should include the following:
tion outlined in other areas of this manual are applicable to 1. Identification, examination, acceptance, and any plant
precast construction and should be reviewed. Such items in- testing of materials;
clude forming, setting of reinforcement, special finishes, cur- 2. Inspecting and recording of tensioning (if the product is
ing, and stripping of forms. prestressed);
3. Inspecting beds and forms prior to concreting;
Necessity for inspection 4. Checking dimensions of members, positions of inserts
Specifications and construction manuals can prescribe and and tendons, reinforcing steel, other incorporated materials,
explain proper methods for all phases of production consis- openings, blockouts;
tent with products of specified quality. To ensure that these 5. Inspection of batching, mixing, conveying, placing,
methods are being followed, all precasting plants should consolidation, finishing, and curing of concrete; and
have AC1 or PCI Level I and II certified plant inspection per- 6. Preparation of concrete specimens for testing; perform-
sonnel with a regular program of inspecting all aspects of ing specified tests for slump, air content, and cylinder
production. Inspectors should be responsible for quality strength.
only, and should not be responsible for, nor primarily con- The number of people needed to perform plant inspection
cerned with, production. services varies with the size of the plant, the size and type of
Not all precast plants will have their own in-house quality projects being produced, and the abilities of the inspector. In
control (QC) staff, and may rely instead on outside consult- general, the number of inspectors required will be set so that
ants independent from their plant staff. In addition, some production volume is not limited by quality-controllquality-
projects may require separate inspections of the work inde- assurance operations. For smaller plants, one or two inspec-
pendent from the plant quality-assurance staff. In such cases, tors may perform ail of the services prescribed previously.
the outside agency should work closely to coordinate with For larger plants, specific services should be assigned to a
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S T D = A C I SP-2-ENGL 1 7 9 9 Obb29Li7 0548293 T87 M
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sufficient number of inspectors so that all necessary inspec- each casting. Form joints should be smooth and sufficiently
tions can be performed satisfactorily. tight to prevent leakage of paste. Plugging of holes and slots
All inspection services necessary to ensure high-quality in the forms should be done neatly so the finished member
products should be provided. Clearly defined functions will have an acceptable appearance. Beds and forms should
should be assigned to each inspector, and inspectors should be thoroughly cleaned after each use. Form-release coatings
be given authority to require a uniform standard of quality in should not be allowed to build up on the formwork. Dust
all phases of production. Adequate and accurate records must not be allowed to accumulate on the form-release coat-
should be kept to document materials used in fabrication, ing before the concrete is placed.
and to verify compliance with contract specifications.
Forms for internal voids
Record keeping Forms used for internal voids such as tendon ducts and
To establish evidence of proper manufacture and quality hollow cores may be any of several types for which service
of precast concrete members, records should provide full in- adequacy has been demonstrated. They should be strong
formation regarding the testing of materials, tensioning, enough to provide stability during handling and placing of
concrete proportioning, placing and curing, and disposition concrete. These forms should be held in place during placing
of members. Each precast concrete member should be iden- and consolidating of the concrete so that their positions will
tified by bed and date cast and should bear an identification be maintained with the specified tolerances.
number, which is referenced to design calculations, shop Improper location or shape of voids will change the struc-
drawings, tensioning records, concreting records, cylinder tural properties of the member and can result in strength re-
strengths, and erection plans. Inspection personnel should duction or improper performance. It is therefore necessary to
keep these records. check the position of voids during casting, or otherwise en-
sure that the position of voids is correct. Removable tem-
Manufacturer’s test reports plates should remain in place after placing concrete long
Certified test reports for materials that are not plant-tested enough that the void will not be displaced upon removal of
should be required of manufacturers. These reports should the template. The filler concrete should still be plastic
show that the materials comply with the applicable contract enough that holes left by template removal can be filled and
document provisions. Items for which manufacturer’s test the concrete compacted into the surrounding mass.
reports should be required include, but are not limited to:
Strand, wire, bars, or other tendon materials; Dimensional tolerances
Reinforcing steel; If the contract documents do not specify tolerances, the
Cement; PCI quality control manual (Manual 116) should be used as
Aggregates; a guide to acceptable and reasonable practices.
Admixtures; and
Curing materials. Embedded items
Each report should be identified with reels, packs, heats, Tolerances for embedded items should depend on their in-
bins, cars, or other specific lots. tended use. If close tolerances are required, as for anchor
bolts and bearing plates, they should be so stated on the shop
Formwork drawings. Bearing shoes, in particular, should be placed with
Conditions affecting finished surfaces, dimensional toler- accuracy, and should be level, aligned properly, and an-
ances, and other details can usually be controlled to a closer chored in the exact location shown on the contract docu-
range for plant-cast members than for members cast in the ments. Other embedded items should be firmly positioned so
field. Plant equipment and operation should be adequate to they will not become displaced during concrete placement.
produce the quality level called for by the contract documents. The plant should no be allowed to insert anchor bolts, stud-
Casting beds and forms should generally have concrete ded plates, or other embeds into the setting concrete by
support on unyielding foundations. For members with stan- “sticking” or “stabbing,” unless this technique is explicitly
dard geometric shapes (planar wall panels, beams, columns, permitted by the contract documents. Built-in fixtures should
and piles); forms will be reused extensively. The surfaces of not affect the position of principal reinforcement nor the
casting beds, edge forms, beam sides, and other formwork placement of concrete. Embeds for final erectiodattachment
should be removed and replaced when the required level of to the structure may require either welding inspection during
quality can no longer be achieved. Forms for special or non- their manufacturing or some means of certification as with
standard members will have limited use but should be con- other materials used in the member. Wooden inserts should
structed adequately for the manufacture of members within be avoided because of their tendency to become displaced or
specified tolerances. to swell and crack the concrete.
Bulkheads and similar equipment that influence the accu- Aluminum conduit should not be used in reinforced or pre-
racy of dimensions and alignment should be inspected regu- stressed members because of possible galvanic corrosion and
larly and maintained as necessary. also possible embrittlement of steel caused by the generation
Accurate alignment of forms must be maintained during of free hydrogen. The location of pick-up points for handling
casting. Form alignment and grade should be checked for of members and details of pick-up devices are usually deter-

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL L799 Obb2949 0548274 9 1 3 m
Fig. 17.4-Form for precast post-tensioned truss. Reinforc-

ing steel cage was fabricated separately and dropped into Fig. 17.5-Stored precast elements with cast-in lifting stud.
the form before placing concrete.
mined by the precast plant’s engineer. On occasion, the En- The enclosure for steam curing should retain the live steam
gineer-of-Record will specify conditions for lifting insert to minimize moisture and heat losses. Free circulation of the
materials, coverages, and locations. These inserts and loca- steam around the top and sides of the member should be
tions are important parts of the design of precast members maintained. Steam jets should not be allowed to impinge di-
and should be in accordance with the shop drawings. Mis- rectly on the concrete. Recording thermometers showing the
placed or incorrect lifting inserts could result in cracked or time-temperature relationship should be installed not more
damaged members at time of stripping, excessive deflec- than 200 ft apart.
tions, and rust stains after the project is completed. In ex-
treme cases, they can cause catastrophic structural failure. Curing with radiant heat and moisture
Members should be handled only by approved devices at Radiant heat may be applied to beds by means of pipes
designated locations. circulating steam, hot oil, or hot water, or by electric blan-
kets or heating elements on forms. Pipes, blankets, or heat-
Bar and wire reinforcement ing elements should not be in direct contact with fresh
Bar and wire reinforcement should be fabricated as shown concrete.
in the contract documents, and positioned in the member During radiant-heat curing, prevent moisture loss by any
within specified tolerances. Reinforcement should be se- part of the member. Moisture may be retained by covering
cured adequately by chairs or blocking to beds and forms, or the member with a plastic sheet in combination with an insu-
by ties to tendons, so that it will maintain its position during lating cover. Moisture may be applied by a cover of moist
casting and vibrating of the concrete. Bars may be fabricated burlap, cotton matting, or by flooding the exposed surface.
into cages by tying, or as specified in construction documents Carefully select covering materials to avoid staining.
(Fig. 17.4).
Temperature limits and use of recording thermometers
Ends of tie wires used to fasten bars should be bent into the
should be similar to those recommended for steam curing.
member to provide maximum cover. This will help prevent
Because of the slow rise of ambient temperatures with radi-
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
later formation of corrosion of tie wires and staining. Bars
ant heat, application of the heat cycle may be accelerated to
extending out of the member that are intended to provide
offset climatic conditions, and to obtain the desired concrete
structural connection to cast-in-place concrete should be
temperatures. The curing procedure, however, should always
carefully placed. Improper extension could result in a weak
be well-established and carefully controlled.
joint. Normally, the extensions should be within N 2 in. of
plan dimensions. Paste adhering to extended steel should be
removed. Welding in the vicinity of prestressing wires, Handling, storage, and transportation
strands, or high-strength bars must be avoided. The location of pickup points for handling of members and
details of pickup devices are important parts of the design of
Steam curing precast concrete members and should be in accordance with
The purpose of steam or other accelerated curing is the at- shop drawings (Fig. 17.5). Members should be handled only
tainment of high early strength, and thus a faster production by means of approved devices at designated locations with-
cycle. The effects of higher early temperatures on the prop- out the application or inducement of excessive dynamic
erties of concrete are discussed in Chapter 5 of this manual. loads or impact. (Fig. 17.6).
With any type of accelerated curing, there is a compromise Store precast members on stabilized soil with suitable
between levels of early strength and those desired at later foundations, so that differential settlement or twisting of
stages. A preset period before temperature is increased is members will not occur. This requirement is especially im-
usually specified and should be followed. portant for members stored by stacking.

S T D * A C I SP-2-ENGL 1999 IObb2749 05q8275 8 5 T
Fig. 17.6Precast prestressed girder weighing 93 tons is

lifted by cranes from special railroad flat caI:
Fig. 17.8-Transporting precast elements by truck trailel:
7--
Fig. 17.7-Stacking hollow precast members.
Stacked members should be separated and supported by

battens placed across the full width of each bearing point
(Fig. 17.7). Battens should be arranged in vertical planes at
a distance not greater than the depth of the member from
designated pickup points. Batten material should be care-
fully selected to avoid staining of the members from un-
suitable materials. When stacking stemmed members or
planks, battens should not be continuous over more than
one stack of precast units.
In transporting members by truck, railroad car, or barge,
members should be supported as described above, except Fig. 17.9-Transporting precast elements by truck trailel:
that battens can be continuous over more than one stack of
units. Stacks should be braced to make sure they remain ver- Erection
tical and to damp dangerous vibrations. Adequate padding All storage and handling provisions given in the previous
materials should be provided between the concrete members paragraphs should be followed at the erection site. Adequate
and tie chains or cables to prevent abrading or chipping of bearings are particularly important. If the designed bearing sur-
concrete (Fig. 17.8 and 17.9). faces do not make full contact with bearing supports, the stmc-
For long slender members, any noticeable indication of ture may develop serious structural weakness or distortion.
lateral deflection or vibration during transportation should Members should be connected in strict accordance with the
be corrected by rigid bracing between members or by lateral contract documents. Welded connections to provide continu-
trusses. In extreme cases, strong backs, stiffening trusses, or ity should be made only by qualified welders using equipment
frames may be required during transport. and electrodes applicable to the base metals (Fig. 17.10).
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

STDOACI SP-2-ENGL 1779 W Obb27V7 054827b 39b W
The precast plant generally will have established repair

procedures for both stnictural and cosmetic repairs. These re-
pairs methods should be reviewed and approved by the Engi-
neer-of-Record prior to commencement of the work. The
inspection program should also include a review of ail re-
pairs.
PRECAST PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

Quality-control considerations for the fabrication of precast,
prestressed concrete are similar to those for non-prestressed
concrete. For example, reinforcement must be accurately
placed; forms must be clean and adequately supported; and
concrete must be correctly placed and cured. Prestressed, pre-
cast concrete, however, requires additional effort to ensure
product integrity. Incorrect placement or tensioning of ten-
dons may result in excessive or inadequate camber, cracking,
and may represent a safety hazard to plant personnel. Never-
theless, a properly designed and cast precast, prestressed con-
crete element is normally quite resistant to cracking when
carefully lifted and supported, and therefore is much easier to
handle and transport than non-prestressed components.
Fig. 17.10-Precast bridge deck members are joined by
welding the reinforcing bars, then spaces around the rein-
forcement joint are packed with mortar. Concrete materials
Concrete in prestressed members is usually of higher
strength and frequently of lower slump than concrete in other
Members should be positioned to avoid eccentric application
conventionally reinforced precast members. Compressive
of construction or service loads not considered in design.
strength in the range of 4,000 to 12,000 psi is often specified,
Misplacementof matching embeds in the supporting struc- and it is critical that the required strengths be achieved within
ture or inconsistent dimensional tolerances, or both, occa- the time frame specified. To obtain high-strength, low-slump
sionally prevent the use of specified connection details. concrete that is still workable, superplasticizers are often em-
Alternate details should be approved by the Engineer-of- ployed in the concrete mixture. The inspector should identify
Record prior to incorporation into the work. the specific project requirements for concrete used in precast,
The inspector should not substitute welded connectionsfor prestressed members, and should verify through conventional
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
bolted connections unless approved by the engineer. quality-control testing that those requirements are met.
Plant precast connections should be inspected using the Requirements for the concrete in precast, prestressed
same level of effort required for inspections. Unless speci- members are similar to those of concrete covered elsewhere
fied otherwise, bolted connections should conform to ASTM in this manual. High-strength prestressing steels under ten-
A 307,ASTM A 325, or ASTM A 490. Inspection of welded sion are particularly sensitive to corrosion, especially when
connections should follow criteria specified in AWS D1.1. exposed to chloride ions. Therefore, the use of any admix-
I The number of connections to be inspected in the field tures or materials containing chloride ion is strongly discour-
should be established prior to the start of erection. Many pre- aged and should be avoided.
cast concrete components, when incorporated into the primary
structure, offer little or no redundancy, so that failure of one Pretension&, bonded tendons
connection can precipitate substantial movement or possibly Tendons used in precast members with bonded pretension-
even structural collapse. Precast components that do not offer ing are stress-relieved wires or strands. Almost ail are 7-wire
a redundancy of connections should have each of their con- strands meeting the requirementsof ASTM A 416. Although
nections inspected to verify compliance with contract docu- not included in ASTM 416, small-diameter 2- and 3-wire,
ments. Components that offer redundant connections might stress-relieved strands are sometimes used in small precast,
have a less-intense inspection program. The Engineer-of- prestressed members.
Record should set the necessary inspection requirements. The stress-strain properties of all tendons must be known
within close limits to compute elongations resulting from
REPAIRS tensioning. The stress-strain relationship (modulus of elas-
Precast elements often have chips, spalls, cracks, or stains ticity) varies among the several types of tendons and be-
as a result of lifting, storing, transporting, or erection. Inspec- tween tendons of the same type from different mills.
tion personnel should inspect all completed members at ap- Each shipment of tendons from the same manufacturer
propriate times during the construction schedule, and should should be accompanied by a certificate indicating it has been
note all distress. Deficiencies in the work should be classified manufactured and tested in accordance with the applicable
as structural or cosmetic, and should be repaired accordingly. ASTM specifications. In the absence of an ASTM specifica-

S T D = A C I SP-2-ENGL 1999 m ObL29!!9 05g8277 b22
tion, or when requested by the prestressed concrete manu- Using jaws for 318 in. strands with 112 in. anchor casings
facturer, one certified test report should be furnished for may cause premature failure of strands much below ultimate
every 20 tons or part thereof to show compliance with the load. Steel cases for strand vises should be proof-tested by
applicable specifications. If a typical stress-strain curve is the manufacturer to at least 90% of the ultimate strength of
furnished in place of a specific stress-strain curve, the the strand.
strand manufacturer must certify that it is representative of
the material shipped. Deflection devices
Placing, tensioning, and deflecting strands are extremely Devices used for deflecting or otherwise changing the path
important operations in the manufacture of precast, preten- of a tendon from a straight line should be designed so that the
sioned concrete members. These operations are covered in increase in strand stress due to pressure from the deflecting
much greater detail in PCI Manual 116. device is not critical.
Among the several factors affecting the pressure of the de-
Handling and storage of tendons flecting pinon individual wires are:
Stress-relieved strands are made of extremely high-strength The larger the diameter of the pin, the lower the pres-
wire and are more susceptible to damage than ordinaiy rein- sure on the strand;
forcing bars or structural steel. Handling and storage of these The smaller the angle through which the strand is bent,
materials require special care. the lower the pressure;
Prestressing steel should be free of deleterious materials, If the pin has a semicircular groove just slightly larger
such as grease, oil, wax, dirt, paint, loose rust, or other sim- than the strand, several wires will bear on the surfaces
ilar contaminants that will prevent bond between steel and of the groove at one time, and the pressure on the indi-
concrete. vidual wires will be reduced greatly; and
The brittle nature of prestressing steel makes it highly sus- If several strands in one vertical row are deflected at
ceptible to failure at nicks, notches, kinks, and other similar one point so that each strand bears on the strand above
local damage. Even small nicks in a strand (sometimes it and the top strand bears on a pin, the pressure on the
called stress raisers) will increase the local stress, and thus top strand will be high.
reduce the ultimate strength of the wire. These types of prob- Successful use of deflection devices depends on the pin
lems make the wire especially prone to failure under fatigue detail, on the number of strands, and on the angle of the bend.
loading. More than half of the ultimate strength of prestress- The designer should provide shop drawings showing form
ing strand is produced by cold-working after the final heat and pin requirements.
treatment. This process changes the internal structure of the
metal from granular to fibrous. Tensioning of tendons
Excessive heat can instantaneously change the fibrous Tendons must be stressed accurately, as recommended be-
structure back to the low-strength, granular structure. Com- low, if acceptable members are to be produced. The ultimate
mon sources of excessive heat are welding torches, arc-weld- capacity of a prestressed member is usually not affected by
ing currents, and spatters of molten metal spatter from welding moderate variations in stress levels of tendons, however,
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
operations. Avoid welding near prestressing wires, strands, or camber, cracking load, and other properties can be.
high-strength bars. Heat from a torch, arc, or hot weld metal In all methods of tensioning, the stress induced in the ten-
can reduce the tendon’s strength by more than 50%. The dam- dons is determined by measurement of elongation and, inde-
age may not be visible to the naked eye and only becomes ap- pendently, by direct measurement of force using a pressure
parent when the tendon fails during tensioning. gage, dynamometer, or load cell. The two determinations
According to ASTM A 4 16, “Slight rusting, provided it is should check each other, with the maximum difference be-
not sufficient to cause pits visible to the naked eye, shall not tween values not to exceed 5% of the average.
be cause for rejection.” Slight rusting is often desirable be- The gaging system indicates that the proper force has been
cause it increases the bond of the tendon to the concrete. applied, and a check of the elongation provides a check on
Heavy rusting is not acceptable because it reduces the area the gaging system. If there are discrepancies in excess of 5%
of steel available to carry load; pits visible to the naked eye between forces determined by elongation measurements and
are stress risers much like the nicks from mechanical dam- by gage readings, the entire operation should be checked and
age. Any active corrosion should be removed or the affected the source of error determined before proceeding further.
tendon replaced before installation. Active corrosion can PCI Manual 116 should be consulted relative to methods of
lead to brittle tendon failure. stress measurements in prestressing strand, description of
gaging systems, and control of jacking forces.
Attachments for tendons
Strand grips for pretensioning should be capable of an- Wire failure in tendons
choring the strand positively without slippage after seating. Failure of wires in a pretensioning strand or of wires in a
Length of grips and configuration of serrations should pre- post-tensioning tendon is acceptable, provided the total area
clude strand failure within the grips at stresses less than 90% of wire failure is not more than 2% of the total area of ten-
of ultimate strength. Verification should be made that the dons in any member, and provided the responsible engineer
proper wedges are placed in their respective anchor bodies. is satisfied that the failure is not symptomatic of a more ex-

STDnACI SP-Z-ENGL i779 = Obb2747 0548278 5b9
tensive distress. Depending on the type of structure involved; tween the last member and the fixed end. Holding these
this acceptance criterion may not be appropriate. The inspec- lengths to the practical minimum will minimize sliding.
tion team should consult the project construction documents
to determine acceptability. Single-strand detensioning
In single-strand detensioning, heat cutting using a
Stress transfer or detensioning low-oxygen flame releases the strands. To reduce sliding of
Stress transfer to pretensioned members should not be per- members, strands are cut simultaneously at both ends of the
formed until concrete strength, as indicated by test cylinders, bed. For the release of stress to occur gradually, strands should
has reached the specified transfer strength. For certain not be cut quickly, but heated until the metal gradually loses its
dry-mix machine-cast products, cylinders cannot be made strength.
that are representative of the units in the bed. In these in- The sequence used for cutting strands should be approved
stances, concrete strength verification should be by approved by the responsible engineer.
test methods recommended by the association of manufac-
turers of machine-cast products. Post-tensionedtendons
In some instances, all or part of the prestressing force in a
If the concrete has been heat-cured, the detensioning precast, prestressed member is provided by post-tensioned
should be performed following the curing period, while the tendons. The requirements for these tendons, including plac-
concrete is still warm and moist. If allowed to dry and cool ing, tensioning, and grouting, are essentially the same as for
prior to de-tensioning, dimensional changes may cause post-tensioned tendons in cast-in-place concrete discussed
cracking or undesirable stresses in the concrete. This is espe- later in this chapter.
cially true if hold-downs are used to deflect the strands.
In all detensioningoperations, the prestressing forces must CAST-IN-PLACE PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
be kept nearly symmetrical about the vertical axis of the Operations related to cast-in-place, post-tensioned pre-
member and be applied in a manner that will minimize sud- stressed concrete differ from those of cast-in-place rein-
den or shock loading. Maximum eccentricity about the verti- forced concrete in that:
cal axis should be limited to one strand. For unusual and Tendons to be post-tensioned, or tendon ducts must be
asymmetrical shapes, shop drawings should show detension- accurately placed and securely tied;
ing procedures. Coverings around the tendons must not be damaged
Forms, ties, inserts, hold-downs, blockouts, or other devices during placement of concrete;
that would restrict longitudinal movement of the members Tendons must be tensioned and anchored after the con-
along the bed must be removed or loosened, and detensioning crete has reached its specified strength;
performed in such manner and sequence that longitudinal Bonded post-tensioning must be grouted soon after ten-
movement is minimized. dons are stressed; and
The specified concrete strength is usually higher than
Detensioning of draped strands for reinforced concrete members.
For members having draped strands, it is particularly im-
portant that no longitudinal movement be allowed along the Concrete materials
Technical requirements for concrete used in cast-in-place,
beds until the hold-down devices are removed; any such
prestressed members are often similar to those for precast,
movement may cause serious cracking of concrete, destruc-
prestressed members. The primary differences with cast-in-
tion of the hold-down devices, or both. It is therefore advis-
place members is additional emphasis on workability. This is
able to release hold-downs and remove bolts prior to
due to difficulties in field placement of concrete in the con-
releasing the stresses at the anchorages. Release of hold-
gested and confined regions adjacent to and beneath tendon
downs without release of anchorage stress, however, may re-
anchorage assemblies. The inspection team should be famil-
sult in dangerous concentrated vertical loads that can crack
iar with the construction documents and any supplementary
the top of the member. Hold-down forces should always be
requirements for mixture workability, placement require-
computed and compared with the weight of the member, if
ments in the anchorage region, and safety requirements to
hold-downs are to be released prior to release of anchorage
prevent impact on embedded tendons or tendon ducts or con-
stress. The responsible engineer (usually the plant’s engi-
tamination with aggressive chemicals. High-strength pre-
neer) should specify the sequence for releasing hold-down
stressing steels are particularly sensitive to corrosion and
devices and anchorages.
embrittlement, especially when exposed to chloride ions and
hydrogen. Prevent contamination, and verify that all admix-
Multiple-strand detensioning tures and curing agents meet requirements for allowed levels
In multiple-strand detensioning, strands are released si- of chloride.
multaneously by hydraulic jacking. The total force is taken
from the header by the jack, then gradually released. Post-tensioned tendons
With this method, some sliding of the members on the beds Post-tensioning tendons are usually one of the following:
is inevitable. The amount of sliding is proportional to the ex- Seven-wire, stress-relieved strands (ASTM A 416);
posed lengths of stressed strands between members and be- Stress-relieved wires (ASTM A 421); and
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1999 .
IIO b b 2 7 4 9 0548299 4 T 5
High-strength, specially processed alloy steel bars The minimum retained tendon elongation after anchor set
(ASTM A 722). is specified by the contract documents. The elongations at-
Post-tensioning systems should be installed in accor- tained in the field are affected by field procedures and fnc-
dance with manufacturers’ directions and proven proce- tion losses. If the specified and attained elongations differ by
dures. Observe manufacturers’ recommendations for end more than 5%, the causes must be determined and conditions
block details and special reinforcement in anchorage zones corrected so that specified elongations are attained. Mea-
of their particular systems. surements should be made consistently. Tendons should be
Handling and storage requirements for post-tensioning marked in a consistent manner in a slack-free state. Tendons
tendons to be grouted are the same as for pre-tensioning ten- to be stressed from both ends must be marked at both ends
dons discussed previously. Unbonded (or ungrouted) ten- before stressing. Stressing from two ends may be simulta-
dons are factory-coated with a lubricating corrosion neous or sequential, provided that the forces at each end are
inhibitor such as wax or grease. Sheathing (typically plastic) reasonably equal and that any anchor-set caused by sequen-
is applied to protect this coating and to prevent bond with the tial stressing is properly excluded from the total elongation
concrete and allow post-tensioning of the tendon. Small measurement.
tears or holes may occur in the sheathing during shipment or
placing. These must be repaired before concrete is placed. Grouting procedures
Tendons should be handled with slings or padded carriers to Proper grouting of tendon ducts after stressing operations is
avoid sheathing damage Or tendon kinking. Store the ten- essential. Any water that remains in the duct around the tendon
dons to prevent exposure to corrosion or damage. may freeze and split the member. Improperly grouted tendons
Ducts for grouted Post-tensioning tmdons are usually rigid, are not adequately bonded to the rest of the member, and there-
galvanized tubing, through which steel tendons are inserted fore do not fully contribute to the strength of the member.
and stressed after concrete has hardened. Flexible ducts with Spaces not filled with grout may also permit the intrusion of
preassembled prestressing steel may also be used. All joints in water or chemicals, and ultimately permit serious conosion of
ducts must be sealed 10 Prevent intr~sionof cmìent Paste and the tendon. Obtaining a properly grouted tendon requires care-
premature bonding of unmentioned tendons, ful application of proper procedure and techniques.
Tendons or tendon ducts must be placed to the specified lo- Tendons should be grouted as soon as practical after
cation and profile- Unintended such as kinks or stressing has been accepted. Where tendons cannot be grout-
wobbles, must be avoided because they will cause unintended ed within 5 days of stressing, they must be protected from
forces on the concrete, resulting in excessive frictional losses corrosion until grouted. watermust not be allowed to stand
in prestress force and possible spalling of concrete. Horizontal in ducts to freezing temperatures, and should be re-
alignment should vary no more than 1/2 in. in 10 ft from moved from ducts immediately after curing in any case.
specified tolerances. Locations requiring maximum effec-
Grout may be a mixture of cement and water only. It may
tive depth should be within l/S in. of intended profile for
also include fine sand, fly ash, pozzolan, or grouting aids or
members 8 in. thick or less, and within 114 in./ft of depth for
an admixture to increase flowability. Admixtures containing
deeper members.
chlorides must not be used.
Maintain tendon alignment during the placing of concrete
by accessories such as tie bars, chairs, and bolsters. All acces- Trial mixtures should be used to determine optimum pro-
sories must be tied securely to the tendon to prevent displace- portions for a Particular job Or plant. Water ‘Ontent Of grout
ment. Maximum support spacing should not exceed: should be limited to the minimum volume that will result in a
4 ft for 0.5 in. strand tendons or multiple wire tendons; pumpable mixture. The d c m should not exceed 0.45 (5 gal.
per bag of cement).
4-1/2 ft for 0.6 in. strand tendons or flexible duct
grouted tendons; and Grout should always be pumped toward open vents to
6 ft for semirigid ducts 2-1/2 in. or greater in diameter. force out all entrapped air. Grout vents should be high
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
F~~grouting, the inside diameter of ducts should be at enough above the tendon to allow for sedimentation of the
least 1/4 in. larger than the nominal diameter of single wire, in the grout. Even though grout is discharged through
bar, or strand tendons; for multiple wire or suand tendons, the vent before sealing, the sedimentation will result in solid
the inside cross-sectional area of the duct should be at least free water in the Pm Of the system* This
twice the net area of the prestressing steel. Similar tolerances is typically approximately 5% Of the height. Grout
should be used if the duct voids are filled with corrosion in- must be applied continuously under Illoderate pressure at one
hibitor after stressing operations. point in the duct until the open vent or vents discharge a
steady stream of grout. With the entire duct filled and with
Anchorages discharge vents closed, the pressure should be raised to a
Anchorage for all post-tensioning systems musi be minimum of 50 psi and held for a minimum Of 1 min, after
aligned with the axis of the tendon, at the point of attach- which the injection Point must be Plugged to Prevent mY loSS
ment. Concrete surfaces that the anchorage devices bear on of grout.
must be perpendicular to this line. Accurately measure an- Because grouting is so important and there are so many
chorage losses, and show on the post-tensioning schedule. chances of error, a qualified inspector should be present dur-
When necessary, adjust the post-tensioning procedure. ing the entire grouting procedure.

