CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of study

Occupational hygiene is defined as the discipline of anticipating, recognizing, evaluating

and controlling health hazards of the workplace. The main objective of occupational

hygiene is to give health promotion and maintenance of worker’s optimum physical,

mental and social levels, prevention illness or diseases from the workplace or during

work process, to increase quality of work environment and work processes suitable for

worker’s safety and health conditions.

There are many types of hazards at the workplace such as biological hazards, physical

hazards, chemical hazards, ergonomic hazards and psychosocial hazard. Industrial

hygienists use environmental monitoring and analytical methods to measure the

magnitude of the hazard and to employ engineering controls, work practice controls and

other methods to control potential health hazards.

Nowadays, many people work in asphalt industry sector. People who work with

chemicals in a laboratory, engineers and technician who work in petroleum or crude oil

industry, people who work with the mining activities, asphalt paving workers who work

with coal tar and many more, are at high risk of getting sick from exposed to asphalt

fumes and vapors which contain Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds (PACs). For instance,

exposure to PAC in the workplace has been shown to be linked with an excess risk of

1
cancer in other industrial workers such as coke oven, foundry and aluminum production

workers (Armstrong et. al., 2004). Asphalt or also known as bitumen is a dark, semi-

solid residual that results from the non-destructive distillation of crude petroleum oil and

it is widely used as an industrial material (Gamble et. al., 1999).

Asphalt is found in coal tar to make road. Tar made from asphalt are increasingly being

used as a binder in road works and are applied hot (Sellappa et. al., 2011). Asphalt fumes

are found to be hazardous for human because it contains a complex mixture of Polycyclic

Aromatic Compounds (PACs). Workers employed in the pavement sector are highly

exposed to asphalt fumes either during the production or laying of asphalt. Although

they are exposed in low doses, the exposure is for long periods of working hours

(Sellappa et al., 2011) which is typically eight hour working duration.

Occupational exposure to PACs may occur from workers breathing exhaust fumes such

as mining, metal working or oil refining and asphalt road pavers (Armstrong et. al,.

2004). Road paving workers are occupationally exposed to PACs in several ways which

are via inhalation, dermal absorption (McClean et al., 2004) and biomarker (McClean

et. al., 2012). PACs are multi-layered benzenoid-ring compounds and PACs contain

certain polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), substituted PAHs and PAH

heterocyclic derivatives (NIOSH, 1998).

PAHs are organic substances made from carbon and hydrogen atoms grouped into fused

or condensed aromatic ring structure (Canadian Council of Ministers of the

Environment, 2010). PAHs are produced through a variety of combustion process and

types like vehicle exhaust and industrial processes. PAH has two categories which is low

molecular weight compounds with usually has fewer than four rings and high molecular

weight compounds with four rings and more (Kim et. al., 2013).

2
 PAHs with four rings and more can show insignificant vaporization under all

environmental conditions. PAHs are also known for their characteristic and suspected

compound of being one of the carcinogenic pollutant (McClean et al., 2004) and some

of them are teratogens which could posed a serious threat to human health (Boström et

al., 2002). In addition, PAHs may also play a role in health effects of respirable

particulate matter which are PM10 and PM2.5.

1.2 Problem statement

Asphalt fumes generated at high temperatures are likely to generate carcinogenic

polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) than asphalt fumes generated at lower

temperature (NIOSH, 2000). Moreover, acute effects of asphalt fume exposures in

asphalt paving workers have been reported with eye irritation and nasal and throat

irritation and this irritation are appeared to be mild in severity and transient in nature

(NIOSH, 2000).

Plus, results from recent studies found that workers involved in asphalt paving

operations experienced lower respiratory tract symptoms such as coughing, wheezing,

shortness of breath and pulmonary function changes (NIOSH, 2000). Although an

exposure-response relationship has not yet been established in these studies, the

identification of health effects related to higher mean personal exposures during

underground asphalt paving indicates that such a relationship may exist (NIOSH, 2000).

Bronchitis that is possibly related to lower respiratory tract irritation has also been

reported among asphalt workers and highway maintenance workers. However, the data

are insufficient to conclude that the bronchitis was caused by occupational exposure to

3
asphalt fumes (NIOSH, 2000).

Comprehensive reviews on the available literature have been conducted worldwide

(NIOSH, 2000) but these reviews were lacking of data on the exposure and potential

cofounding factors such as smoking habits, duration of exposure to coal tar, drinking

habits and life style (eat a healthy diet, exercise regularly) of the asphalt paving workers

itself which has significant limitations that made it very difficult and almost impossible

to demonstrate a casual association (McClean et. al., 2004).