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1999 Obb2947 05ri83UU T 4 7
Special safety requirements

With the large tensioning forces necessary in all prestress-
ing operations, all such construction should be considered
hazardous. A carefully planned safety program is required
for each prestressing operation, and everyone should comply
with the program in all respects.
The most important consideration to be kept in mind by all
levels of personnel in prestressed concrete operations is that
tendons under tension at approximately 200,000 psi repre-
sent stored energy, which if suddenly released, could cause
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
serious injury or death. This condition is unique to the man-

ufacture of prestressed concrete and must be constantly rec-
ognized and planned for if a good safety record is to be
Fig. 17.1l-Using hydraulic jack to post-tension tendons of established (Fig. 17.li).
precast beams. Rulesfor tensioning-The tensioning operation has more
potential for serious accidents than all other phases of pre-
stressed concrete production combined. The following basic
Post-construction inspection rules for tensioning should be included in the safety require-
Following installation (or field construction) of a pre- ments of all operations.
stressed member, it may be necessary to verify unbonded ten- 1. Prior to tensioning any bed, give a visible and audible
don force levels and identifj any timedependent losses. With signal for all nonessential personnel to leave the area adja-
certain member configurations and construction systems, this cent to the bed.
may be relatively easy. With other types, however, in-service 2. Prevent jacks from flying longitudinally or laterally in
tendon tests may not be possible without local concrete exca- case of tendon failure.
vation or similar effort. In-service tendon testing is often con- 3. Never allow personnel to stand at either end of the bed,
ducted through lift-off tests using a load cell or dynamometer. directly in line with the tendon being tensioned.
This test is similar in concept; it is used.to validate initial pre- 4.Make measurements by jigs or templates from the side
stress force depending on time-dependent losses and their po- or from behind shields. Do not make elongation measure-
tential causes. For example, concrete creep, tendon relaxation, ments while standing over tendons being measured.
member shrinkage, and corrosion can be investigated. If se- 5 . Provide effective shields at both ends of the bed to stop
vere corrosion in the tendon system is suspected, additional vi- flying tendons.
sual inspection may be warranted after exposure and testing. 6. Provide eye protection for personnel engaged in wedg-
In-service testing of bonded (grouted) tendons is very limited ing and anchoring operations as a protection from flying
unless the tendons were instrumented previously. Additional pieces of steel.
information on the subject is contained in Post-Tensioning 7. Avoid welding prestressing wires, strands, or high-
Manual (Post-Tensioning Institute 1986). strength bars.

S T D = A C I SP-2-ENGL 2 9 9 4 llD Obb2947 05'48301 783
CONSTRUCTION RELATED TO CONCRETING 153
CHAPTER 1&CONSTRUCTION RELATED TO CONCRETING
Some construction materials and procedures are not clas- Pressure-grouting requirements for crack repair are given
sified as concreting, but are closely related to it. This chapter in Chapter 11; preplaced-aggregate concrete is discussed in
covers the use of various types of grout and mortar for struc- Chapter 15; and grouting of post-tensioned tendons in pre-
tural applications and the use of stucco for surface applica- stressed concrete is discussed in Chapter 17.
tion. Numerous chemical materials are used as grouts. Of
these, epoxy-resin grouts have particular application in con-
junction with concrete. GROUTING UNDER BASE PLATES AND MACHINE
Epoxy grouts for repair of concrete are explained in Chap- BASES
ter 11 and are not discussed further herein. Grouting of The requirements for grouting under base plates for struc-
post-tensioned tendons is covered in Chapter 17 and is not tural members and for support of machinery are generally the
discussed further herein. same. The primary requirement is hardened grout in perma-
This chapter provides basic background information that nent contact with the underside of the plate, having sufficient
will help explain specification requirements, describes the strength to resist stresses applied by the member or the ma-
important details of the operations, and offers general crite- chinery. Numerous so-called "nonshrink" grouts are used for
ria to guide the inspector. As with all other chapters, infor- setting machinery and base plates. Materials commonly used
mation and criteria are presented for the assistance and are:
education of the inspector; actual job criteria for construc- Damp-pack mortar-portland-cement mortar propor-
tion operations and acceptance must always be in strict ac- tioned and mixed to produce low shrinkage;
cordance with the contract documents. Aluminum-powder grouts (and other gas-fotming
As with all other concrete and related construction, a prime grours)-will compensate for most of the settlement
consideration is durability under the applied loads (particu- shrinkage but provide expansion only while grout is
larly exceptional loads) and under the environmental condi- plastic;
tions (particularly the extreme ones) encountered during the Ferrous-aggregate grouts (catalyzed metallic grout)-
service life of the material. The inspector must ensure that provide continuing expansion after hardening of the
materials and construction procedures conform strictly with grout if moisture is present;
the contract documents. It is, of course, the responsibility of Cementitious systems including expansive-cernent
the architect-engineer to ensure that the contract documents grouts-provide expansion after hardening of the grout
require the use of materials suitable for the environmental if proper moist curing is applied, but are subject to dry-
conditions to be encountered (such as weather, chemical ing shrinkage later;
attack, extreme temperatures); that the materials and pro- Polymer grouts, 100% solids (most commonly epoxy
cedures are suitable for the loads to be carried; and that, resins)-essentially nonshrink at all ages except as due
where necessary, restrictions are placed on too-early appli- to temperature changes.
cations of such loads. The effectiveness of the grout depends on mixing and
placing procedures as well as on composition. To perform
PRESSURE GROUTING effectively, intimate contact with the entire underside of the
Pressure grouting may serve a wide variety of purposes, in- plate must be established at placement, and must be main-
cluding the consolidation of grout in large dam foundations tained while the grout hardens,
and other rock foundations; grouting of contraction joints in
concrete dams; contact grouting behind tunnel liners and sim- Damp-pack mortar
ilar items; and repair of cracking in pavements, bridges, and Packing with damp mortar is an efficient method of setting
buildings. A primary requirement for all these applications is heavy machinery on a concrete base and of fastening anchor
grout penetration into fissures or openings under the applied bolts in concrete. Damp-pack mortar is usually one part of
pump pressure. Portland-cement grout may be either a neat- cement to three parts of well-graded sand, by weight. Water
cement grout or a cement-sand mixture; grouts may also con- content is adjusted so that a mass of mortar tightly squeezed
tain admixtures or pozzolans. Several chemical grouts are in the hand will moisten but not significantly soil the hand,
used but will not be discussed herein. so that the mortar will retain its shape but will crumble easily
Depending on conditions, pressure-grouting of dam foun- with slight disturbance. First, mix the dry cement and sand
dations and other rock foundations is done through drill holes thoroughly; then add water; and finally, mix all materials
under a wide range of pressures. Grouting is often done in thoroughly once again.
stages, using higher pressures at deep locations and lower Before setting the machine or base plate, roughen the base
pressures at shallower ones. concrete and chip as necessary to provide a strong, clean sur-
Neat-cement grout is generally used for foundations. At face. Remove all dust, preferably by suction, and then scrub
times, when fissures are very fine, it may be necessas, to use the base with fiber-bristled brushes and water to remove ail
a special air-separated cement. The grout should be mixed by loose material and coatings. Thoroughly saturate the base
violent agitation and preferably used within 1 h after mixing. concrete for 24 h and then remove ali free water from the sur-
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STDeACI SP-Z-ENGL 1997 m Obb2949 0548302 BLT m
Table 18.1-Dosage of aluminum-powder blend' and chemical composition (alkali content) of the cement
I Placine temerature used, the placing temperatures, and whether the aluminum
Typeofgrout I 70 F 40F admixture is used in a neat-cement grout or a sand-cement
Sand cement m u t I 5.5 to 8.5
grout. The dosage should be adjusted as necessary to obtain
Neat cement mut I 4.5 to I 7.0 effective expansion.
~ ~
' o h g of cement, based on 1 5 blend of aluminum powder with either cement or dry
Table 18.1 gives suggested dosages for preliminary trial
sand. mixtures.
Mix the blend thoroughly with the cement and sand before
face immediatelyprior to placing damp-pack mortar. Mix the water is added because aluminum powder has a tendency to
damp-pack mortar ahead of time and allow it to age for at float on water. After all ingredients are added, mix the batch
least 30 min prior to use. This significantly reduces the po- for 3 min. Batches should be small enough to allow immedi-
tential shrinkage of the mortar. ate placement of freshly prepared mortar, as the action of the
Pack under a machine or base plate by blocking one side of aluminum becomes weak about 45 min after mixing. Provide
the open space and placing all the mortar from the other side. forms to confine the grout on all surfaces (including top), al-
Pack by ramming small quantities at a time with hard wood lowing for some slight expansion because completely con-
blocks of suitable dimensions. Carefully use a hammer to fined grout can exert pressures up to 100 psi. Select the
pound the blocks to ensure complete consolidation of the expansive agent and the dosage to prevent unnecessary ex-
grout without warping the base plate. When the space be- pansion. If unconfined expansion is allowed to take place,
tween the plate and base has been filled, remove the backup drastic reduction in strength occurs. Concrete Manual (US-
block and ram the face of the mortar from that side. Pack BR 1981) gives more detailed informationon grout with alu-
mortar around a bolt by hammering down on a section of minum powder.
pipe that will fit the annular space between the bolt and the Other gas-foming grouts-Finely ground materials, such
walls of the hole. as activated carbon and fluid coke, react chemically in the
presence of water to produce such gases as hydrogen or ni-
Gas-forming grouts trogen, with essentially the same final result that aluminum
Alumìnum-powder grout (job-mixed)-Aluminum powder powder produces. These reactions take place only while the
added to concrete reacts chemically with the soluble alkali grout is plastic.
constituents of the cement and generates hydrogen gas. The Premixed, proprietary grout fluidifiers that also produce
resultant expansion prior to setting is intended to compensate expansion by the production of gases are available from a
for shrinkage, causing the grout to harden in contact with the number of manufacturers. These usually produce more uni-
plate it is to support. Gas expansion from aluminum powder form and reliable results than job-mixed aluminum powder.
or other source provides no compensation for hydration
shrinkage that occurs as the grout gains strength after initial Catalyzed metallic grouts
set nor for later drying shrinkage. These are grouts containing iron aggregates and an oxida-
The ground-aluminum powder may be of any variety that tion catalyst that causes the metallic particles to enlarge, thus
produces the desired expansion, but it should contain no pol- compensating for drying shrinkage and settlement. For satis-
ishing agents such as stearates, palmitates, or fatty acids. factory service, this type of grout requires rigid confinement
Tests should be performed with the materials at job tempera- during the first 7 to 14 days of hardening. Extended exposures
tures prior to using them in the construction work to establish. of unconfined areas of hardened grout to wetting and drying in
the required amount and the effectiveness of the powder and air can lead to self-destructive expansion. Because unconfined
portland cement combination. Because soluble alkalies in the shoulders normally self-destruct from overexpansion, these
cement react with the aluminum powder, the alkali content of shoulders should be cut flush with the edges of the plate after
the cement has a major effect on the expansion obtained. A the initial set and the exposed surface dressed with a ce-
few cements with extremely low alkali-contents produce so ment-sand mortar or heavily coated with curing compound in
little reaction that they are not suitable for use in this type of accordance with the grout producer's instructions.
grout. Extremely small amounts of aluminum powder are re- These materials are for use in fluid grouts, and should nor-
quired. Laboratory tests have demonstrated that a mortar suit- mally never be used as stiff mortars. The grouts should be
able for use under machine bases may be produced by adding mixed, placed, finished, and cured in accordance with their
a quantity of aluminum powder equal to 50 or 60 millionths manufacturer's printed recommendation.
of the weight of cement used (about a teaspoonful per bag of
cement) to a 1:1.5 mortar mixture having a w/cm of 0.50. Cementitious systems
With well-graded sand, such a mixture will have a slump of A number of products in this group produce expansion or
about 11 in. The dosage for each batch must be carefully pre- shrinkage-compensating mechanisms triggered by an expan-
pared and weighed. The aluminum powder should first be sive cement, piaster of paris, or other expanding components.
blended in the proportions of one part powder to 50 parts by Usually these grouts contain natural fine aggregates or a com-
weight of cement or dry sand passing a No. 100 sieve. This bination of natural aggregates and similarly graded iron, the
blend is then added by sprinkling over the batch. The required latter to increase fatigue resistance. Many of the nonmetallic
dosage of the blended materials is governed by the amount cement-based grouts use a trisulfate hydrate, which produces
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S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1799 9 Obb29Ll9 0548303 75b W
CONSTRUCTION RELATED TO CONCRETING 155
the calcium sulfoaluminate crystals responsible for volume settlement. The use of chains, once a popular method, should
changes in the hardened phase. These grouts should be also be discouraged. The links could drag in air bubbles that
mixed, placed, finished, and cured in accordance with the rise to the surface of the grout, and thus reduce the contact area.
manufacturer’s printed recommendations. They should be Nonshrink grouts are not intended for use in self-stressing
low in chlorides and sulfides to protect the steel from corro- concrete, as they do not provide adequate expansion for
sion. Premixed blends, including fine-graded silica aggre- stressing of reinforcement. Additionally, too much expan-
gate, are usable where grouting space permits or requires this sion, as with gas-producing grouts, may be undesirable for
type of grout, such as for grouting anchor rods or separated load-bearing applications, because strength usually deterio-
wires. rates with excessive volume changes. An expansion not to
In cementitious grout systems, expansive cements as dis- exceed 0.2% may safely compensate for settlement shrink-
cussed in Chapter 16 of this manual may be used for age. Shrinkage in either the plastic or hardened stage is un-
job-mixed grouts. Optionally, the cement may be a blend of desirable and is prohibited in most specifications.
portland and expansive cements. As with shrinkage-com-
pensating concretes, it is most important that such grouts be Field testing of nonshrink grout
adequately restrained. However, as normally used, the re- Proper installation practices should be supplemented by
straint is not resilient, and the grout therefore shrinks as it adequate quality-control testing of the grout during place-
dries. The mixture proportions for these job-mixed cementi- ment to monitor performance and provide test data in case of
tious grout systems differ little from those for other grouts, questionable service. Minimum test requirements should in-
except that sufficient water must be present to bring about clude the determination of consistency at a specific water
the formation of ettringite, which causes the expansive force level, expansion, bleeding, and compressive strength for the
(refer to AC1 223). Expansive cement is not suitable in as-mixed grout sampled at the mixer.
damp-pack mortar. Standard tests, such as the ASTM C 109 strength test (for
Because each grout type has limitations, it is important to job-mixed stiff mortars only) and the ASTM C 939 flow test,
select the best type for each application. Initial acceptance will disclose critical performance limits. Plastic consisten-
testing of any cementitious grout system is advisable as cies measured by the flow table from I l 0 to 125% at 5 drops
grouts are specified to perform at a certain range of consis- are suitable for grouting small plates. Flow able consistencies
tencies and temperatures. Compressive-strength data should measured by the flow table from 125 to 145% at 5 drops and
be accompanied by information on the age at test, flow of the fluid consistencies of 25 to over 30 s measured with the flow
grout as sampled, initial grout temperature, and curing con- cone (ASTM C 939) are commonly applied when grouting
ditions. Depending on job requirements, stiff, plastic, and medium- to large-sized plates and bases, structural columns,
flowable consistencies can be readily altered by a change in and anchor bolts. An arbitrary increase of fluidity above the
water content. Retempering of most grouts should not be al- specified consistency at the job site will probably cause
lowed. In general, grouts will perform as proven by test at bleeding, thus preventing contact with the base plate and
any consistency thicker (lower mixing-water content) than proper load distribution to the grout.
that used in the test. At thinner consistencies (higher mixing- Check the contact between the grout and a simulated or ac-
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water content), bleeding is likely to occur or increase while tual grouted plate (by sounding the plate at various ages after
expansion and strength decrease. the grout hardens) when using any type of grout to ensure that:
The interface is not weakened by the collection of gas
Field-grouting procedures for nonshrink grouts bubbles at the contact surface; and
Field placement of nonshrink grouts should follow the All bleed water has been absorbed or displaced so that
same rules of good practice necessary for conventional physical contact exists between grout and plate over at
grouting: ensure that surfaces in contact with the grout are least 90% of the area of the plate.
free of dirt, oil, laitance, and other foreign substances; and
ensure that the grout receives proper curing to prevent mois- Polymer system
ture loss during early stages of hydration. Additional mea- In epoxy-resin grouts, the cementing agent is a resin and a
sures may be required, however, to ensure that preblended, hardener (polyamide curing agent), which, when mixed,
nonshrink groups perform as advertised and accomplish the form a high-strength, nonshrink thermosetting plastic (pro-
desired results under all conditions. vided that the epoxy resin is 100% solids with no diluent).
Grouting of foundations and large base plates requires a flu- Epoxy-resin grouts should be mixed, placed, and cured in ac-
id grout with stable flow characteristics. Stable grout fluidity is cordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
determined by conducting flow tests with a flow cone (ASTM
C 939) 30 min after mixing. To maintain plate contact during Commercially preblended nonshrink grouts
the plastic stage, batter boards or side forms extended above Specially formulated grouts, preblended to compensate for
the bottom of the plate are usually specified to provide a slight shrinkage while providing the desired control of volume
head for uniform bond. Strapping or vibration, though neces- change, have the advantage of being ready to use and can per-
sary to eliminate air voids and pockets, should not be allowed form over a fairly wide range of placing consistencies. These
unless testing (grouting and lifting a plate) has positively grouts are frequently used in applications whose requirements
demonstrated that vibration does not induce bleeding and cannot be met by ordinary cement-sand grouts, for example,

STDoACI SP-2-ENGL 1777 m Obb2747 D54830g b92 H
MORTAR AND STUCCO

Mortar and stucco (cement plaster) are often used for bed-
ding concrete slabs or for plastering over other surfaces. The
stucco may be textured or colored for architectural appearance.
If mortar proportions are not specified, it is recommended
that the ratio of cementitiousmaterial (cement or cement and
lime) to sand be approximately 1:3 to 1:5 by dry volume with
allowance for bulking. Leaner mixtures are more porous;
richer mixtures require more mixing water and thus have
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higher drying shrinkage and tend to crack. The sand should

be clean and free from excessive fines. The mortar should be
well mixed, preferably by machine. Mortar and stucco are
often applied pneumatically.
Curing is especially important for thin applications, such as
plaster coatings. If allowed to dry at an early age, they tend to
crack and loosen. Small areas may be cured with damp burlap.
Plaster or stucco is a special form of mortar coating for
walls and soffits, usually built up in three coats. The final
surface coat is normally a factory-prepared stucco consisting
of portland cement, color, and plasticizer. It is generally giv-
en a decorative texture, and is often colored (Fig. 18.1). De-
tailed recommendations and specifications for portland-
cement plaster are given in AC1 524R.
In addition to the usual features of concrete inspection, the
Fig. 18.1-Spraying granularpnish onfomasonry wall.
inspection of stucco work should include:
particular attention to preparation of the backing;
when high fluidity is required and bleeding is undesirable or method of applying each coat, whether troweled, dar-
when nonshrink or expansive action is required. Preblended
bied, or dashed on;
p u t s may be grouped according to their expansion-producing
(shrinkage-compensating)characteristic: 1)gas-forming; 2) cat- 9 thickness of various coats;
alyzed-metallic; 3) cementitious; and 4)polymer. 9 uniform proportioning and mixing of colored
Special grouts are available also for post-tensioning appli- cements; and
cations and rock or concrete anchorage systems. Such grouts thorough curing of each coat.
frequently contain fine graded silica aggregate low in chlo- Preferably, burlap should be hung against the surfaces and
rides and sulfides, as the steel used for these installations kept wet by spraying for at least 3, 5 , or 7 days (depending
must be protected against stress corrosion. on the weather), then allowed to dry slowly in place.

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1714 m Obh2949 0548305 527 H
TESTING OF CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES 157
CHAPTER 19-TESTING OF CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES
Concrete test methods are comprehensively detailed in na- Revolving-drum truck mixers, or agitators-Two or more
tional standards published by ASTM, the U.S. Army Corps portions should be taken throughout the discharge of the
of Engineers, and the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. The most middle part of the batch and composited for compliance test-
commonly used test methods for the largest variety of con- ing of the concrete provided. The discharge gate must be
struction projects were developed by ASTM. This chapter open and the samples obtained either by passing a receptacle
describes, in a general manner, the ASTM methods of test- through the discharge stream or by diverting the stream into
ing concrete, which are required in the field or field labora- the sample container. When the stream is too fast to sample,
tory. Refer to Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Volume discharge the entire load and sample in accordance with the
04.02, for details. This chapter presents only general de- applicable method.
scriptions of test methods. Stationary mixers-Pass a receptacle through the dis-
To ensure strict compliance, precise procedures of the test charge stream at two or more regularly spaced intervals dur-
methods required by the contract documents should be fol- ing discharge of the middle portion of the batch.
lowed. If the contract documents do not describe or specify the Paving mixers-After the mixer has discharged, collect
test methods to be used, then the appropriate ASTM or other portions from at least five points to make a representative
test methods should be applied. Some of the test methods sample. Avoid contamination with subgrade material.
require the technician to be certified.
Open-top rruck mixers or agitators, receiving hoppers, and
For general guidance and assistance in concrete testing, buckets-Use any of the foregoing methods as applicable.
the Manual of Aggregate and Concrete Testing prepared by
End of pump line-Pass a receptacle through the discharge
ASTM Committee C-9 is also in the Annual Book of ASTM
stream or divert the stream into the container at two or more
Standards, Volume 04.02. Although that manual is not an
regularly spaced intervals during discharge.
ASTM standard, it provides useful commentary and inter-
pretation of the various test methods. General requirements for the samples are that the amount
of concrete sampled should be greater than required for the
ASTM C 1077 and E 329 define duties and responsibilities
and establish the minimum requirements for personnel, in- specimens or tests and not less than 1 ft3for acceptance tests.
cluding certification and equipment for testing and inspection. The composite samples should be mixed (only until uniform)
with a shovel and used within 15 min after start of sampling.
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The tests for air content and slump should then be started
SAMPLING within 5 min after compositing, and strength test specimens
One of the most significant aspects of testing is the means should be molded within 15 min after compositing.
of securing a representative sample for the measuring of a
specific property. ASTM C 172 contains methods of sam-
pling from various concrete production units. The contract TESTS OF FRESHLY MIXED CONCRETE
documents may define where samples are to be obtained and Consistency
would govern options given in ASTM C 172. Samples The consistency of concrete is a measure of its workabili-
should be taken at random. Avoid selective sampling, which ty, which may be defined by its slump characteristics, settle-
may not represent the actual construction. ment of a Kelly ball, or other slump indicators. The two
ASTM standard methods, the slump test and the ball penetra-
Take concrete samples for production quality control as the
tion test, are summarized as follows.
concrete is delivered from the final mixer. Sampling may be
from a stationary mixer at a mixing plant or from a truck mixer Slump test: ASTM C 143
as it prepares to deliver concrete at the job. Specifications may 1 . Place a damp, clean cone on a damp, non-absorbing, flat
require, however, or the architect-engineer may designate for surface;
a special purpose, regular or occasional sampling elsewhere, 2. Fill the cone with fresh concrete in three layers of equal
such as from the concrete as it is placed in the forms but before volume, with the top layer heaped above the cone. Rod each
it is vibrated. Usually errors of sampling and test cylinder fab- layer 25 times. Hold the cone firmly in place during filling
rication are least at the point where the concrete is delivered and rodding;
from the mixer. When concrete handling and placing is as it
3. After the last layer has been rodded, strike off the con-
should be, such sampling and testing has been found to satis-
crete level with the top of the cone; and
factorily measure the character of the concrete as placed.
When concrete is placed by methods such as pumping, which 4. Lift the cone in a smooth vertical motion and measure
may significantly affect the concrete Characteristics, sample slump to original center to nearest 1/4 in.
both concrete at the mixer discharge and at the point of final Ball penetration test: ASTM C 360
placement to determine if any change in slump, air content, This test uses a standard weight ball (Kelly ball), which is
temperature, or other significant mixture characteristic occurs. allowed to penetrate a mass of concrete and contains a scale
ASTM C 172 describes sampling methods for the follow- for penetration. This method should be correlated with the
ing concrete equipment: slump test when used for acceptance testing.

S T D - A C 1 SP-Z-ENGL.Lq99 Ob62' î v î 0 5 4 8 3 0 b v b 5 W
158 MANUAL OF CONICRETE INSPECTION
Fig. 19.2-ASTM C 231 contains detailed instructions for

strike-off aJier consolidating sample for pressure method
determination of air current. This is a Type B meter
Volumetric method (rollameter): ASTM C 173-

1. Calibrate the meter in accordance with the manufactur-
er's directions and follow general procedures as previously
cited for filling the bowl with fresh concrete, rodding and
tapping each layer, and striking off level. Assemble the
meter and fill with water to the zero mark;
2. Invert and agitate the meter until the concrete is free
from the base; continue to roll and rock the meter with the
neck elevated to remove air from the concrete;
3. Place the apparatus upright, jar it, and allow all air to
rise to top;
4. Repeat agitation until the water level is stabilized; then
use alcohol in measured increments to dispel foam; and
Fig. 19.1-Type A meter for test of air content of fresh con- 5. Read air directly as water level plus alcohol increments
crete: ASTM C 231. that are added.
Air content Gravimetric method: ASTM C 138-
ASTM provides three methods for the determinationof air The ASTM C 138 gravimetric method of determining air
content of freshly mixed concrete. These are the pressure content is based on the difference between the yield (volume
method, volumetric method, and the gravimetric method. calculated from measured density) and the calculated abso-
Pressure method: ASTM C 231- lute volume of solid and liquid constituents. It is not com-
There are two types of meters (A and B) used to deter- monly used because accuracy depends on knowledge of
mine air content by the pressure method. The Type A meter exact batch quantities and specific gravities.
(Fig. 19.1) is based on the correlation of reduction of water Density offreshly mixed concrete: ASTM C 138-
level with the reduction in volume of air in the concrete
The density test of freshly mixed concrete is also used to
sample by a predetermined air pressure. The Type B Meter
determine yield cement factors and air content. ASTM C
(Fig. 19.2)operates on the principle of equalizing a known vol-
138 is based on weighing the concrete in a unit measure of
ume of air at a known pressure in a sealed chamber to obtain the
known volume.
value of the unknown volume of air in the concrete sample.
The general requirements of air content testing using the 1. Fiil the measure in threeequal layers, rodding each layer 25
air pressure method are: times for a 1M size or less and 50 times for a 1 ft3 measure;
1. Calibrate the air meter in accordance with manufacturer's 2. Tap the measure 10 or more times after each rodding,
instructions; then strike off top and finish smooth with a flat cover plate
2. Fill the bowl with fresh concrete in three equal layers, that is larger than the diameter of the measure;
I rodding each layer 25 times, and tap the bowl with a mallet 3. Clean exterior and weigh;
10 to 15 times after each layer has been rodded; 4. The density is the net weight (total weight less weight of
3. Remove excess concrete with a sawing motion of the measure) times the calibration factor of the measure. The cal-
strike-off bar and assemble the meter; ibration factor of a measure can be calculated by determining
4. Add the necessary water and pressurize; and the net weight of water that it can hold, as described in
5. Read the result from a gage or standpipe and use the ag- ASTM C 29; and
gregate correction factor to obtain the true air reading. 5. The container of concrete for the previous air-content
ASTM C 231 gives a procedure for determining the aggre- tests, properly filled and cleaned, can serve acceptably for
gate correction factor. the density test.
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S T D e A C I SP-2-ENGL 2177 I
I flbb29’i7 05‘48307 3 T L
Fig. 19.3-Cylinder storage in a laboratory curing room.
Temperature
Concrete temperature is taken when freshly mixed
(ASTM C 1064), and also in place for monitoring of tem- Fig. 19.4-Capping compression test cylinders with sulfur
perature rise. The initial temperature is usually taken compound.
with an immersion thermometer that reads from approx-
imately 32 F to about 150 F. The temperature rise of con- 2. Rod each layer 25 times. Slumps of less than 1 in. should
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crete is determined best by the use of embedded be vibrated. Tap sides after each rodding to close voids left by
electrical thermocouples. rod and strike off the top with a rod, trowel, or float;
3. Cover the molds with glass, metal plate, poly film, or
STRENGTH TESTS wet burlap to avoid rapid evaporation. Avoid contact of coat-
The standard method for determination of concrete ed cardboard cylinder molds with the wet burlap.
strength during construction consists of making and curing Curing compression specimens-
structural concrete compressive- and flexural-strength spec- I. Cure cylinders in the field up to 48 h at 60 to 80 F to al-
imens in the field. The minimum required number of speci- low them to develop adequate strength for transportation;
mens is specified in the project specifications. Additional 2. Remove cylinders used for checking the adequacy of
specimens should be taken for testing at 7 days or earlier to concrete strength or as a basis for acceptance (the most
provide an indication of expected 28-day strength. The eval- common usages) from the molds after 24 2 8 h (unless
uation and acceptance of the concrete strength is discussed transported to the laboratory for standard curing within
in Chapter 2. All specimens should be made at or near the 48 h) and store them moist at 73.4 3 F until the moment
place of initial curing to avoid the possible detrimental ef- of testing. They may be immersed in saturated lime wa-
fects of moving freshly made test specimens. ter, placed in curing cabinets, or in curing rooms (ASTM
C 511); and
Compressive strength-ASTM C 31 and C 39 3. Store cylinders that are to be used to determine when
ASTM C 3 1 covers the requirements for molds and mak- to remove forms, to determine when the structure can be
ing and curing the specimens. put into service, or to check adequacy of curing, either in or
on the structure, as near the point of use as possible. They
Molds-Molds may be reusable or single-use, made of receive, insofar as practical, the same protection and curing
steel, cast iron, plastic, coated cardboard, or other materials as the structure. Specimens for determining when a struc-
that are nonabsorbent and nonreactive with cement. They ture maybe put into service are removed from the molds at
must be watertight and sufficiently strong and tough to pre- the time of form removal.
vent tearing, crushing, or deforming during use. They must
Capping cylindrical concrete specimens for compressive
meet specified absorption, elongation, and dimensional tol-
strength tests: ASTM C 617-
erances (ASTM C 470).
1. Freshly molded concrete cylinders may be capped with
Making specimens-To make 6 x 12 in. cylindrical speci- neat cement, but this usually is not expedient. Hardened con-
mens according to ASTM C 31 (field) and ASTM C i92 crete may be capped with high-strength gypsum or sulfur mor-
(laboratory), the concrete must be sampled as described in tar (5000 psi or more). The sulfur mortar method (Fig. 19.4)
ASTM C i72 and in the “sampling” section of this chapter. is presently the most expedient way; and
Molding of the specimens must commence within 15 min af- 2. The cap must be flat to a tolerance of 0.002 in., perpen-
ter the sample is composited, as follows: dicular to the cylinder axis, and sound without hollow spots.
1. Fill the mold uniformly in three approximately equal ASTM C 31 also contains strength and thickness tolerance
layers with a scoop or trowel (two layers if vibrated); limits for the capping material.

S T D * A C I SP-Z-ENGL 1771 E Obb29'47 05'48308 238
1. Molds must be nonabsorbent, nonreactive, smooth, free

of blemishes, and watertight;
2. Fill the mold in two equal layers if rodded, one layer if
vibrated;
3. Rod each layer uniformly+nce per 2 in?- and tap sides
of mold to fill rodding voids. When rodding the upper layer,
penetrate the lower layer. Vibrate if slump is 1 in. or less;
4.Strike off surface with a wood or magnesium float; and
5. Immediately after finishing cover to prevent evaporation.
Curingflexural specimens (acceptance testing)-
1. After initial curing in the molds (similar to cylinders),
remove the beams from molds. Cure at 73.4 f 3 F in moist
condition (similar to cylinders); and
2. Immerse the beams a minimum of 20 h in saturated
lime-water prior to testing, and keep specimens wet until
placed in the testing machine.
Testing beams forflexural strength-
Flexural strength may be determined using a simple beam
with center-point loading (ASTM C 293), or a simple beam
with third-point loading (ASTM C 78). Center-point loading
usually gives higher indicated strengths but produces more
inherent scatter in the data. Strict conformance to ASTM
procedures is critical. Third-point loading is recommended
in most applications.
1. The testing machines should be motorized (although
positive-displacementhand pumps are conditionally permit-
ted, refer to ASTM C 78) and capable of applying the load at
a constant rate;
2. Follow the appropriate ASTM standard;
3. Turn the wet test specimen on its side with respect to its
Fig. 19.5-Conducting compressiontest of concrete cylindel: position as molded and center on the bearing blocks;
4. Apply the load at a constant rate not to exceed an increase
Use of unbonded caps for compressive-strength tests: in extreme-fiber stress of 150psi/min until rupture occurs; and
ASTM C 1231- 5. Measure average width and depth and calculate modu-
Unbonded elastomeric pads restrained by metal rings may lus of rupture. (Three measurements across each dimension
be used in testing hardened concrete cylinders in place of at fracture face, refer ASTM).
capping compound described in ASTM C 617. Unbonded
caps are not allowed for acceptance testing of concrete with Splitting tensile strength of cylindrical concrete
compressive strength below 1500 psi or above 7000 psi per specimens-ASTM C 496
ASTM C 1231. Specifications may require the use of standard concrete
cylinders for the determination of splitting tensile strengths.
Testing concrete cylinders: ASTA4 C 39-
This property represents the actual tensile strength of con-
Conduct compression tests of concrete cylinders on a crete, and is used in the evaluation of structural lightweight
power-operated, calibrated testing machine that provides a con- concrete and sometimes to correlate with flexural strength.
stant loading rate of 20 to 50 psus and meets ASTM E 4 require- 1. Make and cure the test specimens the same as the 6 x 12
ments for testing machines. The bearing surfaces must be flat in. cylinders in the previous section. When used for evaluation
and clean, and the cylinder centered in the test heads (Fig. 19.5). of lightweight concrete in accordance with AC1 3 18, however,
NOTE: Testing concretes with compressive strengths over moist-cure specimens for 7 days and then cure 21 days at 73 +
6OOO psi q u i r e s special attention to the strength of the capping 3 F and 50 * 5% relative humidity (RH);
materials used and to the rigidity of the testing machine. 2. Mark the cylinders with diametral lines on each end using
a suitable device that will ensure the lines are in the same axial
Flexural strength of concrete-ASTM C 31, C 78, plane, and take an average of three diameter measurements;
C 293 3. Center the specimen in the testing machine with a 1/8 x
The flexural strength of concrete is most commonly deter- 1 x 12 in. plywood strip on the top and bottom. Do not re-use
mined by use of rectangular beams 6 x 6 x 20 in. for concrete plywood strips;
with coarse aggregate up to 2 in. The following requirements 4. Apply the load without shock at a constant rate of 100 to
apply to the standard size specimens. 200 psi splitting tensile stress per min until failure. For a 6 x
Molding flexural specimens- 12 in. cylinder, splitting tensile stress will increase at a rate of
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1999 m Obb2949 05483G7 174 D
100 psi/min if the load increases at a rate of 11,300 lb/min; Table 19.1-Requirements for uniformity of concrete
and
~
Maximum permissible
5. Calculate splitting tensile strengths. difference in samples taken
from two locations in
Test concrete batch
ACCELERATED CURING OF TEST SPECIMENS
The contract documents for some projects may require or
Density of fresh concrete calculated
to air-free basis I
1.0 Ib/ft3
permit accelerated strength testing of standard concrete cyl- Air content, volume % of concrete 1 1 .O% numerical difference
If average slump 4 in.
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
inders. ASTM C 684 is an accelerated test method that de- or less I .O in.
fines a standard method of accelerated curing to provide Slump
early-strength data rather than the conventional 7-day and 6 in.
28-day compressive strengths. Coarse aggregate content, portion by weight 6.0% numencal difference
of each sample retained on No. 4 sieve
A correlation program should be developed for each con-
crete mixture, using the same materials, to properly evaluate
the relationship between the accelerated cured cylinders and
Density of air-free mortar-average com-
pressive strength at 7 days for each sample I 1.6%difference
7.5%* difference
‘Tentative approval of the mixer may be granted pending results of the 7-day com-
standard cured cylinders. pressive strength tests.
ASTM C 684 presents four methods that may be used to
accelerate the curing of cylinders for testing: 1. Sampling is in accordance with the standard procedures
described in this chapter. When sampling from pump equip-
Procedure A-Warm water method;
ment, however, pass a bucket through the discharge stream
Procedure B-Boiling water method;
of the concrete pump hose at the point of placement;
Procedure C-Autogenous method; and
2. Mold cylinders by placing the concrete in two equal lay-
Procedure D-High temperature and pressure method. ers. Tap the sides of the mold lightly after each layer is placed
Special equipment is required for Procedure D (high tem- until the surface has subsided. Do not rod the concrete; and
perature and pressure method) to obtain and control the tem- 3. Test cylinders and determine compressive strength as
perature of the concrete cylinders during the accelerated for standard cylinders of normalweight concrete.
curing cycle. All curing takes place while the cylinders are
in their molds. Tests are performed shortly after the cylin- UNIFORMITY TESTS OF MIXERS
ders are removed from their molds. Truck mixers
Procedure A provides the earliest test. Curing begins imme- ASTM C 94 stipulates that concrete mixed completely in a
diately after casting. The cylinders are cured in a warm-water truck mixer, 70 to 100 revolutions at the manufacturer’s spec-
bath at 95 i: 5 F for 23- 1/2 h * 30 min and are then demolded. ified mixing speed, must meet the uniformity requirements of
The cylinders are tested at the age of 24 h I i 5 min. in Table 19.1. A uniformity test compares two samples of
Procedure B adds a short accelerated curing period to a freshly mixed concrete, one from near the front of the mixer
longer conventional curing period. The cylinders are initial- drum and one from near the back. Concrete uniformity is sat-
ly cured for 23 h 115 min at 70 * 10 F, followed by immer- isfactory when at least five of the six tests shown in Table 19.1
sion in boiling water for 3-1/2 h * 5 min. The cylinders are are within the specified limits. For a quick check of probable
then demolded and cooled for at least 1 h at room tempera- degree of uniformity, make slump tests of individual samples
ture. They are tested at age 28- 1/2 h * i 5 min. taken after discharge of approximately 15 and 85% of the
Procedure C uses heat generated by hydration of the ce- Ioad. These two samples should be obtained within an
ment to accelerate the strength development. After casting, elapsed time of not more than 15 min. If the slumps differ
the cylinders are stored in a thermally insulated container. At more than the amount specified in Table 19.1, the mixer
age 48 h I15 min, the cylinders are removed from the con- should not be used unless the condition is corrected or the
tainer, demolded, and allowed to stand for 30 min at room operation changed to a longer mixing time, a smaller load, or
temperature. They are tested at age 49 h * 15 min. more efficient charging sequence that will permit the re-
Procedure D involves simultaneous application of elevat- quirements of Table 19.1 to be met.
ed temperature and pressure to the concrete using special
coptainers. Stationary mixers
The sampling, molding, and testing of the concrete cylin- ASTM C 94 specifies a mixing time based on mixer capac-
ders should be in accordance with ASTM procedures as de- ity, requiring 1 min for the first yd3 plus 15 s for each yd3, or
scribed earlier in this chapter, except that cardboard molds fraction thereof, of additional capacity. These minimum time
cannot be used, requirements will produce uniformity, but they are unneces-
sarily time-consuming for many large-capacity mixers.
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF LIGHTWEIGHT Therefore, ASTM C 94 permits reduction in this mixing time,
INSULATING CONCRETE provided that tests are conducted to show that uniformity can
ASTM C 495 covers the method of preparation and com- be achieved in less time.
pressive-strength testing of lightweight insulating concrete Tests can be made at any predetermined shorter time of
having an oven-dry weight not exceeding 50 lb/ft3. This mixing. Samples can be taken from a discharging mixer after
method is restricted to the use of 3 x 6 in. cylinders. 15 and 85% of the batch have been discharged. Alternatively,

STD-AC1 SP-2-ENGL 194‘1 IObb2747 U511û310 77b D
Specificationrequirements
expressed as maximum permissi-
ble difference between samples,
Test Front Back Variation ASTM C 94
~ ~~
coarse aggregate iontent, portion of 55 52.5 2.5 6.0

each sample % retained on No. 4 sieve
Density of &-free mortar 1130.2 lWft3 1132.2 lb/ft31 1.5% I 1.6%
Note: Percent variation in unit weight of mortar may be based on average of comparative samples (where Uniformity limit
becomes 1.óí2 = 0.8%)calculated as follows
Average unir weight ofair-freniortar = 130‘2+132‘2 = 131.21bfl

2
Variationin unit weight average = 131’2 - 1302 x 103 = 0.76% < 0.8% OK
131.2
the mixer can be stopped after the designated mixing time b-c
M =
without discharging, and samples can be removed from loca-
tions near the front and back of the dmm. If the mixer drum G x 62.3
must be entered for this sampling,first disconnect the electric
power fuses and lag out the equipment in accordance with
where
safety regulations.
b = weight of concrete sample in air meter, Ib.;
c = SSD weight of aggregate retained on No. 4 sieve, lb;
Washout test for coarse-aggregate content
One measure of uniformity of a concrete batch is the per- v = volume of sample, ft3;
centage of coarse aggregate in two different portions of the A = volume of air computed by multiplying the volume
batch (refer to Tables 19.1 and 19.2).The procedure for this V by % of air divided by 100 ft3;
determination is: G = SSD bulk specific gravity of the coarse aggregate;
1. Weigh a sample of plastic concrete. To partially com- and
bine this determination with that of the air-free density of 62.3 = density of water at test temperature, 1blfG
mortar, the base of an air meter is used as the volume mea- The following example illustrates the method of determin-
sure for unit-weight determination. The sample is then tested ing density of air-free mortar and coarse-aggregatecontent.
for air content; Given: Concrete sample containing 1-1/2 in. maximum
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
2. After the air test, sieve and wash the concrete over a No. nominal size aggregate, with an air content of 5.0%.
4 screen; G = 2.65
3. Weigh the aggregate while immersed in water; b = 351b
4. Compute the saturated surface-dry (SSD) weight, using V = 0.25 ft3
the known bulk saturated surface-dry specific gravity G of S = 12.0Ib (submerged weight of aggregate retained on
the aggregate, by use of the formula for bulk specific gravity No. 4 sieve)
(SSD) given in ASTM C 127; and Calculation:
5. In place of the immersed-weight method, the washed
coarse aggregate may be towel-dried and weighed. The im-
mersed-weight method, however, is recommended.
Air-free density of mortar test W = coarse aggregate, % by weight

The method for air-free density of mortar is described in
the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Concrete Manual (USBR, w=-19.27 x 100 = 55.0%
1981) under “Variability of Constituents in Concrete,” Des- 35
ignation 26. The procedure is summarized as follows:
1. Perform the weight tests as described in the im-
mersed-weight method of the washout test for coarse aggre- A = 0.25 ft3x 5.0 = o.o125 &3
gate content;
100
2. Determine the weight of the mortar in the sample by
subtracting the SSD weight of the coarse aggregate from the This gives the values necessary to calculate M,the density
weight of the concrete sample; of air-free mortar, using the expression given previously:
3. Obtain the volume of the air-free mortar by subtracting
the volume of the coarse aggregate and the volume of air; and M = 35 - 19.27 = 130.22 lb/ft3
4.The air-free density of mortar M, in lb/ft3, is its weight
divided by its volume, calculated as follows 2.65 x 62.3

To check compliance of a stationary mixer or truck, deter- Table 19.3-Example of computation for unit
minations must be made on each of two samples, one from weight of air-free mortar
near each end of the batch. Assume that the foregoing calcu- Sample from front of Sample from back of
lations represent the first sample from a batch, and further mixer or first portion mixer or last portion of
of batch as discharged batch as dischaxged
assume that the second sample is found to have 52.5% from mixer from mixer
coarse aggregate and 132.2 Ib/ft3 density of air-free mortar. Data [Weight, IblVolume, ft3(Weight,lbl Volume, ft’
Table 19.2 compares these results to see if the uniformity is
within ASTM C 94 limits. Data and calculated weights and
Weight and volume of
samde in air meter I
35.00 1
l
0.2500 1
I
35.16 1
1
0.2500
volumes for both samples are listed in Table 19.3. Aircontent by airmeter I - 1 (5%) 7 - I (4.75%)
Uniformity limits of tests other than those shown in Table Volume of air 1 - 1 0.0125 1
I
- 1 0.0119
19.2 are listed in Table i 9.1 and in ASTM C 94. The previ-
ous example calculation illustrates uniformity determina-
Weight and air-free
volume of samde I 35.00 1 0.2375 I 35.16 1 0.2381
Submerged weight of
tions by use of the given formulas. A convenient tabular 11.50
method is presented in Design and Control of Concrete Mix- screen
tures (PCA, 1994). It is similar to Table 19.3 but contains Computed SSD weight
more information.
Weight and volume repre- 15,73 0.1208 16.69 0.1262
DENSITY OF STRUCTURAL LIGHMIEIGHT senting mortar in sample
CONCRETE Computed density of air-
130.22 - 132.25 -
Density of lightweight concrete at 28 days for design con- free mortar, Ib/ft3
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
trol is determined by ASTM C 567. The density of the freshly
mixed concrete is determined in accordance with ASTM C
138, except that external vibration to consolidate the concrete ing a core drill. Exercise care not to cause overheating and to
in the measure is permitted as well as rodding or internal vi- avoid obvious defects such as rock pockets and joints. Where
bration. For concretes with very low water content, consolida- Compressive strength is the reason for coring, care should be
tion by external vibration, with additional force on the surface taken to avoid cutting reinforcing steel. Not only is the
of each concrete layer, is described in ASTM C 192. strength of the cored member compromised, but the core
The air-dry density is generally determined in the follow- strength is also detrimentally affected. The location of rein-
ing manner, using 6 x 12 in. cylinders, made in accordance forcing steel can often be determined by use of magnetic de-
with ASTM C 3 1: tection devices marketed specifically for that purpose.
1. After casting, cover and cure the cylinders at 60 to 80 F Where the core is used for compressive strength determi-
in a wrapped or sealed condition for 7 days;
nations, the length should preferably be as near as possible to
2. On the seventh day, remove the cylinders from cylinder
twice the diameter. The diameter should preferably be at
molds or plastic covering and dry the cylinders for 21 days
least 3 times the nominal maximum size of aggregate in the
at 50 F f 5% RH at 73.4 f 2 F;
concrete, and must be at least twice the nominal maximum
3. Weigh the dried cylinders at 28 days; then completely
size of the aggregate in the concrete. Cores having lengths
immerse the cylinders in water for 24 h. Determine the im-
mersed weight and the saturated, surface-dry weight by less than the diameter after capping cannot be used for com-
weighing the soaked cylinders in water and in air; and pression testing. Those with ratios of length to diameter be-
4. Calculate the weight per ft3 of dry concrete as follows: tween l .O0 and l -94 may be used with a correction factor as
specified in ASTM C 42. If necessary, saw the ends to pro-
duce an even surface, and the core should be ground or
weight per ft3 -
--
62.3A
capped to enable proper testing.
B-C
Moisture condition at the time of testing will affect the
where strength of the core. The cores are usually immersed in
A = 28-day weight of concrete as dried, Ib; lime-saturated water for at least 40 hr immediately prior to
B = saturated, surface-dry weight of cylinder, lb; and testing. Other moisture conditions may be used, however, at
C = immersed weight of cylinder, lb. the option of the agency for which the test is being conducted
when the concrete will be subjected to other moisture condi-
TESTS OF COMPLETED STRUCTURES tions in service.
Cores from hardened concrete
The compressive strength of concrete is sometimes deter-
mined from cores extracted from a structure. This is usually Load tests
done when the compressive strength of a given concrete is AC1 3 18 and 437R discuss load tests and describe how to
not known or because of questionable concrete cylinder test do them. If a load test is required to determine the structural
results. The architect-engineer should specify where and integrity of a reinforced concrete slab or beam, the member
how many cores are to be obtained. Core test requirements being tested should be isolated from the structure and appro-
are covered by AC1 3 18 and ASTM C 42. Extract cores us- priate safety precautions taken.

S T D - A C 1 SP-Z-ENGL 1499 D Obb2949 0548312 7b9 D
Nondestructive tests Impact-hammer testing (ASTM C 805) provides an approxi-

Several methods are available for nondestructivetesting or mate or relative strength determination. The impact hammer
evaluation of concrete in place. These methods provide in- (sometimes called a Schmidt or Swiss hammer) is a
creased knowledge of the quality of concrete economically spring-loaded steel hammer that when released, stnkes a steel
and rapidly. Among these methods are plunger in contact with the concrete surface. The rebound dis-
pulse-velocity survey-ASTM C 597; tance of the steel hammer from the steel plunger after impact is
impact hammer (also known as a Schmidt hammer)- recorded on a built-in linear scale. The instrument carries a
ASTM C 805; chart that correlates the rebound number to compressive
the penetration probe-ASTM C 803 strength. This correlation should be used with caution because
impact echo; it is usuaily not accurate. Determinations made with this instru-
radar; ment should be used exclusively for comparative purposes on
x-ray; and concrete of the same composition, age, and moisture content.
infrared thermography. Judgment must be used in the interpretation, because rebound
Each of these methods, when properly used, may provide is affected by many factors, such as moisture content of the con-
information about the suspect concrete without invasive or crete, type of surface finish, type of aggregate, age of the con-
destructive methods. All have limitations, and highly skilled crete, and proximity of reinforcing steel to the point of impact.
operators are important as data analysis is subject to interpre- Penetration probe testing (ASTM C 803) is a method for
tation. See AC1 228.1 R for guidance on in place methods to the nondestructive determination, after correlation, of ap-
estimate concrete strength. proximate compressive strength of concrete in the field. The
It is sometimes desired to infer compressive strength from unit, originally known as the Windsor probe, is based on the
data produced by these methods. In so doing, carefully cali- principle that the penetration of the probe is inversely pro-
brate the measurements to the actual conditions encountered portional to the compressive strength of the concrete being
on each job, including concrete strength, aggregate type, and tested. Three probes are generally driven into the concrete
concrete surface conditions. The accuracy of the strength cor- using a powder-actuated device that delivers a specific ener-
relation may be no better than * 20%. Because a pulse-veloc- gy-producing force. Spring-loaded devices are also used to
ity survey provides an average pulse velocity through a drive the probes.
known thickness of concrete, whereas the impact hammer and The compressive strength is determined experimentally,
penetration probe depend on surface conditions, the pulse ve- usually by correlating with cores from the same area. It is
locity may provide a more consistent estimate of the concrete subject to many of the same limitations as the impact ham-
quality than the other two. Pulse-velocity data should be ob- mer. Also, it is not nondestructive, as the probes do damage
tained and interpreted only by experienced personnel. the concrete surface.
Pulse-velocity tests (ASTM C 597) can be used to detect the
velocity with which an impinged sound wave is propagated SHIPPING AND HANDLING SAMPLES
through concrete. Pulse velocity tests can be used on struc- When samples are shipped to a laboratory, complete infor-
tures to detect progressive deterioration, concealed cracking, mation should be included, securely attached to or identified
honeycombing, or other defects. Pulse velocity can also be with the sample. The information should include project,
used to locate concrete with considerably lower quality than sample number, complete material identification (type and
that specified. As a result of many studies on a wide range of grade), source, date of sampling, quantity represented, loca-
structures, investigators have deduced the following qualita- tion to be used in the structure, tests required, and shipper’s
tive description of concrete as indicated by pulse velocity identification. The samples must be adequately packed to
measurements: prevent damage in transit.
When concrete specimens are shipped by common carrier,
PULSE VELOCITY CONCRETE QUALITY they should be packed in suitable cushioning materials, with
15,000 f p s and above Excellent sufficient protection to prevent drying or damage from im-
12,000 to 15,000f p s Good pact. Green specimens, 1 or 2 days old, must be handled
10,000 to 12,000 f p s Questionable carefully because they can easily sustain serious damage.
7,000 to 10,Ooo f p s Poor Handling of freshly made specimens should be avoided for
Below 7,000 f p s Very poor the first day.
When specimens are to be moved by a vehicle, they should
If it is necessary to interpret pulse velocities in terms of be secured so that they do not sustain damage from bouncing
compressive strengths, six cores should be obtained from the or falling.
concrete in question. These cores should cover the range of
I
pulse velocities found, and they should be taken at locations AGGREGATE TESTING
where the pulse velocity has been actually measured. After The plant or field inspector may be able to perform routine
proper preparation, the cores are tested for compressive tests of aggregates in a field laboratory. This provides an added
strength, and this strength is correlated with pulse velocity. measure of quality control in the production of concrete.
The correlation will probably not be linear, and it may be Aggregate quality should be controlled at the point of pro-
necessary to identify and reject outlying data points. duction using a proper system of quality-control testing. The
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

S T D m A C I SP-12-ENGL 1999 Ubb2949 05483L3 b T 5
following tests can be readily performed in the field labora- ments selected at random from the unit being sampled and
tory as a check of quality. These are presented in simplified combine to form the field sample; (b) obtain each sample
form; exact details should be obtained from the Annual Book from the entire cross section of material as it is being dis-
of ASTM Standards. charged; and (c) use a pan supported on rails or a similar de-
vice, capable of intercepting the entire discharge stream and
Sieve or screen analysis of fine and coarse holding the material without overflowing.
aggregate-ASTM C 136 4. Sampling from stockpiles-(a) Avoid sampling from
1. Sample aggregates in accordance with appropriate meth- stockpiles if possible; (b) to sample from face of stockpile,
od given in ASTM D 75; insert a sample shield of rigid material into the face of the
2. Split sample by quartering or using a sample splitter; stockpile to prevent material from segregating as it is being
3. Use minimum test sample weights per ASTM C 136; sampled; (c) to sample from top of a stockpile, remove a
4. Dry the sample to a constant weight. For routine control minimum of 1 ft of the top. Select sample units at random
of grading, coarse aggregate need not be dried; and combine to form a field sample as required.
5. Weigh to the nearest 0.1 g for fine aggregate and 0.1
percent for coarse aggregates; Materials finer than the No. 200 sieve-ASTM C 117
6 . Place the sample over nest of sieves or screens arranged 1. Prepare a moist sample by mixing the sample and re-
with decreasing size of openings from top to bottom; duce it by splitting or quartering, The minimum test sample
7. Shake the sieves until not more than 1% of the weight after drying to a constant weight should be:
of the residue on any individual sieve will pass the sieve dur-
ing 1 min of continuous hand sieving; Nominal size of aemeeate 1 Minimum weight. E
8. Weigh the amounts retained on each sieve or screen and No. 8 100
record on a worksheet similar to that shown in Fig. 20.4; No.4 500
9. Calculate the percentage on the basis of the total weight 318 in. I 2000
314 in. 2500
of the sample, including any matenal finer than the No. 200
1-1í2 in. or larger 5000
(75 pm) sieve determined in accordance with ASTM C 117;
10. Calculated the fineness modulus by adding the cumu-
lative percentages retained on the following sieves, and di- 2. Place sample in a container of sufficient size so that i
viding by 100: No. 100, No. 50, No. 30, No. 16, No. 8, No. can be covered and agitating vigorously without loss;
4, 318 in., 314 in., 1-112 in., and larger, increasing in a ratio 3. Agitate the sample with sufficient vigor to completely
of 2 to 1. separate ail particles finer than the No. 200 from the coarse
particles and to bring the finer particles into suspension;
Sampling aggregates-ASTM D 75 4. Immediately pour the wash water containing the sus-
1. Sample size-Minimum composited samples sizes de- pended solids over the nested sieves, with the No. 16 on top
pend on nominal size, as follows: and the No. 200 on the bottom;
5. Add a second charge of water to the specimen in the
1
~~
Approximated minimum mass of

Maximum nominal size of aggregate ~ field samples, Ib container and repeat agitation and decantation. Repeat this
No. 8 I 25 until wash water is clear;
No.4 I 25 6. Return all material retained on the nested sieves by
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
318 in. 25 flushing to the washed sample;

112 in. 35 7. Dry the washed aggregate to constant weight at a tem-
314 in. I 55 perature of 230 19 F and weigh to nearest 0. 1% of the weight
1 in. 110 of the test sample;
1-112 in. 165
8. Calculate A, the percent passing the No. 200 sieve, to the
2 in. I 220
nearest 0.1%as follows:
2-112 in. ~~ ~~
I ~~
275
3 in. 330
3- 112 in. 385
2 . Samplingfrom conveyor belts-(a) Sample units select-

ed at random and secure a minimum of three samples of ap- where
proximately equal increments at random from the entire belt B = original dry weight of sample, g; and
width of a stopped conveyor; (b) place two vertical tem- C = dry weight of sample after washing, g.
plates, conforming to the belt, so that the material contained
between them will yield the required weight; and (c) scoop Clay lumps and friable particles in aggregates-
all of the aggregate between the templates and combine with ASTM C 142
the other samples as required in (a). The aggregate for this test consists of the material remain-
3. Sampling from bins or belt dischurge-(a) Secure a ing after completion of the test for materials finer than the
minimum of three samples of approximately equal incre- No. 200 sieve by washing.