A few studies reported an association between cancer at sites other than the lungs like

bladder, kidneys, brain, and liver with occupations having potential exposure to asphalt

(NIOSH, 2000). Since the interpretation of these findings is limited by the study designs

and the lack of good exposure data and consistent findings, no association can be made

at this time (NIOSH, 2000).

In general, existing studies were criticized for having a weak exposure assessment which

are lacking in quantitative measurements of PAHs exposure to asphalt paving workers

(McClean et. al., 2004; Neghab et. al., 2015). Previous studies have limited abilities to

detect a positive association between occupational exposure to asphalt paving workers

and cancer risk assessment due to the possibility that random misclassification of

exposure (McClean et. al., 2004). Data regarding the potential carcinogenicity of paving

asphalt fumes in humans are limited (NIOSH, 2000).

Due to this, the relationship between occupational asphalt exposure and cancer risk

remains unclear until today hence, occupational exposure from asphalt to paving

workers and the cancer effect continuing to be a controversial issue. To overcome this

problem, additional studies of asphalt paving workers exposed to asphalt fumes, vapors,

and aerosols during paving, roofing, and painting operations are needed to better

4
 characterize exposures and to evaluate the risk of chronic disease, including lung cancer

especially here in Malaysia.

1.3 Significance of study

Based on study findings, asphalt paving worker are exposed to asphalt fumes while

carrying out the road paving activities. Hot mix asphalt in paving materials consists of ̴

5% asphalt and ̴ 95% of mineral aggregate which has been heated, mixed and delivered

to the paving site (Cavallari et al., 2012). Asphalt paving workers are exposed to PACs

through asphalt vapors and asphalt fume via inhalation (McClean et al., 2004) and until

today, the carcinogenicity of exposure to asphalt emissions still remains under

investigation (Cavallari et al., 2012).

Acute exposure to asphalt fumes among asphalt paving workers can result in headaches,

rashes, asthma, eye irritation and cough (NIOSH, 2000). Meanwhile chronic exposure

to asphalt fumes will result in cancer such as lung cancer (NIOSH, 2000). Over the

decades, there are so much effort being put by the authorities just to reduce the PACs

emissions for the workers by the introduction of engineering controls. Until today, there

is still a need to do a further optimize exposure reduction of PACs strategies like

controlling the temperature of HMA, workers wearing the right Personal Protective

Equipment (PPE), engineering control at source and many more to combat this problem

(Cavallari et al., 2012).

Yet, there are several studies that really have examined predictors of airborne exposures

among hot mixed asphalt paving workers (Burstyn et. al., 2002). In combating with these

issues, it is crucial to characterize the type of PACs exposures, to identify the sources of

5
 the exposure and lastly to recognize the work practices that affect the exposure so that

the amount of exposure to asphalt fumes to the workers can be controlled. It is a

compulsory to make sure that the occupational exposure of asphalt fumes is being

reduced so that the health and wellbeing of the asphalt paving worker can be taken care

of as it is the primary objective in occupational hygiene to eliminate or reduce the

occupational hazards to the workers.

1.4 Objectives of study

This study aims to assess occupational exposure to PACs among asphalt paving workers.

The objectives of this study are:

i. To quantify the exposure of PACs among asphalt paving worker.

ii. To identify which asphalt job task (asphalt paver, asphalt raker, asphalt roller

operator, asphalt paving machine operator) is highly exposed to PACs.

iii. To identify work practices that affect personal exposure to PACs among asphalt

paving worker.

iv. To give an insight on finding the best way to minimize the exposure of PACs and

identify the best control measures to control the exposure of PACs to asphalt paving

worker.

6
 CHAPTER 2

LITERITURE REVIEW

2.1 Asphalt physical and chemical properties

Asphalt is also known as bitumen as it contains hydrocarbon that are soluble in carbon

disulfate. Asphalt is a constituent from petroleum and was produced through crude oil

refining process. Figure 2.1 shows the process of various asphalt product from

petroleum oil refining process.