S T D * A C I SP-2-ENGL 1979 Obb29q9 05Li831q 531 M
1. Dry the aggregate to constant weight at a temperature of the same percentage of clay lumps and friable particles as the
23019F; next larger or next smaller size.
2. Sieve the dried aggregate to obtain the fine-aggregate
portion consisting of particles coarser than the No. 16 sieve Organic impurities in fine aggregate-ASTM C 40
and smaller than the No. 4 sieve. From this, take test samples 1. Obtain a representative test sample of fine aggregate
weighing at least 100 g each; weighing approximately 450 g;
3, By sieving, separate the coarse-aggregate portion into 2. Fill the 12 oz graduated glass bottle to approximately
test samples of the following sizes: the 4-1/2 oz level with the sample of fine aggregate;
3. Add a 3% NaOH (lye) solution until the volume of the
fine aggregate solution, after shaking, is approximately 7 oz;
4. Stopper the bottle, shake vigorously, and then allow to
No. 4 to 3/8 in. IO00 stand for 24 h;
~
3/8 to 314 in. I 2000
5 . At the end of 24 h, hold the test sample and a Gardner
3/4 to 1-1/2 in. 3000
color scale or a reference color solution up to a light source
Over 1 - 1/2 in. 5000
and compare the color of the liquid in the bottle to the refer-
1-1/2in. or larger 5000 ence color plates on the Gardner scale. Record the color of
the liquid with respect to the reference color plates on the
4.Weigh each test sample and spread it in a thin layer on Gardner Scale;
the bottom of the container; cover it with water; and allow it 6. If the color of the liquid in the test bottle is darker than
to soak for 24 f 4 h; that of No. 3 plate on the Gardner color scale, consider the
5. Break all material that can be broken by squeezing be- fine aggregate under test may contain deleterious organic
tween thumb and forefinger. Do not use fingernail or press
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
compounds; further tests may be required.
against a hard surface. After breaking all discernible clay
lumps and friable particles, separate the detritus from the rest Specific gravity and absorption of coarse
of the sample by wet-sieving over the sizes shown in the fol- aggregate-ASTM C 127
lowing table: 1. Select approximately 5 kg of the aggregate from the
sample by splitting or quartering. Remove all material pass-
Sieve size for removing residue of
ing the No. 4 sieve;
Size of mticle making UD samule clay lumps and friable particles 2. Thoroughly wash the test sample and diy to constant weight
Fine aggregate No. 20 at a temperatme of 212 to 230 F. Cool in air at room temperature
No. 4 to 3/8 in. No. 8 and then immerse in water at room temperature for 24 f 4 h;
3/8 to 314 in. No. 4 3. Remove the specimen from the water and roll it in a
314 to 1-1/2 in.
~~ ~ ~
I No. 4 large absorbent cloth until all visible films of water are re-
Over 1-1/2 in. No. 4 moved. Weigh the specimen in this saturated, surface-dry
condition to the nearest 0.5 g;
6. Wet-sieve by passing water over the sample through the 4. After weighing, immediately place the saturated,
I
sieve while agitating until all undersize material has been re- surface-@ specimen in a sample container (wire basket of
moved; No. 6 or finer mesh of approximately 4000 to 7000 cm3) and
7. Remove the retained particles from the sieve and dry at weigh it in water at 73.4 f 3 F. The container should be sus-
a constant temperature of 230 f 9 F; then allow to cool and pended in water, shaken to remove entrapped air, and sup-
weigh to an accuracy of 0.2% of the original test sample; ported on a thin wire;
8. Calculate P, the percentage of clay lumps and friable 5. Oven-dry the specimen to constant weight at a temper-
particles in fine aggregates or individual sizes of coarse- ature of 212 to 230 F, cool it at room air temperature for 1 to
aggregates, as follows: 3 h, and weigh;
6. Calculate the bulk specific gravity on the saturated, sur-
face-dry basis:
P = 1oox-W - R
W
Bulk specific gravity (SSD) = B/(B - C)
where
W = weight of test sample, g; and where
R = weight of particles retained on the designated sieve, B = weight of SSD specimen in air,g;
after test, g; and C = weight of SSD specimen in water, g; and
9. For coarse aggregate, the percentage of clay lumps and 7. Calculate the percentage absorption as follows:
friable particles is the average based on the percentage of
clay and friable particles in each size fraction, weighted in Absorption, % = 100 ( B - A)/A
accordance with the grading of the original sample before
separation for testing. If the aggregate contains less than 5 % where
of any size specified, that size shall be considered to contain A = weight of oven-dry specimen in air, g.

STD.ACI SP-2-ENGL 1747 OLb29q9 0548335 Y7ô W
Specific gravity and absorption of fine C = weight of pycnometer with specimen and water, g; and
aggregate-ASTM C 128 10. Determine moisture absorption of the fine aggregate.
1. Select, by splitting or quartering, approximately 1000 g Immediately weigh 500.0 g of the SSD fine aggregate and
of fine aggregate from the sample; dry to constant weight at temperature of 212 to 230 F. Allow
2. Dry the sample in a suitable pan to constant weight at a to cool, and weigh to the nearest O. 1 g. Calculate the percent-
temperature of 212 to 230 F; age of absorption as follows:
3. Allow the sample to cool, cover with water, and let
stand for 24 * 4 h; Absorption, % = lOO(500 - A ) / A
4. Decant excess water, then spread the sample on a flat sur-
face exposed to warm circulating air to secure uniform drying. where
Continue until the specimen is in a free-flowing condition; A = weight of oven-dry specimen in air, g.
5. To check dryness, place a portion of the sample in a
conical mold held firmly on a smooth nonabsorbent surface Total moisture content of aggregate by drying-
with the large diameter down. Lightly tamp the aggregate ASTM C 566
surface 25 times with a metal tamper weighing 12 f 1/2 oz I . Select a representative sample of the aggregate by split-
and having a flat circular tamping face approximately 1 in. ting or quartering of not less than the following weights:
in diameter. Then lift the mold vertically.
If surface moisture is still present, the fine aggregate will ~ ~~
Nominal size of aggregate h i n i m u m weight of test sample, kg

retain the molded shape. Continue drying with stimng, and
1/4 in. (sand) I 0.5
test at frequent intervals until the tamped fine aggregate
3/8 in. I 1.5
slumps slightly upon removal of the mold. This indicates ~
1/2 in. 2.0

that it has reached the saturated, surface-dry condition;
3/4 in. 3.0
6. Immediately introduce 500.0 g of the SSD fine aggre-
1 in. 4.0
gate into the pycnometer (flask) and fill with water to ap-
1-1/2 in. 6.0
proximately 90% of capacity. Roll, invert, and agitate the
2 in. 8.0
pycnometer to eliminate all air bubbles; then add water to
bring the water level to the calibrated capacity. Keep the
temperature at 73.4 * 3 F. Determine total weight of pyc-
2 . Weigh the moist sample to the nearest 0.1%;
nometer, specimen, and water, to nearest O. 1 g;
3. Thoroughly dry the sample to constant weight. If a
7. Remove the fine aggregate from the pycnometer, dry to
constant weight at 2 12 to 230 F, cool in air at room temper-
ventilated oven is used, the temperature must be 230 9 F. *
If a hot plate or heat lamp is used, stir the sample frequently
ature 1/2 to 1-1/2 h, and weigh;
to avoid localized overheating;
8. Weigh the pycnometer filled to its calibration capacity
4. Allow the dried sample to cool, and weigh to the near-
with water at 13.4 I3 F;
est O. 1%;
9. Calculate specific gravity of the aggregate
5. Calculate P , the total moisture content (%) of the sam-
ple as follows:
Bulk specific gravity SSD = soo
B+SOO-C P = lOO(W-D)/D
A where
Bulk specific gravity dry =
B+500-C W = weight of original wet sample, g; and
D = weight of dried sample, g; and
where 6. The surface moisture (free water) is the difference be-
A = weight of dried sample from Step 7, g; tween the total moisture content and the known absorption of
B = weight of pycnometer filled with water, g; and the aggregate.
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER PO-RECORDS AND REPORTS
Written records and reports of inspections and tests are re- modifications to the structure. In particular, include all infor-
quired by contract documents, codes, and regulatory agencies. mation required by code and building officials.
The contract documents should consider the needs of the The records and reports mentioned in this chapter are illus-
project and regulatory r e q ~ e m e n twhen
s defining the specific trative of those that could be used when required by project
reports and records that must be developed. Many reports must conditions or contract documents. Eight sample forms are
be maintained for the life of the project and therefore should also shown at the end of this chapter. Obviously, the detailed
be legible, complete, and reliable. They provide a record of needs for inspection (and, therefore, the records and reports
as-built conditions, including verification of construction per- to verify it) are affected by many factors. Some of these fac-
formed in accordance with the contract documents, and in- tors, but by no means all, are the legal requirementsof the ju-
clude any noncompliance and corrective action taken. Many risdiction in the project?s locale, contract requirements, size
times, they are used to settle disputes and as a basis for future of project, location of project, criticality of the concrete be-
-
CONCRETE PLANT DAILY INSPECTION REPORT
DATE: REPORT#
(office Use)
CLIENT: CONTRACT#
SUPPLIER: PLANT LOCATION:
PROJECT CONTRACTOR:
WEATHER: TEMPERATURE: AM OF PM ?F
AGGREGATE H E A T E D : Y E S N O HOT WATER?-YES -NO
TOTAL CUBIC YARDS: MIXINGMETHOD: CENTRAL O TRUCK û
I DESIGNMIX ClAS.- DESIGN SLUMP.; (maximum)
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
BATCH WEIGHTS LUTERUISISOURCES
WATER ADJUSTMENTS (GAUONSICOBK: Y M D )

#I) -( t )=
Design H,O Fine Agg. H,O C O ~ WAgg. H20 MMng HzO
#2
MMng &O Plant H20 Field HzO
?MOISTURES
SAND: + -
Wet Weight Lhy Weight Free Weight Dry Weight % Moisture
STONE: - +
Wet Weight Dry Weght FreeWelgM DWWeght % Moisture
REMARKS:
TIME:- IR Day F u l l Day -0T (Hours) /i Client Signature: II

Company
I INSPECTOR:
PRINT SIGNATURE
Fig. 20.1-Sample plant inspection report.

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1999 Ob62749 0548317 240
RECORDS AND REPORTS 169
CONCRmE INSPECTION TICKET

I
Date: Load #
1 Client:
Projecflocation :
I
~ Contractor:
Plant:
I
Mix: Designwt. Target Actual TYPE: PSI:

CEMENT: Ibs. Moisture Control
SAND: ibs. % Gal.
ST/GWLW: Ibs. % Gal.
COMB.: Ibs. Revs,
AEA: oz. *Notes:
WRDA: oz.
OZ.
WATER: gals.
i arrived on job:
T
m Water added at job gals.
Time finished pouring: Total water gals.
Slump: Concrete Temp.:
Air Content: Air Temp.:
a w Unit Weight:
022 Where poured :
LL-i
I Mixing Revolutions Agitating Revolutions
Field Inspector’s Signature
Plant Inspector’s Signature

~~
Fig. 20.I-Sample plant inspection ticket.
ing placed, and amount of concrete being placed. Therefore, determine which ones to use and how to use them, both to
the checklists and forms in this chapter are suggested, not meet appropriate legal requirements and the client’s needs.
mandatory. They have all been found useful on some Just as in preparing contract documents to fit the needs of
projects, but certainly not for all. The party responsible for each particular project, so the inspection requirements are
determining the inspection program, usually the designer, determined for each project, and the records and reports re-
will find these lists and charts useful. He or she will have to quired for verification. The discussion, checklists, and report
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

STD A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1999 9 Obb2949 05Y831B 187 =
PLACEMENT CARD
CONCRETE
PREPLACEMENT CHECKOUT RECORD
SAFETY RELATED YES 0 NO U SCHEDULED PLACEMENT DATE
PLACEMENT NO. PLACEMENT DATE i

CONTRACTOR CONTRACT NO.
LOCATION
ELEVATION TO FINISH
CONCRETE CLASS
REFERENCE DUGS.
CONCRETE PLACING RECORD (Reverse S i d e )
CONCRETE PLACING RECORD
Concrete Placing Started Hours. Concrete Placing Completed HoUrS,
Concrete placed and compacted i n accordance with Specifications.

Cnnents:
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Contractor‘s Forenan
INSTRUCTIONS: Under “Cunnents” account for a l l unusual conditions and difficulties encountered
affecting the placing and protection of concrete; also any special instructions to
the contractor and action taken.
Fig. 20.2-Sample concrete placement card.

)raid fl..
i e l i t r t I R M. l b b Ih. h i e
pnvsicai i f s i s
Vical
Soundness Comp
Sample Time of Sattino (Avg 3 Strength
Spec -psi ) Ai,
Content
Speczftc
Surfoca
Autoclave
No
I"ilt0l Final
m Blaine
Exponiion 3 Doy 7 Doy 28 Day By Val SQ CM/GM
Hrr Min H r i Min.
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Spec. Req't. 0.80 Max. 45 Min. Min. 8 Hrs. Max. 1500 Min. 2500 Min. 3500 Min. 12.0 Max. 2800 Min.
e n w c a i anaivsis
LOSS Insol
Somple
No Sm02 Alzo3 Fs203 MgO
so3 O" Ign Rar c3s C3A
Spec. Req't. 21.0 Min. 6.0 Max. 6.0 Max. 5.0 Max. 3.0 Max. 3.0 Max. 0.75 Max. 8.0 Max.
I
lIll8IS
Material DOES [3 DOES NOT 0 comply with ipacificottonr

SQC l*<hnaion f SQC R.ri.r.i Doi.
œ
Fig. 20.3-Sample tests of cement form.
forms that follow should be helpful in this. They cannot and brations, uniformity tests, and plant conditions. A report of the
should not be used blindly for each project. Rather, those uniformity tests of mixtures should be based on mixture pro-
which are useful must be adapted to the legal and practical portions and materials similar to that used for the project. The
needs governing the individual project. verification of proper mixing time for central mixers or revo-
lutions for truck mixers should be substantiated and recorded.
QUALITY-CONTROL CHARTS The capability and performance of the plant to conform to
Some records and reports are used to control the construc- specified limits of weighing accuracy of each material must be
tion and ensure timely action in taking corrective steps to verified and recorded.
avoid substandard quality. Typical records of this type are
included in AC1 214. See the quality-control chart in AC1
Prebatching inspection report
2 14 and refer to Chapter 2. Early-strength data are plotted to
provide a graphical representation of quality trends. These The report of prebatching inspection may include the fol-
charts are also used to establish that the specified strength lowing:
criteria have been achieved or to indicate when corrective 1. Verification that scales have been calibrated against test
action is required. weights prior to due date. Evidence of test weight accuracy
and approval certificate of scales must be displayed where
BATCH PLANT AND MIXING INSPECTION they are easily seen and can be examined. They should in-
Inspection of batching and mixing concrete includes docu- clude effective dates and dates of recalibration;
mentation of required tests and verification that proper mate-
riais have been used, proper proportions batched, and proper 2. Verification that water-measuring devices and admix-
mixing completed. Prior to batching for production, verify ture dispensers have been properly calibrated and that the
that the batch plant conforms to the specified standards. Veri- calibration due date has not been passed; and
fication may be based on a certificate of conformance issued 3. Verification that moisture compensation probes have
by the National Ready Mixed Concrete Association, or on an been calibrated to sand-moisture determinations performed
inspection report of the plant incorporating the results of cali- by applicable test method.

S T D - A C 1 SP-Z-ENGL 1997 Obb2749 05V8320 835
Rrprrt rf
Cancroto Aggrogrto t o r t s
C A SOURCE: F A SOURCE:
C A SAMPLING: FA SAMPLING:
Dale: Dote:
Time: Time:
Location: Locotion:,
CGRtGAlE SIZE TINE AGGREGATE Ni.8 N0.67 No. 57 No.4
# Finer N0.200
%a<
.. 3.0 % M o i . 1.0 % Moi.' 1.0 Z Max.* 1.0 % MOI? 1.0 Z Mos..
SQC Su.crviroi
Fig. 20.4-Sample report of concrete aggregate tests.
Concrete production inspection records 1. Cement, pozzolans, and aggregates are stored in con-
Some of fie following checklist items we performed dur- formance to contract documents and applicable standards;
ing each day's operations; others may be at other frequencies 2. Sufficient quantities available for each specific placement;
depending upon conditions and contract documents. The in- 3. Releases for placement are issued as required by project
spection report of batch plant and central mixing plant should procedures. This may be verified by completion of the concrete
verify and document the following: placement card (Fig. 20.2) discussed later in this chapter;
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1999 = Ubb27Li7 05Li8321 771
ORGANIC IMPURITIES- ASTM C.40

F A SOURCE:
rest V a l u e
D a t e Sampled: SPEC: N o 3 Stondard or Less*

*Greater than No. 3 standard i o
Locol i o n : acceptable provided the d i e c o l o r a -
t i o n is d u e mainly t o small quanti-
C A SOURCE: f A SOURCE:
D o t e Sampled: Dote Sampled:
Location: Location:
AGGREGATE FINE
SIZE AGGRIGATE
Na.8 No.67 Nn.57 No.4
96 F R I A b L E
SPIC. 3.0% N t i . 5.0ZNti. 50% Nix. S.O%Nbt. 5.0% I t a .
AGGREGAT E FIN€
SIZE AGGREGATE N0.B N0.67 No.57 Na.4
% LIGHT PIECES
SPEC. 0.8% N a t . 0.8% N i t . 0.9llllii. 0.9% Naa. tMiI~i.
AGGREGATE SIZE NO.8 No.67 No.57 No.4
% SOIT
SPEC. 5.0% Nia. 5 0% M a i . 5.0% N i x . 5.0% hi.
Fig. 20.4 (cont.)-Sample report of concrete aggregate tests.
4. Automatic moisture-compensating device set for free 8. Verify proportions on scales and correlate with recorder
water on the fine aggregate. Indicate time, amount, and cor- if applicable;
relation with actual test result; 9. Verify total water used compared with that allowable to
5. Moisture compensation made for the coarse aggregate. maintain required w/cm;
Indicate time, amount, and correlation with actual test results; The daily summary report of concrete plant inspection
6. Record temperature of materials to verify compliance should include at least the following information:
with the contract documents; 1. Date;
7. Verify use of proper batch card, including mixing time 2 . Total yardage batched by class of concrete;
approved by uniformity tests if applicable; 3. Placement identification;
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Ylold Computation
CONCRETE Y I E L D
MOISTURE
DATCH P L A N 7 INSPECTOR (t) SPC REVILWER DA1E

.
4.Brand and type of cement and dates when shipments are Concrete mixing truck report
received and used; When ready-mix trucks are used for concrete mixing, re-
5. Source, size, and moisture contents of aggregates; ports should include the following inspection results com-
6. Temperatures of materials; and pared with specified limits:
7. Mixing times for central mixer. 1. Mixing and agitating revolutions;
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

S T D * A C I SP-2-ENGL 1999 = Obb2949 05'48323 5'4'4
REPORT OF REINFORCING STEEUFORM INSPECTION
Project. Report#: Page of

Client: Date of Inspection:
Location:
Drawing# Approval Date

Exact Location per the Drawing
Type of Placement Wails Footings Slabs Other
Corrective Action Yes No
Type of Action Needed
Approved for Concreting YES NO (Explain in Remarks) NA
Remarks - 1 _ _ 1 _
Work Approved (Except as noted above)? Yes No NA

Any NCR's Written7 -YES -NO -NA NCR# Office Faxed7 --YES -NO -NA
TIME __ 1/2 Day _. Full Day -0T (Hours) Authorized By
i
inspector's Name (Print) inspectors Signature Certification #
Client Rep's Signature FOR

Company
Fig.20.6-Sgmple reinforcing steel/frm inspectionform (front).
2. Time concrete delivery completed after batching com- 7. Project and structure;
pared with specified limits; 8. Weather conditions, including ambient temperatures;
3. Total water, including added water, to show conform- 9. Time at beginning and end of placement;
ance with the required w/cm requirement. 10. Total quantity of concrete placed;
1 1. Concrete rejected and cause;
CONCRETE PLACEMENT 12. Signature of inspector;
To aid quality evaluation, the report of the concrete place- 13. Class of concrete;
ment should include the following data obtained at the spec- 14. Methods of placing and consolidation;
ified times: 15. Methods of curing and protection;
1. Air content (list specification limit and test method); 16. Water added at site;
2. Temperature of fresh concrete; 17. Elapsed time; and
3. Slump (list specification limit and test method); 18. Condition of formwork and reinforcement.
4. Test cylinders identification and location, including
truck number, load number, and time of sampling; Concrete placement cards
5. Date; Some large construction projects use a system of concrete
6. Location of the placement (portion of the structure) and placement cards to control all preplacement conditions. See
placement number, if applicable; sample form in this chapter. This card identifies each activity
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

S T D a A C I SP-Z-ENGL 1799 W O b b 2 9 4 9 0548324 480 =
FORMS / REINFORCING CHECKLIST

N -
Plam uscd : contract Drawing 7 ORSbphwing? StampsaAppmvcd?: Datc:
Type ofBar Markings: N m h 7 : Line?: GredeSpecified: cOmct?-YES-NO
Horizontal Spacing Within Toleranoc : -YES_" V a i i d Spacing Withintolamcc : - Y E S N O
Did you wimt every vaticai bar 1: Y E S N O - AII~M~ss~D~~-YES-NO,COKCC~C~?-Y-N
Did you wuut every Hocizmtai bar 7 : -YES_" - AnyMrrnmg7-YES-NO COU&~?-YN
FORM INSPECTION
SubbwipprovedbyeogmCa: YES NO StiteFomiW&-DcpU~ WithinTdermce 7 Y E S N O
Fig. 20.6 -Sample reinforcing steevfonn inspectionform (back).
that must be completed prior to placement of the concrete. ments. Usually a responsible engineer or general supervisor
The supervisor responsible for each activity must sign and verifies all of the acknowledgments and releases the place-
date the activity when all of the requirements of the contract ment of concrete.
documents have been completed for that specific placement.
These activities include subgrade, construction joints, forms, Concrete delivery ticket
reinforcing steel and embedments, electrical conduit and em- The concrete supplier is required (by ASTM C 94) to sub-
bedments, piping and embedments, and structural embed- mit a delivery ticket with each load of concrete. This ticket
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1799 D Obb2747 0 5 9 8 3 2 5 317 D
PROJETT:
Clitnrr Rep. signsnirr: For:

COMPANY
TIME:__ IR DAY -N U D A Y _ _ûï (HOURS) OT AüîHORIZED B Y
CONCEIT SUPPLIER PLANT LDCATION:
LOCATION OF TOTAL CONCRETE PLACEMENT:

(DRAW MAP IF NEEDED)
Fig. 20.7-Sample concrete field testing data sheet.
serves as a certification of proportions and quantities deliv- 12. Amount of water added by receiver of concrete and the
ered. The minimum information should include: receiver's initials.
1. Name of ready-mix supplier and identification of Additional information that may be included on the deliv-
batch plant; ery ticket is:
2. Series number of ticket; I . Reading of revolution counter at the first addition of water;
3. Date and truck number; 2. Signature of ready-mixed concrete representative;
4. Name of contractor; 3. Type and brand of cement;
5. Specific designation of the job (name and location); 4. Amount of cement and pozzolans;
6. Specific class or designation of the concrete in con-
5. Total water content by the producer;
formance with that required by the contract documents;
7. Amount of concrete delivered (yd); 6. Maximum size of aggregate;
8. Time mixer was loaded or time of first mixing of ce- 7. Weight of fine aggregate and coarse aggregate;
ment and aggregates; 8. Type, name, and amount of each admixture;
9. Time of arrival at site; 9. Free water on the aggregate; and
10. Time discharge started; I O. Indication that all materials are as previously certified
1 1. Time completed delivery; and or approved.
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

S T D * A C I SP-2-ENGL 1997 Obb29Li9 054832b 253 W
CLIENT: REPORTNO:
PROJECT: REPORT DATE

CONTRACTOR PLANT.
SAMPLEDBY: DELIVEREDBY.
Location of Pour: Lab# Specified Strength:
Br C-31) WERE PERFORMED IN ACCORDANCEWITH ASTM?

ALL FIELDTESTS (C-l~.C-143.C-138.C-I73/231
FIELD TECHNICIANSCERTIFIEDBY A.C.I?
Copies To:
BY.
Fig. 20.8-Sample report of compressive test of concrete.
The delivery ticket may be supplemented by any additional

3. Date and results of test;
information required by the project specification. For exam-
ple, a copy of the printout for each batch (from an automatic 4. Information related to nonconformances;
printing unit incorporated in the batching system) containing 5. inspector or data recorder identification;
actual weights of all materials may be submitted by the pro- 6. Statement of acceptability of the results; and
ducer when required by the purchaser.
7. Signature of inspector or test technicians.
GENERAL RECORD REQUIREMENTS
Inspection and test records should contain the following RETENTION OF RECORDS
information as applicable: All records required by codes, contract documents, or
1. Description of the type of inspection; applicable procedures should be maintained in a suitable
2. Evidence of completing or verifying a manufacturing in- storage area. These records should be properly filed for expe-
spection or test operation; dient retrieval and maintained for the period of time required.
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1779 Obb2747 0548327 1 7 T 9
REFERENCES 179
CHAPTER 21-REFERENCES
American Concrete Institute, 1990, Field Reference Pennsylvania State University College of Engineering,
Manual: Specifications for Structural Concrete for Build- 1974, “Statistical Quality Control of Highway Construc-
ing with Selected ACI and ASTM References, SP-15(89), tion,” University Park, Pa., Dec.
Farmington Hills, Mich., 326 pp. Portland Cement Association, 1980, “Color and Texture in
American Concrete Institute, 1992, Fly Ash, Silica Architectural Concrete,” Publication No. SP021A, Skokie,
Fume, Slag, and Natural Pozzolans in Concrete, Proceed- Ill., 32 pp.
ings of Fourth International Conference, Istanbul, Tur- Portland Cement Association, 1988, “Removing Stains
key, SP-132, V . M. Malhotra, ed., Farmington Hills, and Cleaning Concrete Surfaces,” Publication No. IS2 14T,
Mich., 1692 pp. Skokie, Ill., 16 pp.
Portland Cement Association, 1994, Design and Control
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1994, Sig-
of Concrete Mixtures, 13th Edition, Skokie, Ill., 205 pp.
nificance of Tests and Properties of Concrete and Con-
crete-Making Materials, STP 169-C, Philadelphia, 1994, Post-Tensioning Institute, 1986, Post-Tensioning Manual,
623 pp. Phoenix, Ariz.
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, 1985, Tolerances for
ASTM, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, V. 04.02, Con- Precast and Prestressed Concrete, JR-307, Chicago, Ill., 87 pp.
crete and Aggregates, updated annually. PrecastPrestressed Concrete Institute, 1989,Architectural
California Department of Transportation, 1968, “Statisti- Precast Concrete, Chicago, Ill., 340 pp.
cal Quality Control of Highway Construction Materials,” PrecastRrestressed Concrete Institute, 1990, Manual for
Highway Research Report No. M&R 631 133-9, Final Re- Quality Control for Plants und Production of Architectural
port, Sacramento, Calif., May. Precast Concrete Products, MNL 117, Chicago, Ill.
Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute, 1997a, Placing Re- Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, 1991, Manual for
inforcing Bars, 7th Edition, Schaumburg, Ill. Quality Control for Plants and Production of Glass Fiber
Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute, 1997b, Manual of Reinforced Concrete Products, MNL- 130-91, Chicago, Ill.,
Standard Practice, 26th Edition, Schaumburg, Ill. 184 pp.
Hurd, M. K., 1989, Formwork for Concrete, SP-4, Amer- Precasflrestressed Concrete Institute, Manual for Quality
Control for Plants and Production of Precast Prestressed
ican Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Mich., 475 pp.
Concrete Products, MNL 116, Chicago.
McMillan, F. R., and Tuthill, Lewis H., 1987, Concrete U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1994, “Standard Practice
Primer, SP- 1, American Concrete Institute, Farmington for Concrete for Civil Work Structures,” Manual No.
Hills, Mich., 96 pp. 1110-2-2000, Washington, D.C., Feb.
National Institute of Standards and Technology, Speci- U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1995, “Evaluation and Re-
fications, Tolerances and Other Technical Requirements pair of Concrete Structures,” Engineer Manual No.
for Commercial Weighing and Measuring Devices, 4th 1110-2-2002, Washington, D.C., June 30.
Edition, Handbook No. 44, Gaithersburg, Md. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 1981, Concrete Manual, 8th
National Ready Mixed Concrete Association, 1992, “Cer- Edition, Denver, 627 pp.
tification of Ready Mixed Concrete Production Facilities,” Waddell, Joseph J., Concrete Construction Handbook, 3rd
Silver Spring, Md., 2 I pp. Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 978 pp.
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S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1999 W Obb2999 0598328 02b W
CHAPTER PP-STANDARDS, SPECIFICATIONS, TEST METHODS, AND REPORTS
Most of the standards listed as follows are those of ASTM. 117 Standard Specifications for Tolerances for Con-
To avoid duplication, standards of other organizations are crete Construction and Materials
listed only when the subject is not covered by ASTM stan- 201.2R Guide to Durable Concrete
dards. The following is a key to the organizations from which 207.1R Mass Concrete
copies of the various standards can be secured: 207.5R Roller-Compacted Mass Concrete
211.1 Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Normal, Heavyweight, and Mass Concrete
Transportation Officials, 444 N. Capitol St., 211.2 Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for
NW, Suite 225, Washington, D.C. 20001 Structural Lightweight Concrete
Phone: 202-624-5800 211.3 Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for
AC1 American Concrete Institute, P.O. Box 9094, No-Slump Concrete
Farmington Hills, Mich. 48333-9094 212.3R Chemical Admixtures for Concrete
Phone: 248-848-3700 213R Guide for Structural Lightweight Aggregate
AREA American Railway Engineering Association, 50 Concrete
F St., NW, Washington, D.C. 20001 214 Recommended Practice for Evaluation of
Phone: 202-639-2 190 Strength Test Results of Concrete
ASTM 100 Barr Harbor Dr., West Conshohocken, Pa. 223 Standard Practice for the Use of Shrinkage
19428-2959 Compensating Concrete
Phone: 6 10-832-9500 224.1R Causes, Evaluation, and Repair of Cracks in
Concrete Structures
AWS American Welding Society, 550 N.W. LeJeune
Rd., P.O. Box 351040, Miami, Fla. 33135 228.1R In-Place Methods to Estimate Concrete
Strength
NRMCA National Ready Mixed Concrete Association,
234R Guide for the Use of Silica Fume in Concrete
900 Spring St., Silver Spring, Md. 20910
301 Specifications for Structural Concrete for
Phone: 301-587- 1400
Buildings
USGPO U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington,
302.1R Guide for Concrete Floor and Slab Construction
D.C. 20401
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303R Guide to Cast in Place Architectural Concrete
USBR U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, P.O. Box 25007,
Practice
Denver, Colo. 80225
304R Guide for Measuring, Mixing, Transporting,
USACE Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army Waterways Ex- and Placing Concrete
periment Station, Vicksburg, Miss. 39180 State-of-the-Art Report on Preplaced Aggregate
304.1R
Concrete for Structural and Mass Concrete
Typically, these ASTM and other standards and committee 304.2R Placing Concrete by Pumping Methods
documents have a permanent serial designation (as C 33) fol- 304.3R Heavyweight Concrete Measuring, Mixing,
lowed by a number indicating the year of its adoption or lat- Transporting and Placing
est revision (as C 33-90). Most of these standards, reports, 305R Hot Weather Concreting
and guides are available as separate pamphlets. 306R Cold Weather Concreting
As standard specifications are revised frequently, always 308 Standard Practice for Curing Concrete
check to see whether the available copy of a given standard 309R Guide for Consolidation of Concrete
is the current one. 311.4R Guide for Concrete Inspection
311.5R Batch Plant Inspection and Field Testing of
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Ready-Mixed Concrete
Oficials 316R Recommendationsfor Construction of Concrete
M 73 Specifications for Cotton Mats for Curing Con- Pavements and Concrete Bases
crete Pavements 318 Building Code Requirements for Structural
M 74 Specifications for Subgrade Paper Concrete
T 103 Test for Soundness of Aggregates by Freezing 325.6R Texturing Concrete Pavements
and Thawing 325.9R Recommendationsfor Construction of Concrete
T 26 Test for Quality of Water to be Used in Concrete Pavements and Concrete Bases
xxx Specificationsfor Concrete Pavement Construction 345 Standard Practice for Concrete Highway Bridge
T 33 Methods of Testing Culvert Pipe, Sewer Pipe, Deck Construction
and Drain Tile 346 Standard Specification for Cast-in-Place Nonre-
inforced Concrete Pipe
American Concrete Institute 346R Recommendations for Cast-in-Place Nonrein-
116R Cement and Concrete Terminology forced Concrete Pipe

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STANDARDS, SPECIFICATIONS, TEST METHODS, AND REPORTS 181
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347R Guide to Form work for Concrete A 615 Specification for Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel
349 Code Requirements for Nuclear Safety Related Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
Concrete Structures A 616 Specification for Rail-Steel Deformed and Plain
359 Code for Concrete Reactor Vessels and Con- Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
tainments A 617 Specification for Axle-Steel Deformed and Plain
364.1R Guide for Evaluation of Concrete Structures Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
Prior to Rehabilitation A 706 Specification for Low Alloy Steel Deformed
423.3R Recommendations for Concrete Members Pre- Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
stressed with Unbonded Tendons A 722 Specification for Uncoated High-Strength Steel
503.1 Standard Specification for Bonding Hardened Bar for Prestressing Concrete
Concrete, Steel, Wood, Brick, and Other Mate- A 775 Specification for Epoxy Coated Reinforcing
rials to Hardened Concrete with a Multi Com- Steel Bars
ponent Epoxy Adhesive c 5 Specification for Quicklime for Structural Pur-
503.2 Standard Specification for Bonding Plastic poses
Concrete to Hardened Concrete with a C 14 Specification for Concrete Sewer, Storm Drain,
Multi-Component Epoxy System and Culvert Pipe
503.3 Standard Specification for Producing a C 29 Test for Unit Weight and Voids in Aggregate
Skid-Resistant Surface on Concrete by Use of a c 31 Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Com-
Multi-Component Epoxy System pression and Flexure Test Specimens in the Field
503.4 Standard Specification for Repairing Concrete c 33 Specification for Concrete Aggregates
with Epoxy Mortars c 39 Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylin-
504R Guide to Joint Sealants for Concrete Structures drical Concrete Specimens
506R Guide to Shotcrete C 40 Test Method for Organic Impurities in Fine Ag-
523.1R Guide for Cast-in-Place Low Density Concrete gregates for Concrete
523.2R Guide for Low Density Precast Concrete Floor, Test Method of Obtaining and Testing Drilled
C 42
Roof, and Wall Units Cores and Sawed Beams of Concrete
524R Guide to Portland Cement Plastering
c 55 Specification for Concrete Building Brick
546.1R Guide for Repair of Concrete Bridge Super-
C 70 Test Method for Surface Moisture in Fine Ag-
structures
gregate
548.1R Guide for Use of Polymers in Concrete
C 76 Specification for Reinforced Concrete Culvert,
551R Tilt-Up Concrete Structures
Storm Drain, and Sewer Pipe
C 78 Test Method for Flexural Strength of Concrete
American Railway Engineering Association
(Using Simple Beam with Third-Point Loading)
AREA Manual of the American Railway Engineering
C 87 Test Method for Effect of Organic Impurities in
Association
Fine Aggregate on Strength of Mortar
ASTM C 88 Test Method for Soundness of Aggregates by Use
A 36 Specification for Structural Steel of Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate
A 82 Specification for Steel Wire, Plain, for Concrete C 90 Specification for Load-bearing Concrete Ma-
Reinforcement sonry Units
A 184 Specification for Fabricated Deformed Steel C 91 Specification for Masonry Cement
Bar Mats for Concrete Reinforcement c 94 Specification for Ready Mixed Concrete
A 185 Specification for Steel Welded Wire Fabric, C 109 Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hy-
Plain, for Concrete Reinforcement draulic Cement Mortars
A 307 Specification for Carbon Steel Bolts and Studs C 114 Test Methods for Chemical Analysis of Hydrau-
A 325 Specification for Structural Bolts, Steel, Heat lic Cement
Treated C 115 Test Method for Fineness of Portland Cement by
A 416 Specification for Steel Strand, Uncoated Sev- the Turbidimeter
en-Wire Stress-Relieved for Prestressed Con- C 116 Test Method for Compressive Strength of Con-
crete crete Using Portions of Beams Broken in Flex-
A 421 Specification for Uncoated Stress-Relieved ure (Modified Cube Method)
Steel Wire for Prestressed Concrete C 117 Test Method for Materials Finer Than 75 pm (No.
A 490 Specification for Heat-Treated Steel Structural 200) Sieve in Mineral Aggregates by Washing
Bolts C 118 Specification for Concrete Pipe for Imgation or
A 496 Specification for Steel Wire, Deformed, for Drainage
Concrete Reinforcement C 123 Test Method for Lightweight Pieces in Aggregate
A 497 Specification for Steel Welded Wire Fabric, De- C 125 Terminology Relating to Concrete and Concrete
formed, for Concrete Reinforcement Aggregates

STDmACI SP-2-ENGL L777 W Obb2797 0598330 7 8 9 =
C 127 Test Method for Specific Gravity and Absorp- C 219 Standard Terminology Relating to Hydraulic
tion of Coarse Aggregate Cement
C 128 Test Method for Specific Gravity and Absorp- C 226 Specification for Air-Entraining Additions for
tion of Fine Aggregate Use in the Manufacture of Air-Entraining Port-
C 129 Specification for Non-Load-Bearing Concrete land Cement
Masonry Units C 227 Test for Potential Alkali Reactivity of Ce-
C 131 Test Method for Resistance to Degradation of ment-Aggregate Combinations
Small-Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and C 230 Specification for Flow Table for Use in Tests of
Impact in the Los Angeles Machine Hydraulic Cement
C 136 Test Method for Sieve Analysis of Fine and C 231 Test for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete
Coarse Aggregates by the Pressure Method
C 138 Test Method for Unit Weight, Yield, and Air C 232 Test for Bleeding of Concrete
Content (Gravimetric) of Concrete C 233 Test Method for Air-Entraining Admixtures for
C 139 Specification for Concrete Masonry Units for Concrete
Construction of Catch Basins and Manholes C 234 Test for Comparing Concretes on the Basis of
C 140 Methods of Sampling and Testing Concrete Ma- Bond Developed with Reinforcing Steel
sonry Units C 243 Test for Bleeding of Cement Pastes and Mortars
C 141 Specification for Hydraulic Hydrated Lime for C 260 Specification for Air-Entraining Admixtures for
Structural Purposes Concrete
C 142 Test Method for Clay Lumps and Friable Parti- C 265 Test for Calcium Sulfate in Hydrated Portland
cles in Aggregates Cement Mortar
C 143 Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic Cement C 266 Test for Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement
Concrete Paste by Gillmore Needles
c 144 Specification for Aggregate for Masonry Mortar
C 267 Test for Chemical Resistance of Mortars,
C 150 Specification for Portland Cement Grouts, and Monolithic Surfacings
C 151 Test for Autoclave Expansion of Portland Cement
C 270 Specification for Mortar for Unit Masonry
C 156 Test for Water Retention by Concrete Curing
C 289 Test Method for Potential Reactivity of Aggre-
Materials
gates (Chemical Method)
C 157 Test for Length Change of Hardened Hydraulic
C 293 Test for Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using
Cement Mortar and Concrete
Simple Beam with Center-Point Loading)
C 171 Specification for Sheet Materials for Curing
Concrete C 295 Standard Practice for Petrographic Examination
of Aggregates for Concrete
C 172 Method of Sampling Freshly Mixed Concrete
Test for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete C 309 Specification for Liquid Membrane-Fodng
C 173
by the Volumetric Method Compounds for Curing Concrete
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C 174 Test Method for Measuring Length of Drilled C 311 Sampling and Testing Fly Ash or Natural Poz-
Concrete Cores zolans for Use as a Mineral Admixture in Port-
Practice for Sampling and the Amount of Test- land Cement Concrete
C 183
ing of Hydraulic Cement C 330 Specification for Lightweight Aggregates for
c 184 Test for Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by the Structural Concrete
No. 100 and No. 200 Sieves C 331 Specification for Lightweight Aggregates for
C 186 Test for Heat of Hydration of Hydraulic Cement Concrete Masonry Units
C 187 Test for Normal Consistency of Hydraulic Cement C 332 Specification for Lightweight Aggregates for In-
C 188 Test for Density of Hydraulic Cement sulating Concrete
C 190 Test for Tensile Strength of Hydraulic Cement C 341 Test for Length Change of Drilled or Sawed
Mortars Specimens of Hydraulic Cement Mortar and
C 191 Test for Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Concrete
Vicat Needle C 342 Test for Potential Volume Change of Ce-
C 192 Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test ment-Aggregate Combinations
Specimens in the Laboratory c 359 Test Method for Early Stiffening of Portland Ce-
c 204 Test for Fineness of Portland Cement by Air Per- ment (Mortar Method)
meability Apparatus C 360 Test for Ball Penetration in Fresh Portland Ce-
c 206 Specification for Finishing Hydrated Lime ment Concrete
C 207 Specification for Hydrated Lime for Masonry C 403 Test Method for Time of Setting of Concrete
Purposes Mixtures by Penetration Resistance
C 215 Test for Fundamental Transverse, Longitudinal, C 451 Test Method for Early Stiffening of Portland Ce-
and Torsional Frequencies of Concrete Specimens ment (Paste Method)

S T D = A C I SP-2-ENGL 1999 O b b 2 7 4 9 0548331 b L O
STANDARDS, SPECIFICATIONS, TEST METHODS, AND REPORTS 183
c 457 Microscopical Determination of Air-Void Con- C 845 Standard Specification for Expansive Hydraulic
tent and Parameters of the Air-Void System in Cement
Hardened Concrete C 851 Recommended Practice for Estimating Scratch
C 465 Specification for Processing Additions for Use Hardness of Coarse Aggregate Particles
in Manufacture of Hydraulic Cements C 878 Test Method for Restrained Expansion of
C 469 Test Method for Static Modulus of Elasticity and Shrinkage Compensating Concrete
Poisson?s Ratio of Concrete in Compression c 881 Specification for Epoxy-Resin-Base Bonding
C 470 Specification for Molds for Forming Concrete Systems for Concrete
Test Cylinders Vertically c 939 Test Method for Flow of Grout for Pre-
c 494 Specification for Chemical Admixtures for placed-Aggregate Concrete (Flow Cone Method)
Concrete C 942 Test Method for CompressiveStrengthof Grouts for
c 495 Test for Compressive Strength of Lightweight Preplaced-Aggregate Concrete in the Laboratory
Insulating Concrete C 989 Specification for Ground Granulated Based-Fur-
C 496 Test for Splitting Tensile Strength of Cylindri- nace Slag for Use in Concrete and Mortars
cal Concrete Specimens C 1017 Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Use
C 511 Specificationsfor Moist Cabinets, Moist Rooms, in Producing Flowing Concrete
and Water Storage Tanks Used in the Testing of C 1064 Test Method for Temperature of Freshly Mixed
Hydraulic Cements and Concretes Portland Cement Concrete
C 513 Test Method for Obtaining and Testing Specimens C 1084 Test Method for Portland-Cement Content of
from Hardened Lightweight Insulating Concrete Hardened Hydraulic-Cement Concrete
for Compressive Strength C 1232 Terminology of Masonry
C 518 Test Method for Steady State Heat Flux Mea- C 1240 Specification for Silica Fume for Use in Hydraulic-
surements and Thermal Transmission Proper- Cement Concrete Mortar
ties by Means of the Heat Flow Meter D 75 Standard Practice for Sampling Aggregates
Apparatus D 98 Standard Specification for Calcium Chloride
c 535 Test for Resistance to Degradation of Large D 448 Classification for Standard Sizes of Coarse
Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact Aggregate for Road and Bridge Construction
in the Los Angeles Machine D 1037 Test Methods of Evaluating the Properties of
C 566 Test Method for Total Moisture Content of Ag- Wood Base Fiber and Particle Panel Materials
gregate by Drying D 2419 Test Method for Sand Equivalent Value of Soils
C 567 Test for Unit Weight of Structural Lightweight and Fine Aggregates
Concrete E4 Practices for Load Verification of Testing
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C 586 Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of Machines

Carbonate Rocks for Concrete Aggregates E 11 Specification for Wire Cloth Sieves for Testing
(Rock Cylinder Method) Purposes
c 595 Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements E 105 Practice for Probability Sampling of Materials
c 597 Test Method for Unit Weight of Structural E I19 Fire Tests of Building Construction and Materials
Lightweight Concrete E 329 Standard Specification for Agencies Engaged in
C 617 Practice for Capping Cylindrical Concrete Testing and/or Inspection of Materials used in
Specimens Construction
C 618 Specification for Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined
Natural Pozzolan for Use as a Mineral Admixture American Welding Society
in Portland Cement Concrete DI .4 Recommended Practice for Welding Reinforc-
C 666 Test Method for Resistance of Concrete to Rap- ing Steel, Metal Inserts, and Connections in Re-
id Freezing and Thawing inforced Concrete construction
C 682 Standard Practice for Evaluation of Frost Resis-
tance of Coarse Aggregates in Air Entrained National Ready Mired Concrete Association
Concrete by Critical Dilation Procedures Truck Mixer and Agitator Standards of the Truck
C 684 Test for Making, Accelerated Curing, and Test- Mixer Manufacturers Bureau
ing Concrete Compression Test Specimens Specificationsfor Concrete Pavement Construction
C 685 Specification for Concrete Made by Volumetric 137 ASTM Standards Relating to Aggregate and
Batching and Continuous Mixing Concrete
C 702 Standard Practice for Reducing Field Samples Concrete Plant Mixer Standards of the Plant
of Aggregate to Testing Size Mixer Manufacturers Division, CPMB
C 803 Test Method for Penetration Resistance of
Hardened Concrete U.S. A m y Corps of Engineers
c 805 Test Method for Rebound Number of Hardened CRD-C6 Test for Remolding Effort of Freshly Mixed
Concrete Concrete

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1 9 9 9 D Obb29Li9 05q8332 5 5 7 M
CRD-C13 Standard Specification for Air-Entraining Ad- U.S. Bureau of Reclamation

mixtures for Concrete 2 Sampling Hardened Concrete
CRD-C53 Test Method for Consistency of No-Slump Con- 23 Test for Unit Weight of Fresh Concrete at
crete Using the Modified Vebe Apparatus Mixer and Computations of Yield, Cement
CRD-C79 Standard Specification for Pigments for Integral- Content, Water Content, Aggregate Content,
ly Colored Concrete Air Content of Fresh Concrete and Yield of
CRD-C109 Field Test for Absorption by Aggregates Hardened Concrete
CRD-CI 19 Test for Flat and Elongated Particles in Coarse
Aggregates U S . Government
CRD-C129Standard Test Method for Index of Aggregate SS-C-158 Federal Specification for Cements, Hydraulic,
Particle Shape and Texture General Specifications (methods for sampling,
CRD-C213 Test for the Presence of Sugar in Cement, Mor- inspection, and testing)
tar, Concrete, and Aggregates
SS-C-181 Federal Specification for Cement, Masonry
CRD-C300 Specifications for Membrane-Forming Com-
pounds for Curing Concrete SS-C- 192 Federal Specification for Cements, Portland
CRD-C400Requirements for Water for Use in Mixing or SS-C-208 Federal Specification for Cement, Portland,
Curing Concrete Pozzolan
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S T D - A C 1 SP-Z-ENGL 1999 Obb29Li9 OS‘i8333 Li73
CHECKLIST OF INSPECTION 185
CHAPTER 23-CHECKLIST OF INSPECTION
For convenient reference, this chapter lists the various Location

items that might be covered by inspection. The list is intend- Alignment; provision for settlement
ed as a reference, not for daily use. For a particular job, the Stability (bearing; shores; ties and spacers)
inspector will find it necessary to have at hand a similar list Inspection openings
containing only those items that apply to the given specifi- Preparation of surfaces
cations, organization, and job conditions. Detailed informa- Final clean-up
tion regarding these items is contained in the foregoing Reinforcement in place
chapters. Also, refer to Appendix II in AC1 311.4R. Size (diameter; length; bends; end anchorage)
Location (number of bars; minimum clear spacing; mini-
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Preliminary mum coverage)

Study of plans and specifications; building codes Splicing
Division of duties between engineer’s representatives Stability (wiring; chairs and spacers)
Permissible tolerances of measurement Cleanness (no loose rust; no oil, paint, and dried mortar.)
Provision for records and reports Fixtures (location; stability; cleanness)
Contractor’s plant, calibrations, equipment, organization, Openings not shown on plans
and methods Calibration of batching devices
Condition of mixer; speed of operation
Proportioning Provision for continuous placement
Tests of aggregates Provision for curing
Proportioning of mixture Provision for protection against sun, rain, hot, or cold
Statistical analysis of mixture performance weather
Mixture computations Adequate tools and personnel for compaction, finishing,
Grading of mixed aggregates; batch quantities; yield; air and curing
content
Concreting
Materials Working conditions
General (applies to all materials) Weather; preparations completed; specified interval since
Identification; quantities (used, on hand); acceptability: previous placement; lighting for night work; covering
uniformity; storage conditions; handling methods; waste; and protection
schedule of testing Batching
Cement and pozzolan Cement; pozzolan; aggregates; water; admixtures
Sampling for laboratory test Check batching devices
Protection from dampness Check yield of concrete
Cement Temperature Mixing
Aggregates Minimum time; batches delayed in mixer; maximum time;
Acceptability tests overloading; number of revolutions of drum; water
Gradation; organic matter; deleterious substances; used; mixing capacity of drum; amount of concrete
soundness; resistance to abrasion; other tests Control of consistency
Control tests Observation of concrete being placed; tests; adjustments
Moisture; absorption; specific gravity; unit weights; of water or admixtures in mixture
voids Monitoring of air content
Admixtures Concrete temperature check
Reinforcing steel Conveying
Size; bending; surface condition No segregation of materials; no excessive stiffening or
Accessories drying out; time limits
Fixtures Placing
Other materials Temperature tests
Uniform and dense concrete; continuous operation; prepa-
Before concreting ration of contact surfaces; mortar bedding; vertical drop,
Lines and grades no dropping against forms or reinforcement; little or no
Excavation; foundations flow after depositing; depth of layers; water gain; rock
Location, dimensions, shape; drainage; preparation of pockets; removal of temporary ties and spacers; disposi-
surfaces tion of rejected batches; placing concrete under water
Forms Compacting
Specified type of form Thorough and uniform compaction; no overworking

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1999 W Obb2949 0548334 3 2 T
Contractionjoint Heating materials, contact surfaces, and enclosure; protec-

Location tion from drying, carbonation, and carbon monoxide
Forming or tooling Tight enclosure or insulated forms
Dowels or ties (if any) in place and aligned Removal of forms; protection from too rapid cooling
Construction and hinge joints
Location; preparation of surface Hot weather concreting
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Dowels or ties (if any) in place and aligned Cooling materials; prewetting aggregates and contact surfac-
Expansion and isolation joints es; protecting concrete
Joint filler material; location; alignment; stability; free- Limiting combinations of wind, relative humidity, and ambi-
dom from interference with subsequent movement ent temperature
Finishing of unformed surfaces
Shallow surface layer of mortar; removalíevaporationof Filling under base plates
bleed water; no overworking; first floating; alignment Preparation of base; proper mixture; complete filling of
of surface; final hard troweling; plastic-shrinkage voids
cracks; rain
Finishing of formed surfaces Pressure grouting
Condition of surfaces upon removal of forms (honey- Holes (depth, spacing, freedom from clogging)
comb, peeling, ragged tie holes, ragged form lines); Materials (acceptability, quantities used)
repair of defects; surface treatment; no surface drying Injection (sequence, pressure, times, completeness of pene-
Schedule of testing tration, no damage to structure)
After concreting Shotcrete

Protection from damage Materials (acceptability, quantities); condition of equipment;
Impact; overloading; maning of surfaces preliminary mixing; pressures (air, water); preparation of
Time of removal of forms surfaces; application (thickness, no sagging, construction
Curing joints); surface finish; curing; tests
Surfaces continuously moist; time of beginning curing;
length of curing period; see also concreting in cold and Two-course floors
hot weather Preparation of surface of base course; materials; proportions
Joints and consistency; uniform screeding; rolling or tamping;
Clean and seal first floating; final troweling; curing
Timing and alignment of sawn joints
Terrazzo
Thickness of layers; uniformity; curing; dividing strips
Tests of concrete
Consistency tests
Tests for air content stucco
Test for density of fresh concrete Mortar; preparation of backing surface; bonding to backing
Analysis of proportions of fresh concrete surface; uniform finish; curing each layer
Strength tests
Molding specimens; curing specimens (standard condi- Masonry
Units
tions, field conditions); field tests; shipping specimens
Laboratory tests for strength and absorption
to laboratory
Field inspection for size, shape, and soundness
Tests of hardened concrete
Construction
Cores
Impact hammer; probe Moisture content of units; completeness of bedding in mor-
Pullout tar; alignment; compliance with building code (mortar,
minimum wall thickness, lateral support, bonding courses,
Other tests
supports for beams, openings in walls)
Records and reports
Records: materials; mixture computations; batching and Cast stone
mixing; placing and curing; weather conditions Laboratory tests for strength and absorption
Reports: daily; summary Field inspection for soundness and uniformity (match sample)
Diary
Photographs Architectural concrete
Location and neat joining of molds; surface coating to avoid
sticking or staining; curing
SPECIAL WORK
Cold weather concreting Reinforcement near surface; support location and material
Limiting temperatures and times Vibrating to minimize bug holes
Outdoor air; enclosure; materials; concrete Color and texture; mockup

S T D * A C I SP-2-ENGL 2999 Obb2949 05g8335 2bb =
CHECKLIST OF INSPECTION 187
Protection against drip stains Air-entrained concrete

Surface repair; hole filling Accurate measurement of air-entraining agent; tests for air
content of concrete; regulation of air content; adjustment
Colored concrete of mixture to compensate for air content; avoidance of ex-
Pigments: matching of colors; thorough and intimate mixing cessive mixing or vibration; avoidance of wet consisten-
of color with cement; uniform application and troweling; cy; finishing
curing
Tilt-up construction
Painting Surface of casting platform; joints in sheet bond-breakers;
Surface cleaning; surface neutralizing (if needed); curing- timing and uniformity of liquid bond-breakers; alignment
drying of concrete; uniform application; curing portland- of edge forms; compaction of concrete at bottom comers;
cement paints connections to columns; provision for expansion, if spec-
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ified; strength of concrete at time of lifting; pick-up
Lightweight concrete points; avoidance of excessive pulling, jerking, or jarring
Lightweight aggregates (acceptability, prewetting, prevent-
ing segregation) Underwater construction
Cellular concrete (admixtures, timing of operations, mixing Avoidance of flowing water; temperatures; continuous
processes, foaming agents) placement; operation of tremie or bucket; minimizing of
Test for density wash; protection from flowing water for several days
Mass concrete Vacuum concrete

Times and rates of placement; avoidance of high or nonuni- Final thickness of slabs; timing and duration of application
form temperatures; bonding of lifts; prevention of aggre- of vacuum; uniformity of processing; condition of mats
gate breakage
Prestressed concrete
Preplaced-aggregateconcrete Strength of concrete at time of prestressing, sheathing of rein-
Gradation and placement of coarse aggregate; contamina- forcement (if specified); accurate placing of reinforcement;
tion prior to grouting; void content; composition and con- avoidance of obstruction or excessive friction; measure-
sistency of grout; sequence and pressures of grouting; ment of tension by means of jack pressure or lengthening
completeness of filling of voids; condition of equipment of steel, or both; thoroughness of grouting (if specified).