Figure 2.1: Flow Chart of Petroleum Asphalt

Source: (Minnesota Asphalt Pavement, 2014)

Petroleum crude consists of aliphatic compounds such as cyclic alkanes, aromatic

hydrocarbons and heterocyclic compounds. Because asphalt is too complex, no

asphalt is chemically identical thus chemical analysis cannot be done to determine

7
the exact chemical structure nor its composition. Table 2.1 shows physical properties

of asphalt, asphalt fumes and asphalt paints. Based on the table given, characteristics

of asphalts vary according to their type.

Table 2.1: Physical properties and information of asphalt, asphalt fumes and asphalt

paints (Sax & Lewis, 1987).

General Asphalt Asphalt fumes Asphalt paints

Information

CAS number 8052-42-4 None None

RTECS CI99000 None None

number

Synonyms Asphalt Bitumen fume Bitumen paint

emulsions, paving
asphalt,
petroleum
asphalt, road
asphalt, roofing
asphalt

Physical Black / dark- Varies from light Black / dark-brown

characteristics brown solid or straw-colored viscous liquid
at room viscous liquid low viscosity
temperature liquid to dark
brown solid /
viscous liquid

Solubility in Insoluble Insoluble Insoluble

water at 20°C

Solubility in Partially soluble Same with Same with asphalt

organic in aliphatic asphalt
solvent organic solvents
and soluble in
carbon disulfide

CAS = Chemical Abstract Service

RTECS = Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances

*CAS number 64742-93-4

8
Plus, chemical composition of asphalt depends on the original petroleum crude

chemical complexity and its manufacturing processes (NIOSH, 2000). The variability

of asphalt vapors and fumes are affected by some factors such as temperature and

mixing during the manufacturing process and temperature and extent of mixing

during the laboratory generation. Moreover, asphalt fumes generated from high

temperature processes are more likely to generate carcinogenic PACs compared to

asphalt fumes generated from low temperature processes (NIOSH. 2000).

Asphalt pavement for instance, have many components based on its unit volume,

aggregate mass, asphalt mass and many more. Figure 2.2 shows the detail component

diagram of asphalt pavement.

Figure 2.2: Component diagram of asphalt pavement

Source: Source: (Minnesota Asphalt Pavement Association, 2014)

9
2.1.1 Types and uses of asphalt

Asphalt has many types and grades ranging from hard-brittle solids to near water-thin

liquids like paving asphalt, roofing asphalt and paint-based asphalt. Besides, asphalt

also have many uses and applications in the daily life. Asphalt are used in many

industries such as agriculture industry, building industry, floors industry, roofing

industry, hydraulics and erosion control industry, automotive industry, electrical

industry, paints and varnishes industry and many more. For example, in agriculture,

asphalt is used as fence post coating, cattle sprays and in weather modification areas.

In floors industry, they used asphalt as step treads, insulating fabrics and paper, damp

roofing and waterproofing. In automotive industry, asphalt is used in brake linings,

friction elements and panel boards (NIOSH, 2000).

2.1.1.1 Paving asphalt

Paving asphalts are made based on its physical properties and not by its chemical

properties to meet its performance specifications. Paving asphalt is produced from

heated petroleum crude at 340 °C to 400 °C and is introduced at atmospheric pressure

in a distillation tower where volatile components in it will all vaporize and usually, air

is being introduced to paving asphalt to form a more viscous product that is more

resistant to weather and temperature change (NIOSH, 2000).

There are three types of paving asphalts which are asphalt cements, cutback asphalts

and emulsified asphalts. Cutback asphalt and emulsified asphalts share same

similarities where these asphalts are liquid at ambient temperatures and also, they are

called as liquid asphalts (Roberts et. al., 1996).

10
Asphalt cement is known as far by many names such as asphalt pavement, bituminous

mix, asphaltic concrete, plant mix, hot-mix asphalt (HMA), warm-mix asphalt and

many more. Asphalt cement is produced when heat is applied for mixing process with

mineral aggregates. Primarily, asphalt cement consists of a combination of aggregates

and asphalt binder. Asphalt cement grade is measured by its penetration, viscosity

and amount of higher boiling point components that have been removed from the

residuum (NIOSH, 2000). When asphalt cement is compacted and cooled to air

temperature, it becomes a strong paving material which can bear heavy traffic loads

but still remains flexible enough to withstand any environmental conditions and

stresses.

In Malaysia, the type of pavement asphalt that are commonly used is asphaltic

concrete pavement which is also known as HMA and many more as stated above.

Moreover, asphaltic concrete has a good interlayer bond which hold the structure

integrity of the asphalt pavement and at the same time, it can prevent any possible

distresses from occurring.