AC1 311.4R-95
Guide for Concrete Inspection

Reported by AC1 Committee 311
Roger E. Wilson Claude E. Jaycox

Chairman Secretary
Edward A. Abdun-Nur Oswin Keifer, Jr. Michael T. Russell

Joseph F. Artus0 Ralph O. Lane James L.Trujillo
Donald E. Dixon Charles W. Mayer Stanley E. Turney
Robert L.Henry Dixon O'Brien, Jr. Lewis H. Tuthiil
Thomas A. Johnson Jay R. Restera Bertold E. Weinberg
Francis W. Joyce
Committee members voting on the 1995 revisions:
Donald E. Dixon Claude E. Jaycox

Chairman Secretary
Gordon A. Anderson Robert S. Jenkins James L. Trujillo

Joseph E Artus0 Thomas A. Johnson Lewis H.Tuthill*
John E Cook Francis W. Joyce Woodward L. Vogt
Mario Diaz Oswin Keifer, Jr. Bertold E. Weinberg
Robert L. Henry Robert A. Middlecamp Roger E. Wilson
Charles J. Hookharn Michael T. Russell
* Deceased
This guide discusses the need for inspection of concrete construction and 1.4-Functional classification of inspection
other related activities, the types of inspection activities involved, and the 1.5-Inspection team
responsibilities of various individuals and organizations involved in these
activities. Field testing activities are considered to be pari of the inspection
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Chapter %Responsibilities, p. 311.4R-3

program. The Guide presents recommended plans for the various types of 2. l - S c o p e
inspection activities and means of implementing the program. Uecom-
2.2-0wner's responsibilities
mended minimum levels of inspection for various purposes and various
types of projects are given. 2.3-Engineer's responsibilities
2.4-Laboratory's responsibilities
Keywords: acceptability; concrete; contractors; evaluation; field tests; 2.5-Contractor's responsibilities
inspection; laboratories; measurement; quality control; tests. 2.6-Manufacturer's or fabricator's responsibilities
CONTENTS Chapter >Guidance for engineers, p. 311.4R-4

3.1-Scope
Chapter 1-Introduction, p. 311.4R-2 3.2-Written Plan
1.l-Philosophy 3.3-Construction conferences
1.2-General 3.4-Meetings
1.3-Definitions 3.5-Qualifications of personnel for inspection and test-
ing duties
AC1 Conunime Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and Commentaries
are intended for guidance in planning, designing, executing, and i n s p t - 3.6-Planning for inspection and testing
ing construction. This document is intended for the use of individu-
als who are competent to evaluate the significance and limitations
of its content and recommendations and who will accept responsibil-
ity for the application of the material it contains. The American Con- AC1 31 1.4R-95became effective May 1,1995and supersedes AC1 31 1.413-88.
crete institute disclaims any and all responsibiliiy for the stated The 1995 revisions consisted of the addition of Section 2.4 and many minor editorial
changes and adjustments throughout.
principles. The institute shall not be liable for any loss or damage arising Copyright 8 1995,American Concrete Institute.
therefrom. All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any
Reference to this document shall not be made in contract documents. means, including the making of copies by any photo process, 01 by electronic or
If items found in this document are desired by the ArchitectiEngineer mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual reprduc-
to be a part of the contract documents, they shall be restated in rnanda- tion or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless permission in
tory language for incorporation by the ArchitectEngineer. writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
188

189
Chapter &References, p. 311.4R-7 1.3.2 Quality control (QC)-Those actions related to the
4.1-Specified and/or recommended references physical characteristics of the materials, processes, and ser-
4.2-Cited references vices, which provide a means to measure and control the
4.3-Additional references characteristics to predetermined quantitative criteria. QC is a
production tool.
Appendix I-Quality assurance systems, p. 31 1.4R-7 1.3.3 Owner--The individual or organization having finan-
cial and legal responsibility for construction of a project, as
Appendix II-Checklist for use with inspection and test- well as bearing the ultimate responsibility for the public
ing levels A, B, and C, p. 311.4R-8 health, welfare, and safety related to the project. For many
purposes in this report, the term “owner” includes those or-
Appendix III-Batch Plant Inspection and Field Testing ganizations or individuals acting as agent for the owner.
of Ready-Mixed Concrete (AC1 311.5R-88) (synopsis 1.3.4 Engineer-The architectural or engineering organi-
only), p. 311.4R-12 zation with responsibility to the owner to perform the struc-
tural design, produce design drawings, define construction
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
requirements, and prepare specifications for the project.
1.1-Philosoph y 1.3.5 Contractor-The organization with responsibility to
construct a project according to the project specifications
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Individuals and organizations involved with inspection
must recognize that needs and requirements will vary and and drawings.
must be tailored to each individual project. The actual level 1.3.6 Construction manager-The construction manage-
of inspection to be used will depend on the type and com- ment organization that becomes a member of the team of
plexity of the project, special features involved, quality level owner-engineer-construction manager, in a project delivery
desired (see 3.6.4.l), specific legal requirements, and the system that varies from the traditional design-bid-build sys-
purpose of the inspection program. Any of these may make tem. The manager’s role is to coordinate and communicate
necessary the addition of more detailed inspection require- the entire project process to minimize project completion
ments, or may warrant lessening the requirements shown. time and cost.
1.3.7 Inspection organization-The organization respon-
1.2-General sible for providing acceptance inspection and testing for the
Inspection is not an end in itself. It is simply a subsystem owner, or providing quality control inspection and testing for
of the quality assurance system and of a contractor or pro- the contractor or producer.
ducer’s quality control system.* In addition, inspection may 1.3.8 Inspection--The term “inspection” as used herein in-
be part of the activities of a governmental body charged with cludes not only visual observations and field measurements,
enforcing legal codes and other regulations. Inspection and but also laboratory testing and the assembly and evaluation
testing only confirm whether the product or process meets of test data.
the criteria established, but do not add quality by themselves. 1.3.9 Testing laboratory-An independent commercial
The information derived from the inspection and testing pro- organization that provides testing services to owners, gov-
cess, however, when properly evaluated and with conclu- ernmental agencies, engineers, contractors, and material or
sions and decisions implemented, will result in improvement product manufacturers.
of the quality of the product or process. It also must be rec- 1.3.10 Material manufacturer or supplier-The organiza-
ognized that the intended quality is achieved only by imple- tion responsible for producing or manufacturing a product or
mentation of an adequate quality assurance program. Such a material used in the process of construction or for supplying
program affects the complete project from planning through products or materials to a project, with or without perform-
design and construction to acceptance by the owner. Quality ing additional operations on the product or material.
of work during the construction phase is achieved almost en-
tirely by the contractor or producer’s quality control pro- 1.4-Functional classification of inspection
gram. This quality control program involves everyone from Inspection activities and organizations are mainly con-
management to field supervisors to the workmen them- cerned with the following four functions.
selves. Quality control must have the strong active support of 1.4.1 Acceptance inspection-A series of formalized ac-
top management, and the active concern and participation of tivities and procedures that provides the owner of the struc-
everyone involved in the construction process. Again, in- ture being built with an acceptable degree of assurance that
spection and testing are only a part, although a very impor- the contractor satisfies his obligations, as described in the
tant part, of both quality assurance and quality control contract documents. The evaluation of tests performed and
programs. of the observation of procedures and practices used in the
1.&Definitions construction should permit the determination of conform-
1.3.1 Quality assurance (QA)-All those planned and sys- ance to prescribed acceptance standards.
tematic actions necessary to insure that the final product will 1.4.2 Quality control inspection-Contractor-Quality
perform its intended function. QA is a management tool. control inspection by the contractor is a series of formalized
activities and procedures that are part of the contractor’s op-
* See Appendix I-Quality A\\urmce Systems eration providing in-process evaluation of the quality of con-

S T D - A C 1 SP-Z-ENGL 1999 m ObL29Li9 0548338 7’75 m
struction. This helps to assure the contractor that the finished 2.2-Owner’s responsibilities
construction will meet all requirements of the project plans 2.2.1 The owner and the engineer are responsible for ac-
and specifications and thus will be accepted by the owner‘s ceptance inspection and testing. Engineers should provide
representative. owners with alternatives and informationenabling the owner
1.4.3 Quaiis, control inspection-Producer-Quality to recognize and evaluate the quality/cost/maintenance rela-
control inspection by the producer is a series of formalized tionships involved in the construction. Owners must under-
activities and procedures that are part of the fabricating or stand that field inspection and testing needs to be provided to
manufacturing operation of a producer of concrete materials assure conformance to codes and quality requirements. The
or products who furnishes to the construction industry, rather owner should review inspection plans with the engineer and,
than only to a specific project. Examples are operations of where appropriate, select the level of acceptance inspection
cement and aggregate producers, ready-mixed concrete pro- required, consistent with the size, quality, complexity, and
ducers, precasting plants, and prestressing yards. These in- needs of the project.
spection forces operate essentially as those described for the 2.2.2 The acceptance inspection forces are responsible for,
contractor. They aid in assuring that finished products will and can only be involved with, determining that materials,
meet general specifications or those specifications relative to procedures, and end products conform to the requirements of
a specific project. the project plans and specifications. The contractor is obli-
1.4.4 Regulatory inspection-A series of formalized ac- gated to meet all requirements of the project specifications.
tivities and procedures employed by governmental bodies For the inspector to accept less than required deprives the
(licensing boards, building permit boards, etc.) charged with owner of full value, while requiring more than called for in
responsibility for enforcing building codes and other regula- the plans and specifications places an improper burden on
tions. In this case, the inspection forces will have responsi- the contractor. Either action is a contract violation.
bility for assuring that the finished structure conforms to 2.2.3 The inspection forces representing the owner have
requirements of the codes or regulations. The organization no responsibility or authority to manage the contractor’s
and activities of these inspection forces are governed almost forces. Inspection requirements on projects supervised by a
entirely by legai regulations. construction manager should be detailed by the engineer and
should be carried out by the owner.
1.5-Inspection team 2.2.4 The owner should be responsible, in conjunction
Regardless of classification, an inspection team or group with the engineer, for arranging a preconstruction confer-
may consist of a number of individuals or, for very smail ence including all parties involved in the construction. The
projects, a single individual. Inspection (including testing) conference should establish lines of communication and
may be performed by a variety of groups such as: identify responsibilities to achieve quality. To be effective,
1.5.1 Owner’s inspection force-A qualified inspection the inspection forces must have the acknowledged support of
force maintained by the owner. Examples would be perma- the owner.
nent or semi-permanent forces of governmental agencies or 2.2.5 The fee for acceptance inspection should be a sepa-
large industries with continuing building programs. rate and distinct item and should be paid by the owner direct-
1.5.2 Engineer’s inspection force-An inspection force ly to the inspection organization or to the engineer (unless he
trained and maintained by an engineeringfirm (architect-en- is also the builder) who will in turn pay the inspection orga-
gineer f m )for work on projects designed by the f m . nization. The owner or engineer should avoid the undesir-
1.5.3 Laboratory’s inspection force-An inspection (and able practice of arranging payment for acceptance inspection
testing) force trained and maintained by a commercial labo- and testing services through the contractor. Such practice is
ratory to provide contractual testing and inspection services. not in the owner’s interest. Impartial service is difficult un-
1.5.4 Contractor’s inspection force-An inspection force der such circumstances,and the cost is eventually paid by the
trained and maintained by a contractor to provide quality owner in any case.
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control (in-process) inspection on projects it constructs.

1.5.5 Material manufacturers and suppliers inspection 2.3-Engineer’s responsibilities
force-An inspection (and testing) force trained and main- 2.3.1 For the protection of the owner and the public, the re-
tained by a concrete material and product manufacturing and sponsibility for planning and detailing acceptance inspection
fabricating f m for its own in-house use in quality control should be vested in the engineer as a continuing function of
(in-process) inspection and testing. the design responsibility. The responsibility of the engineer
for this inspection may be discharged directly or may be del-
egated to an independentinspection organization responsible
CHAPTER 2-RESPONSIBILITIES to the engineer.
2.3.2 If the engineer is also responsible for construction,
2.1-Scope an independent inspection organization should be employed
This section defines the general responsibilities placed by the owner. In those cases in which the owner provides the
upon the owner, engineer, contractor, and manufacturer or engineering service, the owner should also provide accep-
fabricator in conforming to the recommendations of this tance inspection, or employ an independent inspection orga-
guide. nization.

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1777 D llbb2747 0 5 4 8 3 3 9 701
APPENDIX: GUIDE FOR CONCRETE INSPECTION 191
2.4-Laboratory’s responsibilities rectly to management. The cost is often returned many times
2.4.1 The testing laboratory selected by the owner should over through reduction of rejections and savings in replace-
perform acceptance testing and inspection in accordance ments and repairs. Sometimes this inspection work is an in-
with the requirements of AC1 301. formal and automatic part of the contractor’s operations,
2.4.2 The laboratory should perform the acceptance in- performed by regular production supervisors.
spection given in paragraph 3.6.2. They should perform tests 2.5.4 Inspection performed by or for the contractor, partic-
and inspection of the concrete and reinforcing materials as ularly when contractually required, will often be much more
the work progresses. Failure to detect any defective work or detailed than is the usual practice for acceptance inspection.
material shall not in any way prevent later rejection when The contractor’s forces should make a much more detailed
such defect is discovered, not shall it obligate the owner or inspection of form alignment, reinforcing bar positioning,
architecdengineer for final acceptance. joints, cleanup of forms, and other parts of the placements.
2.4.3 The laboratory should be accredited in accordance Even if not required by the project specifications, the con-
with ASTM C 1077, “Standard Practice for Laboratories tractor should use quality control inspection to insure against
Testing Concrete and Concrete Aggregates for Use in Con- later rejection of a complex placement. If such items are not
struction and Criteria for Laboratory Evaluation.” The test- covered by a formal quality control inspection team, they
ing laboratory should have its facilities, personnel, and should be covered by the contractor’s supervisory personnel.
procedures inspected by a qualified national authority such 2.5.5 When the project specifications require extensive
as the Materials Reference Laboratories at the National Bu- quality control inspection and testing by the contractor, the
reau of Standards at intervals of approximately 24 months, as owner should not reduce or eliminate acceptance inspection.
given in ASTM E 329, “Standard Recommended Practice Otherwise the contractor’s quality control inspection pro-
for Inspection and Testing Agencies for Concrete, Steel and gram becomes the owner’s acceptance inspection program
Bituminous Materials as Used in Construction.” and nullifies the system. The objections are exactly as stated
2.4.4 As a professional service, the selection of the labora- previously against the practice of having the contractor hire
tory for acceptance inspection should be based on qualifica- and pay an inspection force to perform acceptance testing for
tions. It should be done as carefully as the selection of the the owner. When the owner requires the contractor to have a
architecdengineer. The owner should check the physical fa- quality control inspection program, the owner should still ac-
cilities of the laboratory, review the supervisory program cept responsibility for acceptance inspection to provide as-
and the qualifications of the supervisory staff, review the lat- surance that the contractor’s quality control program
est evaluation made by the evaluation authority such as that achieves its objectives.
made by the Cement Concrete Reference Laboratory 2.5.6 Quality control inspection other than or in addition to
(CCRL) and assure that any necessary corrective measures that required by the project specifications will be as directed
have been taken. It should review the organization’s ongoing by the contractor’s management. These inspection details
training program of its personnel. The personnel should meet and criteria will be based on management’s judgment as to
the qualifications of paragraph 3.5. The owner should also items and criteria necessary to assure that all aspects of
review the qualifications of all testing and inspection person- workmanship and the finished product will meet the require-
nel to be assigned to the owner’s project. The owner’s ap- ments of the project plans and specifications and will thus be
proval should be required for all personnel before such accepted by the owner.
assignment.
2.6Manufacturer’s or fabricator’s responsibilities
2.5-Contractor’s responsibilities Quality control inspection by the manufacturer or fabrica-
2.5.1 Coordination and scheduling of acceptance inspector should parallel the contractor’s programs. Program con-
tion should be made a function of the contractor. This will tent depends on contractual requirements and on the
provide timely inspections and avoid owner-caused con- manufacturer’s quality control process.
struction delays.
2.5.2 Quality control inspection, or in-process inspection, CHAPTER %GUIDANCE FOR ENGINEERS
is performed by contractor personnel or others specially
hired by the contractor. These forces are most effective when 3.1-Scope
they report directly to the contractor’s management. It is im- This section gives specific recommendations to the engi-
portant that these activities be actively supported by manage- neer in implementing inspection and testing programs. Gen-
ment. Inspection and testing by or for the contractor, his eral guidelines are also given for three categories of projects.
subcontractors, or concrete suppliers is separate and distinct
from acceptance inspection for the owner. 3.2-Written plan
2.5.3 In some construction contracts, the contractor is re- Even the smallest job can benefit from a written plan. A
quired to provide a specified amount of inspection (and test- small job may only require a list of items to be inspected and
ing) as part of a formal quality control program. When not tests to be conducted for acceptance purposes, but it becomes
contractually required, many contractors still maintain a invaluable in developing adequate communication and un-
quality control program, which includes inspection and test- derstanding between the owner, engineer, contractor, inspec-
ing forces separate from the line of supervision, reporting dition organization, and testing laboratory. It is recommended
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STD.ACI SP-2-ENGL 1999 = Obb2999 0598390 b 2 3
that all projects use some form of written plan or checklist. equacy of the quality control function, project specifications
On complex projects, a written plan detailing responsibilities can direct that the contractor provide specific testing and in-
for acceptance inspection and testing, procedures for docu- spections as part of the quality control program with results
mentation of inspections and tests, reporting of results, han- disseminated to the owner and engineer. When this is done,
dling of nonconformances and changes, record retention, acceptance inspection should not be eliminated, but it usual-
and auditing the process of the work is a necessity. ly does not require the detail or emphasis that might other-
wise be required to satisfy quality assurance concerns.
3.3-Construction conferences During the course of the project, when a concern about the
In accordance with Section 2.2.4, a preconstruction con- adequacy of quality control exists, acceptance inspection
ference is recommended for all except the very smallest should necessarily be more rigorous until the contractors'
projects to establish lines of communication at the start of a quality control activities reflect or remove reason for con-
project. This conference should include all parties involved cern.
with the construction. Its main purpose is to identify respon- 3.6.2 Acceptance inspection
sibilities and establish procedures that will allow construc- 3.6.2.1 The engineer should evaluate whether or not it is
tion to proceed in a manner that will assure the best possible necessary to conduct prequalification tests of the materials to
quality in line with the established costs. be used in the project. In the event materials with past service
records are to be used, earlier qualification tests may be re-
3.4-Meetings lied upon or satisfactory performance in a similar environ-
Regular meetings of the contractor, engineer, ready-mixed ment may be used as the basis for acceptance. If
concrete producer, inspection organization, and testing labo- prequalification tests are to be conducted, the Engineer
ratory are also recommended. The frequency of meetings is should specify the tests and the acceptance criteria.
contingent on the size and complexity of the project. These 3.6.2.2 Approval of mix designs to be used in the project
meetings provide for continuing communication and an un- must be based on reliable criteria. It is recommended that the
derstanding of problem areas as they develop. The agenda procedures and criteria established by AC1 301 be followed.
should allow for review of the past period's activity and a 3.6.2.3 On a project basis, evaluate the need for certifica-
schedule of activities for the current period. tion of batch plants prior to concrete production and consider
a qualification program for truck mixers, including mixer
3.5-Qualifications of personnel for inspection and test- uniformity tests. National Ready Mixed Concrete Asso-
ing duties ciation' certification procedures are recommended.
3.5.1 The qualifications of personnel conducting inspec- 3.6.2.4 Sampling and testing of concrete materials at es-
tions and tests are critical to attaining the desired level of tablished intervals during construction is usually required
quality, since erroneous results of tests and inspections can and some properties will need to be monitored on a daily,
cause costiy actions that are unwarranted. weekly, or monthly basis. Generally, qualification tests will
3.5.2 The AC1 certification program currently outlines not need to be repeated during construction, but new qualifi-
training programs and certification of personnel in the fol- cation tests must be performed whenever there is a change in
lowing areas: Concrete Field Testing Technician-Grade I; material or material source. Material test reports for cement,
Concrete Laboratory Testing Technician-Grades I and II; admixtures, and reinforcing steel can usually be relied upon
Concrete Construction Inspector-Level II, and Inspector for acceptance of these materials as delivered from the mate-
In-Training; Concrete Transportation Construction Inspec- rial manufacturer. To insure more reliability, manufacturers'
tor, and Inspector In-Training; Concrete Fiatwork Finisher QNQC programs should be assessed and qualified per AC1
and Concrete Fiatwork Technician; and Concrete Inspec- 121R, QA Systems for Concrete Construction.
tor-level III. 3.6.2.5 Daily inspection of batching may be needed, de-
All personnel doing concrete inspection and testing work pending on the level of plant automation, concrete strength,
shall have demonstrated a knowledge and ability to perform and quality level required. Regular checks for yield and ag-
the necessary test procedures equivalent to the minimum gregate moisture content are desirable.
guidelines for certification in the appropriate AC1 category. 3.6.2.6 Inspection of forming, preplacement, placement,
and post-placement of concrete activities should be part of
3.6-Planning for inspection and testing the acceptance process for most projects and special precau-
3.6.1 General-Acceptance inspection should only be de- tions should be considered during hot- and cold-weather
tailed enough to permit adequate evaluation of the product or concreting.
process. The contractor and ready-mixed concrete producer 3.6.2.7 When form removal times are of importance to
should be encouraged to provide their own formalized qual- structural strength and stability, they may require monitoring
ity control programs. by field curing of strength specimens or by using some form
If acceptance inspection becomes very detailed, contrac- of nondestructivetesting. Procedures and criteria established
tors and ready-mixed concrete producers often rely on ac- by AC1 305R and 306R are recommended.
ceptance inspection and tests in lieu of their own quality 3.6.2.8 Strength tests of concrete to correlate concrete pro-
control. duction quality and design assumptions are almost aiways
If there is concern by the owner or engineer about the ad- required.
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S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1997 = O b b 2 9 4 9 0548343 5 b T
3.6.3 Qualiiy control ceptance inspection program. They are:

3.6.3.1 Quality control, as stated earlier, is a function of the Table 3.1-Inspection and Testing Level A-Inspection
construction contractor. The contractor, however, may or Activities Recommended for Complex Projects
may not be directly involved in the production of the con- Table 3.2-Inspection and Testing Level B-Inspection
crete. Contractual relationships will determine these respon- Activities Recommended for Moderate Projects
sibilities, and whether or not the contractor or the ready- Table 3.3-Inspection and Testing Level C-Inspection
mixed concrete producer will be directly responsible for con- Activities Recommended for Minor Projects
crete quality control. The activities specified for each level are typical activities.
3.6.3.2 Contractors purchasing ready-mixed concrete from In practice, due to specific needs of a particular project, it
an independent ready-mixed concrete producer usually rely may be desirable to add additional items or in a special case
on the producer’s quality control and do not get directly in- to lower the requirements. The items addressed in Levels A,
volved in the production process. However, the contractor
B, and C are intended for acceptance inspection activities
should monitor the quality control reports of the ready-mixed
when adequate quality control is presumed on the part of the
concrete producer.
contractor. If some of these items are to be included in
3.6.3.3 Contractors operating their own concrete produc-
project specifications and are to be performed by the contrac-
tion facilities should assume direct responsibility for these
tor, modification should be made in the acceptance inspec-
quality control activities.
tion requirements.
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3.6.4 Implementation
3.6.4.1 Three levels of inspection and testing, with appro- Table 3.2-Inspection activities recommended for
priate project examples and criteria, have been developed to moderate projects
aid in the selection of items to be included in an owner’s ac- Inspection and testing Level B
Project examples Industrial and commercial building construction
Low-rise construction
Small bridge construction
Arterial streets or feeder route construction
Scope of activities Sampling and testing of concrete materials prior to
Inspection and testing Level A recommended for construction and at established intervals during con-
Project examples High-rise Construction acceptance inspection struction.
Parking garage construction programs Use of proven materials and material test reports
Dam construction accepted for some required tests.
Major bridge construction Approval of concrete mixes based on AC1 301 and
Power plant construction AC1 3 18.
Interstate or primary highway construction Inspection of batch plant storage, production facili-
Docks and harbor construction ties, and delivery trucks prior to construction.
Scope of activities Sampling and testing of concrete materials for com- Random inspection of batching operation during
recommended for plete prequalification of materials for required construction with checks for vields.
acceptance inspection properties.
programs Replacement, placement, and post-placement
Sampling and testing of concrete materials at estab- inspection of concreting activities (including cur-
ing). Special attention to mass concrete, hot
weather concreting, and cold weather concreting.
Sampling and testing of concrete in the field at
established intervals by independent testing labora-
tory or other qualified personnel acting as agents
for the owner.
Monitoring maturity of concrete prior to form
removal or monitoring of other activities such as
post-tensioning, by means of a field-cured cylinder
test program, or a nondestructive testing program.
Laboratory tests of concrete cylinders for accep-
tance of concrete strength.
Table 3.3-Inspection activities recommended for minor

projects
Inspection and testing Level C
Project examples Residential construction
Single-family homes construction
Catch basins and small drainage structures con-
struction
Residential streets, curbs, and gutters construction
Scope of activities Use of proven materials and concrete mix designs
recommended for recommended.
acceptance inspection Random testing of concrete and materials during
programs construction.
Random inspection of concreting activities.
Submittal of test samples by the contractor in some
instances.
Laboratory tests of concrete cylinders for accep-
tance of concrete strength.

S T D * A C I SP-2-ENGL 1779 W Obb27119 05LiA3Li2 LiTb
3.6.4.2 Appendix II has been developed as an inspection Concrete Quality Control Checklist; and Section 3, Certifi-
and testing checklist which details the Scope of Activities cation of Ready Mixed Concrete Production Facilities.
given in each of the inspection levels (Tables 3.1, 3.2, and 2. “Design and Construction of Post-Tensioned Slabs on
3.3). Appendix II can be used both for selecting specific Ground,” Post-TensioningInstitute, Phoenix, 1980, Section
owner acceptance inspection items and for determining ap- 9.8, Inspection, p. 26.
propriate contractor quality control items. 3. Post-TensioningManual, 3rd Edition, Post-Tensioning
3.6.4.3 Specialty work-The special nature of some con- Institute, Phoenix, 198i, 323 pp.
struction projects may require items of inspection not listed
in Appendix II. Such items can be added by the engineer to 4.3-Additional references
insure adequate conformance to quality items deemed im- 1. Abdun-Nur, Edward A., “ContractualRelationships, An
portant. For this reason, the inspection items given in Appen- Essential Ingredient of the Quality Assurance System,”
dix II are intended to cover only those construction activities Transportation Research Record No. 792, Transportation
and materials most commonly encountered in concrete con- Research Board, 1981, pp. 1-2.
struction. Inspection items for specialty work such as pres- 2. Abdun-Nur, Edward A., “Inspection and Quality Assur-
sure grouting, shotcrete, two-course floors, terrazzo, stucco, ance,” Concrete International:Design & Construction,V. 4,
masonry, cast stone, architectural concrete, painting, pre- No. 9, Sept. 1982, pp. 58-62.
placed aggregate concrete, tilt-up construction, underwater 3. Abdun-Nur, Edward A,, “Incentive Specifications for
construction, vacuum concrete, and slip-form construction Concrete,” Concrete International: Design & Construction,
are intentionally omitted from Appendix II. It is intended V. 4, No. 9, Sept. 1982, pp. 20-24.
that engineers will develop inspection criteria for speciality 4. AC1 Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 2, Construction
work that is appropriate to the specific needs of these activi- Practices and Inspection; Pavements, American Concrete In-
ties. stitute, Detroit.
3.6.4.4 Appendix III gives the synopsis of “Batch Plant In- 5 . ACI Manual of Concrete Inspection, 7th Edition, SP-2,
spection and Field Testing of Ready-Mixed Concrete” (AC1 American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1981,400 pp.
3 11SR), which has been developed as a separate document. 6. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, ASTM, Philadelphia,
AC1 3 11.5R is intended to be used on projects of a very lim- V. 04.01, Cement, Lime, and Gypsum, and V. 04.02, Con-
ited nature when the engineer needs specific guidance on crete and Mineral Aggregates.
items to include in a batch plant inspection program or field 7. Dixon, Donald E., “Guidance in the Training and Qual-
testing of ready-mixed concrete program. ification of Inspection Personnel,” Concrete International:
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3.6.4.5 High-strength concrete-The use of high strength Design & Construction, V. 4, No. 9, Sept. 1982, pp. 84-87.
concrete, 6000 psi (41 MPa) or greater, requires more testing 8. Henry, Robert L., “Quality Control and Acceptance In-
and inspection because a high degree of confidence of qual- spection As Viewed by the Testing Laboratory,” Concrete
ity is required. Recommendations from AC1 Committee 363 Intemational: Design & Construction, V. 4, No. 9, Sept.
on High Strength Concrete should be followed since this re- 1982, pp. 75-78.
port does not address any special requirements. 9. Jaycox, Claude E., “Guidance in the Establishment of
an Inspection Program,” Concrete International: Design &
CHAPTER &REFERENCES Construction, V. 4, No. 9, Sept. 1982, pp. 79-83.
10. Keifer, Oswin, Jr., “Control Charts Catch Changes,
4.l-Specified and/or recommended references Can Cut Costs,” Concrete International: Design & Con-
The documents of the various standards producing organi- struction, V. 3, No. 11, Nov. 1981, pp. 12-16.
zations referred to in this document are listed below with 11. Mayer, Charles W., “Quality Control by the Contrac-
their serial designation. tor,” Concrete International: Design & Construction, V. 4,
No. 9, Sept. 1982, pp. 72-74.
301 Specifications for Structurai Concrete for Buildings 12. Prestera, Jay R., “Quality Control Inspection by the
305R Hot Weather Concreting Ready-Mixed Concrete Producer,” Concrete International:
306R Cold Weather Concreting Design & Construction,V. 4, No. 9, Sept. 1982, pp. 67-71.
13. Weinberg, Bertold E., “Product Control and Accep-
The preceding publications may be obtained from the fol- tance Inspection As Viewed by the Owner and Designer,”
lowing organization: Concrete Intemational: Design & Construction,V. 4, No. 9,
Sept. 1982, pp. 62-66.
American Concrete Institute
P.O. Box 9094 APPENDIX I
Farmington Hills, Mich. 48333-9094
Quaiity assurance systems
4.2-Cited references “Quality Assurance Systems for Concrete Construction”
1. Quality Control Manual, National Ready Mixed Con- (AC1 121R) discusses inspection and defines related require-
crete Association, Silver Spring: Section i, Ready Mixed ments. Since inspection is not an end in itself, but a sub-
Concrete Quality Control Guide; Section 2, Ready Mixed system of the overall quality assurance system, it is

S T D - A C 1 SP-Z-ENGL 1979 8 Dbb29L19 0548343 332
recommended that the inspection and testing program as out- 2. Perform and document an internal QA program of a
lined in this Guide for Concrete Inspection be instituted in level suitable for the project.
conjunction with an overall quality assurance system as de-
Material testing laboratory
scribed in AC1 121R.
1. Perfonn the testing and inspections necessary for the
The following “Guide for Organizational Responsibili-
level of the QA program selected by the owner and as
ties’’ is Exhibit Il of AC1 121R.
defined by the engineer.
2. Perform and document an internal QA program to as-
Exhibit II-Guide for organizational responsibilities sure the validity of the reported results.
Owner 3. Conduct all testing and inspection in accordance with
1. Develop the project QA plan, including policy state- industry standards and the contract documents.
ment and quality objectives based on input from the 4. Provide the owner and engineer with timely reports
engineer, construction manager, or quality consultant. for all testing and inspection performed.
2. Review and approve contract documents. 5. Interpret the results of inspections and tests to deter-
3. Perform periodic audits or surveillances to verify mine specification compliance and provide appropri-
compliance with QA requirements. ate recommendations to the owner and engineer.
6. Perform audit and inspection of manufacturer’s
Engineer QNQC program to assure compliance with AC1
1 . Analyze all general and special quality objectives de- 121R.
fined by the owner.
2. Analyze all regulatory requirements defined by the APPENDIX II
owner and set forth by regulatory agencies.
3. Create and develop design to meet the owner‘squality Checklist for use with inspection and testing Levels A, B,
objectives and requirements. Establish acceptance cri- and C
teria. Prequalification of materials
4. Prepare contract documents as required by the owner. 1. Coarse andfine aggregate properties
5. Prepare, coordinate, evaluate, document, and report to a. Grading and fineness modulus, ASTM C 136
the owner all aspects of the QA system, as required by b. Amount of material finer than 75 pm (No. 200),
the owner. ASTM C 1 17
6. Recommend or participate in the selection of the con- C. Soundness, ASTM C 88
tractor, subcontractors, supplier, and material testing d. Lightweight particles, ASTM C 123
laboratory as required by the owner. e. Specific gravity and absorption, ASTM C 127 or C
7. Administer an internal QA program of a level suitable 128
for the project. f. Water soluble chlorides, ASTM D 1411
8. Accept or reject workmanship and material. g. Reactivity of aggregate, ASTM C 227, C 289, C 342,
9. Evaluate testhnspection data. and C 586
10. Review the internal QA programs and quality of work h. Bulk unit weight, ASTM C 29
of the contractor, subcontractors, suppliers, and mate- 1. Petrographic examination, ASTM C 295
rial testing laboratory during the course of the project 2. Fine aggregate properties
and report to the owner.
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a. Organic impurities, ASTM C 40

Contractor b. Effect of organic impurities on strength, ASTM C 87
1. Comply with contract and specification documents. 3 . Coarse aggregate properties
2. Perform in accordance with an approved internal QA a. Abrasion, ASTM C 13 1 or C 535
program of a level suitable for the project. b. Flat or elongated particles, Corps of Engineers CRD
3. Require subcontractors’ and suppliers’ adherence to c 119
the contract documents. c. Friable particles, ASTM C 142
4. Verify that inspections and tests are performed.
4 . Cement
Subcontractor(s) a. Physical properties as required by ASTM C 150, C
1. Comply with the contract documents. 595, or C 845
2. Perform and document an internal QA program of a b. Chemical properties as required by ASTM C 150 or
level suitable for the project. c 595
3. Coordinate all work with the contractor and interface
5 . Water
with appropriate subcontractors.
a. Strength versus control, ASTM C 109
Supplier(s) b. Time of set versus control, ASTM C 191
1 . Supply materials in accordance with the contract doc- c. Total solids content, ASTM D 1888
uments. d. Total chlorides. ASTM D 5 12

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1 7 7 9 E Ubb2749 05LJ83LJLJ 277
e. Potable water (local health standards) c. Protection from moisture

d. Mill certification with bag shipment
6. Admixtures
e. Retesting (if longer than 3 months local storage)
a. Air-entraining admixtures, ASTM C 260 as required
b. Water-reducing admixtures, ASTM C 494 as re- 4. Admixture storage and usage
quired a. Temperature control
c. Admixture for flowing concrete, ASTM C 1017 as b. Contamination control
required c. Agitation
d. Mineral admixtures, ASTM C 618 as required d. Retesting (if longer than 6 months manufacturer or
e. Ground granulated blast-furnace slag, ASTM C 989 vendor storage)
as required e. Identification of type, brand, and manufacturer
f. Review of test documentation and warnings
5 . Batchìng equipment
7. Reinforcing steel-ASTM A 615, A 616, A 617, A 706, a. Check of scales and measuring devices every 90 days
or A 775 b. Dial and balance scales accurate within f 0.20 per-
a. Deformations: spacing, height, gap cent of scale capacity
b. Weight per linear foot c. Digital scales accurate within f0.25 percent of scale
c. Bending properties capacity
d. Tensile properties: yield, ultimate, elongation (per- d. Return to zero indication
cent) e. Adequate separation of bins
e. Chemical properties f. Free discharge of materials with tight closing gates
8. Prestressing steel-ASTM A 416, A 421, A 722, or A g. Weighing hoppers freely suspended
779 h. Conditions of fulcrum and pivot points
a. Quantity (feet) i. Water delivery system leak free
b. Diameter of strand j. Measurement of water accurate to f one percent
c. Grade of strand k. Separate dispensers for each admixture
d. Packaging 1. Admixture dispensing system leak free and accurate
e. Special requirements to I3 percent
f. Item 7 requirements for bars m. Indicating devices in full view of operator
9. Concrete 6. Batching operation-ASTM C 94-C 685
Freezing and thawing resistance, ASTM C 682 and C 666. a. Cement and cementitious materials measured within
f 1 percent of desired weight
Mix design approval b. Aggregates measured within Sr 2 percent of desired
As defined by AC1 301. weight (rt 1 percent when a cumulative weight is tak-
en)
Certification of batch plants and truck mixers c. Allowable water adjusted for free moisture in aggre-
Certification to National Ready-Mixed Concrete Asso- gates
ciation' prior to construction. d. Admixtures discharged separately using a method
which does not allow concentrated admixtures to
Inspection of batch piants and truck mixers before or contact each other
during construction-AC1 304 e. Verification of batch ticket information to the re-
1. Aggregate storage areas quirements of ASTM C 94
a. Cleanliness 7. Mixing operation and quaiijìcation of mixers
b. Separation of materials a. Mixer blades free of buildup
c. Handling of materials b. Inspection of blades for holes or cracks
d. Aggregate spray system and drainage c. Height of mixer blades measured for wear
e. Approved sources d. Mixer uniformity tests for stationary or truck mixers
f. Cold-weather provisions (heat, cover) e. Truck mixing 70-100 revs
g. Hot-weather provisions (cool, cover) f. Central mixing-a minimum of 1 min for 1 yd3 + 15
2. Cement silo storage sec for each yd3
a. Weathertight g. Truck water dispensers accurate to within f one per-
b. Temperature of shipment cent
c. Mill certification with bulk shipment
8. Sampling and testing aggregates during construction
d. Retesting (if longer than 6 months mill storage)
a. Sampling, ASTM D 75
3. Cement bag storage b. Grading and fineness modulus, ASTM C 136
a. Storage on pallets c. Friable particles, ASTM C 142
b. Identification of type, brand, and manufacturer d. Coal and lignite, ASTM C 123
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S T D = A C I SP-2-ENGL 1999 Dbb271I9 054B3ri5 L O 5 M
e. Specific gravity and absorption, ASTM C 127 or C a. Location

128 b. Size
f. Organic impurities, ASTM C 40 c. Condition
Replacement inspection Placement inspection

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1. Lines und grudes 1. Conditions

a. Location a. Coordination of concrete delivery
b. Elevation b. Protection against sun, rain, hot-or cold-weather con-
c. Dimensions ditions
d. Shape c. Lighting and power
e. Drainage
f. Preparation of surface 2. Field tests of concrete
g. Bearing a. Use of specified mix
b. Field water additions (minimum 30 drum revs)
2. Forms c. Slump, ASTM C 143
a. Specified type d. Temperature (maximum and minimum as specified)
b. Location e. Air content (pressure or volumetric) ASTM C 23 I , C
c. Dimensions 173
d. Tolerances f. Unit weight, ASTM C 138
e. Alignment g. Yield, ASTM C 138
f. Stability (bearing, shores, tees, and spacers) h. Cylinder specimens (identification, mix, location,
g. Surface preparation date)
h. Tightness i. Discharge of ready-mixed concrete truckload before
i. Chamfer strips 300 revs or 90 min, ASTM C 94
j. Inspection openings
j. Initial curing of cylinder specimens, ASTM C 3 1
k. Cleanliness
1. Temperature 3. Conveyance of concrete
m. Accessories (ties, cones, clamps, etc.) a. Nonreactive materials
b. Prevention of segregation and loss of materials
3. Reinforcing steel c. Prevention of contamination
a. Size (diameter, length, bends, and anchorage) d. Condition of conveying equipment (smooth surfaces,
b. Grade no holes, cleanliness, etc.)
c. Location (number of bars, spacing, cover) e. Use of drop-chutes or funnel hoses to contain freefall
d. Splicing (weld joint, overlap, welder qualifications,
and welding procedures) 4. Placement and Consolidation of Concrete
e. Stability (wiring, chairs, and spacers) a. Preparation of contact surfaces
f. Cleanness (no loose rust, oil, paint, dried mortar, b. Ability of conveying method to place concrete in all
etc.) areas of the placement
g. Protective coating c. Mortar bedding (use of starter mix)
d. Prevention of segregation (no chuting or dropping
4. Prestressing steel (pre- and p o s t - t e n ~ i o n e d ) ~ ~ ~ against forms or reinforcement)
a. Strand, wire, or bar placement e. Depth of layer (maximum limit)
b. Size f. External vibration (spacing to prevent dead spots)
c. Location g. Internal vibration (depth of insertion, spacing, time,
d. Grade vertical insertion, no movement of concrete by vibra-
e. Anchorage tion)
f. Tensioning sequence
h. Even layering around openings and embedments
g. Loading and elongation measurements
i. Removal of bleed water
h. Concrete stressing strength verification
j. Removal of temporary ties and spacers
i. Cleanliness
j. Condition of sheathing and protective coating
Postplacement inspection and tests
k. Grouting of post-tensioned tendons
1. Finishing, curing, and formwork and shore removal
1. Sealing of end anchors
a. Specified finish
5 . Embedments b. Protection of surfaces from cracking due to rapid dry-
a. Location ing (avoid direct heat)
b. Size c. Proper curing temperature
c. Condition d. Form removal (field cured cylinder tests or other ap-
6. Blockouts proved tests)

S T D o A C I SP-2-ENGL 1979 W OLb27'.i9 0 5 9 8 3 9 b O V L
e. Curing compound (conformance to ASTM C 309, C 31 Standard Practice for Making and Curing Concrete
I application) Test Specimens in the Field
f. Finish of formed surfaces (patching and repairs c 39 Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of
where necessary) Cylindrical Concrete Specimens
C 40 Standard Test Method for Organic Impurities in
2. Reshoring and reshore removal
Fine Aggregates for Concrete
a. Location
C 42 Standard Method of Obtaining and Testing Drilled
b. Number
Cores and Sawed Beams of Concrete
c. Time of removal
C 78 Standard Test Method for Flexural Strength of
d. Sequence of removal
Concrete (Using Simple Beam with Third-Point
3. Tests of hardened concrete Loading)
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a. Curing of specimens, ASTM C 31 C 87 Standard Test Method for Effect of Organic Impu-
b. Preparation of concrete cores, ASTM C 42 rities in Fine Aggregate on Strength of Mortar
c. Capping, ASTM C 617 c 88 Standard Test Method for Soundness of Aggregates
d. Tests for compressive strength, ASTM C 39 by Use of Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate
e. Tests for split tensile strength, ASTM C 496 c 94 Standard Specification for Ready-Mixed Concrete
f. Air dry unit weight of lightweight concrete, ASTM C C 109 Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of
567 Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using 2 in. or 50-mrn
g. Flexural strength, ASTM C 293, ASTM C 78 Cube Specimens)
h. Specific gravity, absorption, and voids ASTM C 642 C 117 Standard Test Method for Materials Finer than 75-
i. First crack strength and toughness (fiber-reinforced), pm (No. 200) Sieve in Minerai Aggregates by
ASTM C 1018 Washing
j. Nondestructive tests, ASTM C 597, ASTM C 803, C 123 Standard Test Method for Lightweight Pieces in
ASTM C 805, ASTM C 900, ASTM C 1074 Aggregate
k. Petrographic analysis, ASTM C 856 C 127 Standard Test Method for Specific Gravity and Ab-
1. Restrained expansion of shrinkage-compensating sorption of Coarse Aggregate
concrete. ASTM C 878 C 128 Standard Test Method for Specific Gravity and Ab-
sorption of Fine Aggregate
Specified and/or recommended references C 131 Standard Test Method for Resistance to Degrada-
The documents of the various standards-producing organi- tion of Small-Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion
zations referred to in this appendix are listed below with their and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine
serial designation. It is recommended that the latest revision C 136 Standard Method for Sieve Analysis of Fine and
be specified in the contract documents. Coarse Aggregates
C 138 Standard Test Method for Unit Weight, Yield, and
American Concrete Institute Air Content (Gravimetric)of Concrete
301 Specifications for Structural Concrete for Buildings C 142 Test Method for Clay Lumps and Friable Particles
in Aggregates
4Um C 143 Standard Test Method for Slump of Portland Ce-
A 416 Standard Specification for Steel Strand, Uncoated ment Concrete
Seven-Wire Stress-Relieved for Prestressed Con- C 150 Standard Specification for Portland Cement
crete C 173 Standard Test Method for Air Content of Freshly
A 421 Standard Specification for Uncoated Stress-Re- Mixed Concrete by the Volumetric Method
lieved Steel Wire for Prestressed Concrete C 191 Standard Test Method for Time of Setting of Hy-
A 615 Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain Bil- draulic Cement by Vicat Needle
let-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement C 227 Standard Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactiv-
A 616 Standard Specification for Rail-Steel Deformed ity of Cement-Aggregate Combinations (Mortar-
and Plain Bars for Concrete Reinforcement Bar Method)
A 617 Standard Specification for Axle-Steel Deformed C 231 Standard Test Method for Air Content of Freshly
and Plain Bars for Concrete Reinforcement Mixed Concrete by the Pressure Method
A 706 Standard Specification for Low-Alloy Steel De- c 260 Standard Specification for Air-Entraining Admix-
formed Bars for Concrete Reinforcement tures for Concrete
A 722 Standard Specification for Uncoated High-Strength C 289 Standard Test Method for Potential Reactivity of
Steel Bar for Prestressing Concrete Aggregates (Chemical Method)
A 779 Standard Specification for Steel Strand, Seven- C 293 Standard Test Method for Flexural Strength of
Wire, Uncoated, Compacted, Stress-Relieved for Concrete (Using Simple Beam with Center-Point
Prestressed Concrete Loading)
C 29 StandardTest Method for Unit Weight and Voids in C 295 Standard Guide for Petrographic Examination of
Aggregate Aggregates for Concrete

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1779 U Obh2797 0598397 T88 U
C 309 Standard Specification for Liquid Membrane- D 1411 Standard Test Methods for Water-Soluble Chlo-
Forming Compounds for Curing Concrete rides Present as Admixes in Graded Aggregate
C 342 Standard Test Method for Potential Volume Road Mixes
Change of Cement-Aggregate Combinations D 1888 Standard Test Methods for Particulate and Dis-
c 494 Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures solved Matter in Water
for Concrete E 329 Specification for Agencies Engaged in the Testing
C 496 Standard Test Method for Splitting Tensile and/or Inspection of Materials Used in Construc-
Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens tion
c 535 Standard Test Method for Resistance to Degrada-
1J.S. Army Corns qf Engineers
tion of Large-Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion
CRD C 119 Method of Test for Flat and Elongated Parti-
and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine
cles in Coarse Aggregate
C 567 Standard Test Method for Unit Weight of Structural
Lightweight Concrete The preceding publications may be obtained from the fol-
C 586 Standard Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactiv- lowing organizations:
ity of Carbonate Rocks for Concrete Aggregate
(Rock Cylinder Method) American Concrete Institute
c 595 Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic Ce- P.O. Box 9094
ments Farmington Hills, Mich. 48333-9094
c 597 Test Method for Pulse Velocity Through Concrete
C 617 Standard Practice for Capping Cylindrical Concrete ASTM
Specimens 1O0 Barr Harbor Drive
C 618 Standard Specification for Fly Ash and Raw or Cal- West Conshohocken, Pa. 19428
cined Natural Pozzolan, for Use as a Mineral Ad-
mixture in Portland Cement Concrete U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Waterways Experiment Station
C 642 Standard Test Method for Specific Gravity, Ab-
P.O. Box 631
sorption, and Voids in Hardened Concrete
Vicksburg, Miss. 39180
C 666 Standard Test Method for Resistance of Concrete to
Rapid Freezing and Thawing APPENDIX III-SYNOPSIS OF AC1 311.5R
C 682 Standard Practice for Evaluation of Frost Resis-
tance of Coarse Aggregates in Air-Entrained Con- Batch Plant Inspection and Field Testing of Ready-
crete by Critical Dilation Procedures Mixed Concrete
C 803 Test Method for Penetration Resistance of Hard-
ened Concrete Reported by AC1 Committee 311
C 805 Test Method for Rebound Number of Hardened
Synopsis-This report provides recommended minimum re-
Concrete
quirements when specifications require batch plant inspec-
C 856 Practice for Petrographic Examination of Hardened
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tion of ready-mixed concrete production and field testing of

Concrete ready-mixed concrete at the project site. it is intended to be
C 900 Test Method for Pullout Strength of Hardened Con- used by specifiers, architects, engineers, owners, or other
crete groups who are interested in monitoring the ready-mixed
C 1017 Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Use in concrete producer’s or contractor’s activities through the use
Producing Flowing Concrete of an independent inspection agency.
C 1018 Standard Test Method for Flexural Toughness and The user is cautioned that this report is intended for use in
First-Crack Strength of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete establishing the basic duties and the reports required of in-
(Using Beam with Third-Point Loading) spection personnel. It can be used for all types and sizes of
C 1074 Practice for Estimating Concrete Strength by the projects but should be supplemented with additional inspec-
Maturity Method tion requirements when the complexity of the project so dic-
C 1077 Standard Practice for Laboratories Testing Con- tates. Refer to “Guide for Concrete Inspection” (AC1
crete and Concrete Aggregates for Use in Construc- 3 1 1.4R) for guidance on additional requirements.
tion and Criteria for Laboratory Evaluation
D 75 Standard Practice for Sampling Aggregates
This report was submitted to letter ballot of the committee and was approved in
D 512 Standard Test Methods for Chloride Ion in Water Accordance with AC1 balloting procedures.

AC1 311.5R-97
Guide for Concrete Plant Inspection and Field

Testing of Ready-Mixed Concrete
Reported by AC1 Committee 311
Claude E. Jaycox Michael T. Russell
Chairman Secretary
Gordon A. Anderson Kingsley Dnke Oswin Krifer. Jr.

Joseph F. Anuso John V. GNber Lionel W.Vincent
Jorge G . Bernudini Roben L. Henry Woodward L. Vogr
John E Cook Charles J. Hookham George R. Wargo
Mario R. D i u Roben S.Jenkins Benold E. Weinberg
Donald E. Dixon Thomas A . Johnson Roger E. Wilson
The user is cuutioned thur this guide is intendedfor use in estublishing only 1.3-Duties
the most busic duties und reports required of inspection personnel. It run
I .4-Reports
be usedjhr u11 &pes und sizes of projects. but should be supplemented with
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udditional insj~ectionrequirements when the complexi& of the project so
dicrutes. Refer t í ) "Guide fiir Concrete Inspection Progrumc" (AC1 31 1.4R) Chapter 2-Field testing of ready-mixed concrete,
j i i r Ruidunce on uddirionul requirements.
p. 311.5R-2
This Ruide recommends minimum requirements j¿)r inspection U I the
2.1-Introduction and scope
concrete plunt when such inspections ure required by specificutions or the
ownel: It is intended f¿)r use by specifiers. urchitects. engineers. owners. 2.2-Qualifications
contructors. or other xroups needinK to monitor the ready-mired concrete 2.3-Testing laboratory
pmducers' ucr¿vit¿esat the concrete plunt through the uIc of un indepen-
2.4-Duties
dent inspection ugenc? or in-house inspection orgunitation. This guide
ulso recommends minimum inspector quulificutions. duties. and reports. 2.S-Reports
Keywords: field tests; inspection; Inbontones; mixing planis; quality con- Chapter >References, p. 311SR-3
trol; ready-mixed Concrete; tests. 3. I-Specified references.
3.2-Additional references
3.3-Organizations referenced
CONTENTS
Chapter 1-Plant inspection of ready-mixed
concrete, p. 311.SR-l
I . I-Introduction and scope
I .2-Qualifications CHAPTER 1-PLANT INSPECTION OF READY-
MIXED CONCRETE
1.l-Introduction and scope
This chapter recommends minimum requirements for in-
spection at the concrete plant when required by specifica-
tions or the owner. It is intended for use by specifiers.
architects, engineers, owners, contractors, or other groups
interested in monitoring the ready-mixed concrete produc-
for the application of the material it contains. The American ers' activities at the plant through the use of an independent
Concrete Institute disclaims any and all responsibility for the inspection agency or in-house inspection organization. This
stated principles. The Institute shall not be liable for any loss
or damage arising therefrom.
Reference to this document shall not be made incontract AC1 31 I .5R-97beeam effective October 16. 1997. This report supercedes AC1
31 1.51-95.
documents. If items found in this document are desired by Copyright Q 1998. Amcricm Concrete Instirute.
the ArchitectEngineer to be a part of the contract docu- All rights rc.urved including righis of repduction ;uid use in any form or by any
mama. including h e making of copies by any photo process. or by electronic or
mechanical device. printed. written. or wdl. or recording for sound or visual reproduc-
tion or for use in any knowkdge or retrieval system or device. unless pemission in
writing is obraincd from ihe copyright proprietors.
200
S T D - A C 1 SP,-Z-ENGL 1999 DbbZ.949 0548349 850 =
APPENDIX: CONCRETE PLANT INSPECTIONFIELD TESTING 201
chapter recommends minimum inspector qualifications, du- notified immediately, or previously authorized actions
ties, and reports. should be taken.
1.3.5 The inspector should check whether the concrete
i.2hualifications producer adjusts the approved mixture proportion to allow
The plant inspector should be qualified by education, train- for free moisture contained in the fine and coarse aggregates.
ing. and experience to perform the minimum duties set forth 1.3.6 The inspector should determine that the trucks are i n
in this guide. The inspector should have a technical under- good operating condition and not loaded beyond their mixer/
standing of the principles involved in concrete batching and agitator plate capacities.
should know the basic operating sequence of the concrete 1.3.7 The inspector should determine that the concrete
plant. The inspector should be able to provide evidence of plant is furnishing to the purchaser. with each batch of con-
such training and experience. AC1 certifications as a lab tech- crete, a delivery ticket conforming to ASTM C 94. A place
nician, field technician, field inspector, or a state D.O.T. should be provided on the ticket to retlect the following in-
qualification would indicate that the person has some or all formation:
of the needed qualifications. The inspector should also be 1.3.7.1 Name of concrete plant
furnished with and become familiar with published standards 1.3.7.2 Serial number of ticket
set forth by this guide and with project specification require- 1.3.7.3 Date
ments. 1.3.7.4 Truck number
1.2.1 The authority of the plant inspectors and to whom 1.3.7.5 Name of purchaser
they report should be established before the start of the 1.3.7.6 Project designation (name and location)
project. 1.3.7.7 Class or designation of concrete
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1.3.7.8 Amount of concrete batched
1.&Duties 1.3.7.9 Time batched
1.3.1 The inspector should observe that the facilities. 1.3.8.0 In addition the delivery ticket should indicate if
scales, and truck mixers meet the specified project require- any water or admixtures may be added at the job site. The
ments. The provisions of at least one of the following docu- amount of water withheld during batching should be noted
ments are normally incorporated in the project specification: on the ticket.
1.3.1.1 AC1 301
1.3.1.2 ASTM C 94 1.&Reports
1.3.1.3 Plant qualification in accordance with the 1.4.1 The inspector should sign the delivery ticket. issue
National Ready Mixed Concrete Association (NRMCA) an inspection ticket, or supply other evidence that the con-
checklist for certification of ready-mixed concrete crete batching has been inspected.
production facilities 1.4.2 The inspector should issue a daily inspection report
1.3.1.4 Local, state, or federal department of transporta- showing all test results and documenting observations made
tion specifications. during the day. Note: The ACI Manual of Concrete Inspec-
tion contains guidance on reporting and samples of reports.
1.3.2 The inspector should be present at the batching con-
sole during the first batch to verify that the specified type and
amount of materials, conforming to the approved design
mixture proportions, are batched.
Thereafter, if the operation is automated and recorded, the CHAPTER 2-FIELD TESTING OF READY-MIXED
CONCRETE
inspector should make the same observations as above as of- 2.1-Introduction and scope
ten as possible. preferably on a continuous basis, but at least This chapter recommends minimum requirements for test-
once per hour. If the batching operation is manual, the in- ing of ready-mixed concrete at the project site when required
spector should be present at the batching console during all by specifications. It includes follow-up curing and testing of
batching. The inspector should verify that all batch weights strength specimens and testing laboratory qualifications.
fall within the tolerances set forth by the project specifica- This document is intended for use by specifiers, architects,
tions on each batch. engineers, owners, contractors, or other groups interested in
1.3.3 The inspector should, when not witnessing operation, monitoring the concreting activities at the project site
conduct or witness the performance by the concrete producer through the use of an independent inspection agency or in-
of the following tests at least once daily: house inspection organization.
1.3.3.1 Moisture content determination on fine and
coarse aggregates in accordance with ASTM C 566 2.2-Qualifications
1.3.3.2 Aggregate gradations, fine and coarse, in accor- The field testing technician should be qualified by educa-
dance with ASTM C 136 tion, training, and experience to perform the minimum duties
1.3.4 Aggregate test results should then be compared to the set forth in this report. The technician should have a technical
project specifications for compliance. Usually ASTM C 33 is understanding of the principles involved in ready-mixed con-
specified as the gradation requirement for both fine and crete and should know how to conduct the basic quality tests
coarse aggregates. If deviations occur, the client should be required. The technician should be able to provide evidence of

STDDACI SP-Z-ENGL 1 9 9 9 6 Obb29'i9 05'48350 572
such training and experience. AC1 certification as a Concrete 2.4.6 The technician should determine slump of the com-
Field'Testing Technician-Grade I meets this requirement. posite concrete sample for each strength test. and whenever
The technician should also be furnished with and become fa- consistency of concrete appears to vary, in accordance with
miliar with published standards as set forth in this guide and ASTMC 143.
with project specification requirements. 2.4.7 The technician should determine air content (if the
2.2.1 The authority of the technician and to whom he or concrete is air-entrained) and unit weight (if the specifica-
she reports should be established by the client prior to the tions require it or if lightweight concrete is being used) ofthe
start of the project. composite concrete samples for each strength test in accor-
dance with one of the following test methods:
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2.3-Testing laboratory 2.4.7.1 ASTM C 173, or
All required laboratory acceptance tests (that is. laborato- 2.4.7.2 ASTM C 23 1 . and
ry curing and compressive strength of concrete cylinders) 2.4.7.3 ASTM C 138.
should be performed by an independent testing laboratory. 2.4.8 The technician should determine air content and unit
The laboratory selected should meet the requirements of weight of structural lightweight composite concrete samples
ASTM C 1077. The laboratory selected should provide evi- for each strength test in accordance with the following test
dence that its facilities have been inspected by an indepen- methods:
dent agency such as the Cement and Concrete Reference 2.4.8.1 ASTM C 173
Laboratory (CCRL) or the AASHTO Material Reference 2.4.8.2 ASTM C 567
Laboratory (AMRL) within the last two years. and should 2.4.9 The technician should determine the ambient air
show that any deficiencies mentioned in the report of that in- temperature and the composite concrete sample temperature
spection have been corrected. In addition, it is highly recom- at the time of sampling for each strength test in accordance
mended that the laboratory be accredited by the AASHTO with ASTM C 1064.
Accreditation Program (AAP) the National Voluntary Lab-
2.4.10 The technician should make four compressive
oratory Accreditation Program (NVLAP), or the American
strength specimens from each composite concrete sample in
Association for Laboratory Accreditation (A2LA).
accordance with ASTM C 3 1.
2.4-Duties 2.4.11 The contractor should provide an area or container
2.4.1 If plant inspection is required by the project specifi- for storage of the concrete compression test specimens dur-
cations, the field technician or other designated person ing the initial curing period (the first 16 to 48 hours after
should check each truck to see if the arriving concrete has or molding). Specimens should be stored under conditions that
has not been inspected at the plant. Immediate action should maintain the temperature immediately adjacent to the speci-
be taken as authorized in the case of a discrepancy. Immedi- mens in the range of 60 to 80 F (16 to 27 C) and prevent loss
ate verbal notification should be given. of moisture from the specimens. Initial curing should meet
2.4.2 The field technician or other designated person the requirement of ASTM C 3 I .
should determine that truck mixers are not loaded in excess 2.4.12 The testing laboratory should pick up compressive
of mixer plate capacity, that concrete is adequately mixed strength test specimens from the project site within 16 to 48
prior to discharge at the project site, that concrete delivery hours and store in a moist condition at 73.4 f 3 F (23 f 1.7 C)
falls within the time constraints of the project specifications, until the moment of test in accordance with ASTM C 3 1 , or
and that all data required by ASTM C 94 are included on the at the test age designated for determination of specified
delivery ticket. Immediately report any discrepancies. strength.
2.4.3 The technician should make at least one series of 2.4.13 The testing laboratory should test compressive
control tests for each 100 cubic yards (cubic meters) or frac- strength specimens in accordance with ASTM C 39. Two
tion thereof, of each class of concrete placed in any one day specimens should be tested at 28 days for acceptance or at
(see ASTM C 94, Sections 13 through 13.8). These tests the age designated for determination of conformance with
would normally include the following: slump; air content (if specified strength. Additional specimens may be tested at
air-entrained); unit weight (if required); concrete tempera- other ages for information. The acceptance results should be
ture; and compressivestrength. Follow the project specifica- the average of the strengths of the two specimens tested at
tions in this regard. the age designated for determination of conformance with
When sampling, obtain a random sample reflecting true specified strength.
project conditions, and report the tim$ocation to be placed,
and truck number. 2.5-Reports
2.4.4 It is usually desirable to test the first truckload of 2.5.1 The technician should issue a daily inspection report
concrete for slump, concrete temperature, and air content (if of all field test results and document observations made dur-
air-entrained), so appropriate adjustments can be made at the ing the day. Items not conforming to specifications should
plant to bring concrete within specifications immediately. also be reported immediately to the technician's supervisor
2.4.5 The technician should secure composite samples of and to the client.
concrete delivered to the project site in accordance with 2.5.2 The technician should complete a concrete data re-
ASTMC 172. port for each set of concrete compressive strength specimen

S ' T D O A C I SP-2-ENGL 1,797 n b L 2 1 4 9 U 5 V 8 3 5 1 qO9 D
APPENDIX: CONCRETE PLANT INSPECTIONFIELD TESTING 203
results to be reported by the testing laboratory. showing all C 23 I Standard Test Method for Air Content of Concrete
related quality test results. by the Pressure Method
2.5.3 The testing laboratory should issue timely reports C 566 Standard Test Method for Total Moisture Content
with the following information: of Aggregate by Drying
2.5.3.1 Project name C 567 Standard Test Method for Unit Weight of Structural
2.5.3.2 Client Lightweight Concrete
2.5.3.3 Concrete supplier C 1064 Standard Test Method for Temperature of Freshly
2.5.3.4 Date sampled Mixed Portland-Cement Concrete
2.5.3.5 Sampled by (with certification number. if appli- C 1077 Standard Practice for Testing Concrete and Con-
crible) crete Aggregates for Use in Construction and Crite-
2.5.3.6 Truck number and/or ticket number ria for Laboratory Evaluation
2.5.3.7 Time batched and time sampled
2.5.3.8 Air temperature and concrete temperature at time The above publications may be obtained from the follow-
of sampling ing organizations:
2.5.3.9 Slump and air content
2.5.3.10 Specified strength American Concrete Institute
2.5.3.1 1 Concrete mix designation P.O.Box 9094
2.5.3.12 Location of placement and location of sample Farmington Hills, MI 48333-9094
batch
2.5.3.13 Date tested, concrete age, and compressive American Society for Testing and Materials
strength results 100 Barr Harbor Drive
2.5.3.14 Any water or admixture added after leaving the West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959
plant
2.5.3.15 Any remarks that may affect concrete quality. 3.2-Additional useful references
elapsed time between start of mixing to completion of place- AC1
ment, and other pertinent items. SP-2 AC1 Manual of Concrete Inspection
Il6R Cement and Concrete Terminology
30 1 Specifications for Structural Concrete for Build-
CHAPTER &REFERENCES ings
3.1-Specified andor recommended references
The documents of the various standard-producing organi- 304.5R Batching, Mixing, and Job Control of Lightweight
zations referred to in this document are listed below with Concrete
their serial designation. The latest version should always be 305R Hot Weather Concreting
used unless specified otherwise. 3ûóR Cold Weather Concreting
318 Building Code Requirements for Structural
American Concrete institute (ACI) Concrete
304R Guide for Measuring, Mixing, Transporting, and
Placing Concrete ASTM
304.5R Batching, Mixing, and Job Control of Lightweight C 70 Standard Test Method for Surface Moisture in
Concrete Fine Aggregate
3 1 1.4R Guide for Concrete Inspection C 125 Standard Definitions of Terms Relating to Concrete
and Concrete Aggregates
Amercian Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) C 127 Standard Test Method for Specific Gravity and Ab-
C 31 Standard Practice for Making and Curing Concrete sorption of Coarse Aggregate
Test Specimens in the Field C 128 Standard Test Method for Specific Gravity and Ab-
c 33 Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregates sorption of Fine Aggregate
c 39 Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of C 150 Standard Specification for Portland Cement
Cylindrical Concrete Specimens C 172 Standard Method of Sampling Freshly Mixed Con-
c 94 Standard Specification for Ready-Mixed Concrete crete
C 136 Standard Method for Sieve Analysis of Fine and c 494 Standard Specifications for Chemical Admixtures
Coarse Aggregates for Concrete
C 138 Standard Test Method for Unit Weight, Yield, and D 75 Standard Practice for Sampling Aggregates
Air Content (Gravimetric) of Concrete National Remly Mixed Concrete Association
C 143 Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic Ce- Quality Control Manual, Section I-Ready-Mixed Concrete
ment Concrete Quality Control Guide
C 173 Standard Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Quality Control Manual, Section 2-Ready-Mixed Concrete
Mixed Concrete by Volumetric Method Quality Control Checklist
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Quality Control Manual. Section %Certification of Ready American Association for Laboratory Accreditation
Mixed Concrete Production Facilities 656 Quince Orchard Road
Gaithersburg. MD 20878
3.3-Organizations referenced (301) 670-1377
AASHTO Material Reference Laboratory (AMRL) or
Cement and Concrete Reference Laboratory (CCRL) National Voluntary Laboratory Accreditation Program
at the National Institute of Standards and Technology U.S. Department of Commerce
Gaithersburg. MD 20899 National Institute of Standards and Technology
(301) 975-6704 Gaithersburg, MD 20899
AASHTO Accreditation Program National Ready-Mixed Concrete Association

American Association of State Highway and Transportation 900 Spring Street
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Officials Silver Spring, MD 209 10

444 N. Capitol Street, N.W. Suite 249
Washington, D.C. 20001
This npon was submitted to letter ballot of the committee and wah approved in
(202) 624-5800 accordance with AC1 balloting procedures.

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1797 IObb2749 05'18353 281 m
INDEX 205
A C
Absolute volume, 4.4 Calcium chloride accelerator, 84
Absorption Cast-in-place pipe, 121
- C o a r s e aggregate, 166 Cast-in-place prestressed concrete, 150
-Fine aggregates, 167 Catalyzed metallic group, 154
-Tests, 25 Cements, 21, 180
Accelerated curing, 83, 161 -Handling and storage, 3 1
Accelerators, 84 -Proportioning, 40
Acceptance, 105 -Sampling and testing, 22
-Architectural concrete, 1 I8 Cementitious material, 42
Admixtures, 28 Cementitious systems, 154
-Batching, 53 Central mixing, 53
-Handling and storage, 33 Checklist, 185
Aggregates, 22, 165, 184 Checklist forms, 68
-Handling and storage, 3 1 Chloride ion limitations, 84
-Moisture and absorption, 25 Clay lumps, 165
-Properties of, 28 Climbing forms, 62
-Proportioning, 4 1 Coarse aggregate content, 162
-Sampling, 22 Coarse aggregates, 43
-Specific gravity, 27 Cold weather curing, 84
-Tests, 22, 24,25,27, 157, 166, 167 Completed structures, 163
-Tests for grading, 24 Compressive strength, 161
Air content, 158, 159 -Normal distribution, 17
-Test, 159
Air entrainment, proportioning, 42
Computations, yield, 48
Air-free density, I62
Concrete, 34, I80
Anchorages, 15 1
-Composition of paste, 35
Architectural concrete, 111
-Curing and protection, 36
-Acceptance, 1 18
-Delivery ticket, 176
-Curing, 118
-Epoxy resin, 91
-Forms, 1 14 -Finishing, 76
-Materials, 115 -Freeze-thaw resistance, 37
-Repairs, 88, 118 -Hardening, 35
-Hydration, 36
B -Mixture proportioning, 53
Ball penetration test, 59-60, 157
-Pavements, 102
Base plates, grouting, 153
-Placement cards, 175
Batch plant inspection, 171
-Placing, 72
Batching, 49
-Production, 175
-Admixtures, 53 -Settlement, 34
-Architectural concrete, 1 16 -Shrinkage and swelling, 37
-Quantities, 45, 46 -Slabs, 94
-Ready-mixed concrete, 55 -Stain removal, 87
-Tolerances, 49 -Tests, 157
-Shrinkage-compensating concrete, 140 Concrete materials, control charts, 19
-Water, 52 Concrete strength, computation of, 18
Batching equipment, 50, 53 Concreting, 70
Bins, 50 Consistency, 46
Blemish repair, 86 -Tests, 157
Bond prevention, 122 Consolidation, 73
Bridge decks, 99, 109 -Architectural concrete, 1 I6
Bug hole, 1 19 -Vibration, 73
Bulking, aggregates, 28 Construction, 153, 180
Bush hammering, 1 I7 Construction joints, 79, 107
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S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL L997 D Obb29V9 0 5 4 8 3 5 V 118
Contractionjoints, 67, 106,107 Fine materials, 165

Control charts, 12 -Tests, 24
-Concrete materials, 19 Finish demonstration, 113
Conveying, 70 Finishing, 76, 103
Conveying equipment, 70 -Architectural concrete, 116
Crack repairs, 93 -Formed surfaces, 78
Cracks, architectural concrete, 119 -Unformed surfaces, 77
Curing, 82 Flexural strength test, 160
-Accelerated, 83 Foams (cellular concrete), 135
-Architectural concrete, 118 Form coatings, 115
- C o l d weather, 84 Form removal, 115
-Compounds, 29 Form sealers, 115
-Hot weather, 84 Form support, 81
-Membrane, 83 Forms, 62
-Moist, 82 -Architectural concrete, 111
-Pavements, 159 -Pavements, 114
-Polyethylene film, 83 -Precast concrete, 144
-Protection, 36 -Slipforms, 120
-Repairs, 89 -Textures, 114
-Slabs on grade, 96 Formwork, 120, 121, 122, 123
-Steam, 146 Foundations, 6 i
Curing compounds, 29 -Pavements, 99
Freeze resistance, 37,43
D -Aggregates, 44
Damage, 82,109 -Air entrainment, 43
Damp-pack mortar, 153 -Paste, 43
Dams, 138 Frequency distribution control charts, 12
Deflection, 149 Freshly mixed concrete, 157
Density, 169 Friable particles, 165
-Structural lightweight concrete, 163
-Tests for, 27 G
Design, 111 Gas-forming grouts, 154
Design reference sample, 112 Grading, 99
Detensioning, 150 Gravimetric method, air content, 158
Dowels, 106 Grinding, 117
Grouting, 124,151
E -Base plates, 153
Embedded fixtures, 67 -Machine bases, 153
Entrained air, 37
Epoxy resin H
-Concrete, 90 Handling and storage, 31, 146, 149
-Repairs, 90 -Admixture, 33
-Safety, 91 -Cement, 31
Equipment, 183 -Pozzolanic materials, 33
-Batching, 49 Hardened concrete, 163
-Mass concrete, 138 Hardened surface slabs, 96
-Pumping 126 Heat of hydration, 36
Excavation, 61 High-density concrete, 136
Expansion joints, 67, 106 Holes, repairs, 87
Expansive cement, 140 Hot weather, 108
Exposed aggregate finish, 117 Hot weather curing, 84
Exposed concrete, repairs, 86
Exposed formed surfaces, 86 I
Injection grouting, 92
F In-service súucîures, repairs, 88
Field grouting, 155 Inspection
Final inspection, 68 -Checklist, 185
Fine aggregates, 43 -Defined, 1
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1977 Obb2947 05Li8355 054 M
INDEX 207
-Final, 68 Moisture content by drying, 167

-Measurements and tolerances, 6 Moisture, tests, 25
-Mixing plants, 56 Mortar, 156
-Organizations, 2 -Epoxy resin, 90
-Placing, 58
-Plants, 144 N
-Preliminary, 6 1 Nondestructive tests, 164
-Procedures, 114 Nonshrink grouts, 155
-Responsibilities, 3 Normal distribution, 11, 17
-Specifications, 3
Inspector O
-Authority, 4 Openings, 67
-Duties, 4 Organic impurities, 166
-Education and certification, 4 Organizations, inspection, 2
-Qualifications, 4
Internal voids. 145 P
Paste
-Freeze resistance, 43
J -Mixture proportioning, 41
Joint construction, 98
-Quantity, 43
Joint materials, 29
Pavements
Joint sealing, 108
-Concrete, 101
Joints. 67, 106, 114
-Forms, 100
-Foundations, 99
K -Reinforcement, 101
Kelly ball test, 59-60
Pavers, 102
Paving, 102
L
Lift-slab construction, i 23 Placing, 72, 121, 130
Lightweight fill concrete, 134 -Architectural concrete, 1 16
Lightweight insulating concrete, 161 -Pumped concrete, 127
Load test, 163 Placing inspection, 58
Planned construction joints, 79
Longitudinal construction joints, 107
Plants, 144
Longitudinal contraction joints, 107
-Precast concrete, 144
Pneumatically sprayed concrete, 128
M
Machine bases, grouting, 153 Polyethylene film, 83
Mass concrete, 137 Polymer system, 155
-Dams, 138 Post-tensioning, 143
Pozzolanic materials, handling and storage, 33
Materials, architectural concrete, 1 i 5
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Pozzolans, 40
Membrane curing, 83
Prebatching inspection report, 172
Mix requirements, slabs, 94
Precast concrete 143
Mixers, 161
-Curing, 146
Mixing, 49, 53
Precast members, 118
-Architectural concrete, 1 16 Precast prestressed concrete, 148
Mixing inspection, 171 Precast units, 181
Mixing plants, inspection, 56 Preliminary inspection, 8 1
Mixing truck report, 174 Premature traffic, 106
Mixture proportioning, 39, 120 Preplaced-aggregate concrete, 123
-Architectural concrete, 116 Pressure grouting, 153
-Control, 45 Pressure method, air content, 158
-Exposure conditions, 43 Prestressed concrete, 143, I8 I
-Freeze resistance, 43 Pretensioned bonded tendons, 148
-Specification, 40 Pretensioning, 143
-Specified strength, 40 Proportioning, 180
-Strength, 39 Protection, 82
-Water-cementitious materials ratio, 40 -Architecturai concrete, 118
Mockup, 112 Pumping concrete, 126
Moist curing, 82 Pumping equipment, 126

S T D - A C 1 SP-2-ENGL 1777 W Obb2799 0 5 9 8 3 5 b T70
Q Slabs, 94
Quality assurance, 8 -Reinforcement, 94
-Statistical concepts, 8 Slabs on grade, 95
Quality control, 8 -Curing, 96
Quality-control charts, 171 Slipforming, 120, 121
-Cast-in-place pipe, 121
R -Vertical structures, 120
Rain, 72,109 Slump test, 58, 157
Random numbers, 14 Spading, 73
Ready-mixed concrete, 55 Specific gravity
Records, 145, 168 -Aggregates, 27
Reinforcement, 121, 146 -Coarse aggregate, 167
-Architectural concrete, 115 -Fine aggregates, 167
-Pavements, 100 -Tests for, 27
-Placing, 65 Specifications, 1
-Slabs, 94 -Architectural concrete, 11
Reinforcing steel, 29, 101, 181 -Mixture proportions, 40
Repairs Specified strength, proportioning for
-Architectural concrete, 88, 118 -Accelerated curing, 161
-Curing, 89 -Cylindrical, 160
-Exposed concrete, 86 -Specimens, 40
-Exposed surfaces, 86 Splitting tensile strength, 160
-Holes, 87 Stabilized base, 99
-Injection grouting, 92 Stain removal, 87
-In-service structures, 88 Standard deviation, 18
-Materials, 89 Statistics, 8
-Shotcrete, 128 -Concepts, 9, 10
-Structural, 89 -Procedures, 9
-Structural concrete, 88 -Tools, 11
Reports, 168 Steam curing, 146
Reshonng, 81 Steel reinforcement, 29
Retention of records, 178 Strength, specified, 40
Strength tests, 159
S -Control charts, 12
Sack rubbing, 87 Structural concrete
Safety, 131, 152 -Lightweight aggregate, 132
-Epoxy resin, 72,91
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
-Mass, 139
Samples, 111 -Repairs, 88
-Shipping and handling, 164 Structural slabs, 97
Sampling Stucco, 156
-Aggregates, 22, 164 Subbase, 99
-Cements, 22 Subgrade, 99
-Methods, 117 Surface defects, 119
-Random, 14,15,16 Surface treatment, architectural concrete, 116
Sand, tests for, 24 Swelling, concrete, 37
Sandblasting, 117
Scales, 50 T
Settlement, concrete, 34 Temperature, freshly mixed concrete, 158
Shoring Temperature control, mass concrete, 139
-Reshoring, 81 Tendons, 149
Shotcrete, 128 Tests, 59, 136, 155
Shrinkage, concrete, 37 -Aggregate grading, 24
Shrinkage-compensatingconcrete, 140 -Aggregates, 24, 166, 167
Sieve or screen analysis, 165 -Air content, 158
Site -Ball penetration, 157
-Conditions, 70 -Cements, 22
-Handling, 70 -Density, 27, 162
-Mixing, 53 -Completed structures, 163

INDEX 209
-Concrete, 157 -Architectural concrete, 113

-Consistency, 157 -Tests, 161
-Fine materials, 24 Unplanned construction joints, 80
-Moisture and absorption, 25
-Reports, 145
-Sand, 24
v
-Slump, 157 Vacuum concrete, 125
-Specific gravity, 27 Vertical structures, 120
-Strength, 159 Vibration, 73
-Uniformity, 161 Vibrators, 76
-Voids, 27
-Washout, 162 Voids, tests for, 27
Texturing, 104 Volumetric batching, 53
Tilt-up construction, 121 Volumetric method, air content, 158
Tolerances, batching, 49
Tolerances, finished construction, 62 W
Tolerances, slipform work, 120 Water batching, 52
Transporting, architectural concrete, 116
Water-cementitious materials ratio, specified, 41
Transverse construction joints, 107
Tremie concrete, 125 Weather, paving, 108
Trial batch, 140 Weigh hoppers, 50
Two-course construction, 96 Welding reinforcement, 146
Workability, 47
U
--```,`,`,,`````,,```,,,`,,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Underwater construction, 124
Unformed surfaces, 77 Y
Uniformity Yield, 48


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Document provided by IHS Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100, User=, 01/21/2003

Reported by AC1 Committee 3 11

Claude E. Jaycox Michael T.Russell

Gordon A. Anderson Kingsley Drake Oswin Keifer, Jr.'

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Copyright O 1999, American Concrete Institute

First printing, February, 2000

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PREFACE ................................................................................................................................................................ ...

CHAPTER 2-STATISTICAL CONCEPTS FOR QUALITY ASSURANCE ............................................ 8

CHAPTER 3-INSPECTION AND TESTING OF MATERIALS ............................................................ 21

CHAPTER &HANDLING AND STORAGE OF MATERIALS .............................................................

CHAPTER 5-FUNDAMENTALS OF CONCRETE ............................................................................... 34

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CHAPTER 7-BATCHING AND MIXING .............................................................................................. 49

CHAPTER &-INSPECTION BEFORE CONCRETING ......................................................................... 61

CHAPTER 9-CONCRETING OPERATIONS ....................................................................................... 70

CHAPTER 10-CURING. PROTECTION. FORM REMOVAL. AND RESHORING ..............................

CHAPTER Il-CORRECTION OF DEFECTS IN NEWLY HARDENED CONCRETE

CHAPTER 12-SLABS FOR BUILDINGS ............................................................................................ 94

CHAPTER 14-ARCHITECTURAL CONCRETE ................................................................................ 111

CHAPTER 15-SPECIAL CONCRETING METHODS ........................................................................ 120

CHAPTER 16-SPECIAL TYPES OF CONCRETE ............................................................................ 132

CHAPTER 17-PRECAST AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE ......................................................... 143

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CHAPTER 18-CONSTRUCTION RELATED TO CONCRETING ...................................................... 153

CHAPTER 19-TESTING OF CONCRETE AND AGGREGATES ...................................................... 157

CHAPTER 20-RECORDS AND REPORTS ....................................................................................... 168

CHAPTER 21-REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 179

CHAPTER 23-CHECKLIST OF INSPECTION .................................................................................. 185

APPENDIX ............................................................................................................................................ 188

INDEX .................................................................................................................................................. 205

Fig. 1.2-Concrete’s ability to be formed in any shape lets

Function as part of the fabricating or manufactwing

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spection forces maintained by the agency. The amount of in-

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undergo a period of on-the-job training under the supervision

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Document provided by IHS Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100, User=, 01/21/2003

Document provided by IHS Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100, User=, 01/21/2003

CHAPTER 2-STATISTICAL CONCEPTS FOR QUALITY ASSURANCE

ten been unable to keep pace. In addition, the work load of

Fig. 2.I-Probability of acceptance when resumpling.

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XI =&O" x*=snS' X,W" x4'8.15" X5.8.l0"

Fig. 2.2-Designation of lots and sublots.

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X = individual test result

r=average, specifically, sample average, called "bar X'

x = x,+ x, + x,n + ... + x,

Fig. 2.4-Frequency distribution of strength datu und corre-

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Standards for concrete control

the new work, the concrete mixture shall be proportioned for

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“control” chart (one used for actual process control) will

fi (orfc! - 1.34s) I/ Operational control -1

specified period. These, again, are horizontal line charts, but

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