This is because, Malaysia is well known for its delamination which is a common

distress caused by insufficient degree of adhesion through slippage failure thus, to

prevent this, asphaltic cement is widely used in this country. Moreover, asphaltic

concrete can ensure a smooth riding layer which can reduce road accidents (Yaacob

et. al., 2014).

11
 2.1.2 Asphalt vapors and fumes

Asphalt products will produce asphalt vapors when heated and as these vapors cool down,

they will condense. This process can be repeated again and again. However, all asphalt

vapors do not condense at the same time. Because of this, asphalt workers are highly

exposed not only to asphalt vapors but also to asphalt fumes at the same time during the

exposure.

Besides, when liquid asphalt products like cutback asphalt and emulsified asphalt were used

at an ambient temperature, asphalt workers may be exposed to the liquid products and to

vapors (NIOSH, 2000). Moreover, asphalt paving workers are exposed to asphalt fumes not

only via the asphalt pavement, but also by emissions that primarily came from the exhaust

of the passing vehicles (Raulf-Heimsoth et al., 2007).

There are several factors that affect the variability of the asphalt fumes and vapors such as

temperature and mixing during the manufacturing process and the temperature and extent

of mixing during laboratory generation. The recommended exposure limit (REL) for

asphalt fumes is only 5 milligrams per cubic meter of air and is measured as total

particulates during any 15 minutes period (NIOSH, 2000).

2.1.3 Number of workers potentially exposed to asphalt

Workers who work with asphalt are exposed to various types of modulators and modifiers

which are added to the asphalt itself such as antioxidants, anti-corrosive agents, filter fibers,

oxidants, plastics, rubber, waste materials and other volatile products (NIOSH, 2000). There

are about 3,600 hot mixed asphalts facilities and 7,000 asphalt paving contractors who

employ nearly 300,000 of asphalt workers in the United States (Asphalt Paving

12
 Environmental Council (APEC), 1999). Currently, there are about 50,000 asphalt roof

workers who were exposed to asphalt fumes during their average working hour (NIOSH,

2000). About 1,500 to 2,000 of asphalt workers were exposed to asphalt fumes in the roofing

manufacturing plants (Asphalt Roofing Environmental Council (AREC), 1999).

Based on the statistical data above, asphalt fumes and vapors that get in contact with the

workers do affect the workers’ health and due to this exposure, it can lead to negative impacts

to the workers’ health as the number of workers exposed to asphalt is quite high and this

trend may increase from time to time depending on the duration of the asphalt exposure to

the workers.

2.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds (PACs) and its derivatives in asphalt

Moreover, asphalt fumes generated at high temperature are more likely to produce

carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs) than asphalt fumes which were

generated at lower temperature (NIOSH, 2000). PACs are multi-numbered benzenoid-ring

compounds. PACs contain polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), substituted PAHs,

and PAH heterocyclic derivatives (NIOSH, 1998).

According to a study conducted in Iran, exposure to asphalt came from the exposure of

PACs, PAHs and alkyl derivatives which are the byproducts of combustions and petroleum

processing ((Neghab, Zare Derisi, & Hassanzadeh, 2015). Based on the above study, it

showed that even at low concentrations, these PAHs and alkyl derivatives are highly

carcinogenic (Ulvestad et al., 2007).

Usually, PACs and PAHs is being analyzed by using gas chromatography (GC), flame

ionization detector (FID), liquid chromatography (LC) and Ultraviolet (UV) and even

though these method were good, but it also has some drawback which is asphalt fumes

13
 contain a complex mixture of PACs which has two or more fused aromatic rings and these

PACs are neither hardly to be separated nor to be quantified (NIOSH, 2000).

2.2.1 Route of PACs exposure among asphalt paving workers

Researchers found that paving worker are exposed to PACs while working with HMA

(McClean et. al., 2012). This is a key point for Malaysian study as in Malaysia, we are using

HMA more frequently compared to other types of asphalt. Routes of PACs exposure to

asphalt paving workers has been reported in various ways such as by inhalation (McClean et.

al., 2004; Jongeneelen et al., 1988; Fostinelli et al., 2018) dermal exposure (Cavallari et. al.,

2011; McClean et. al., 2004; Jongeneelen et al., 1988;) and by biomarkers which is urine

(McClean et. al., 2012; Jongeneelen et al., 1988; Fostinelli et al., 2018).

2.2.2 Occupational exposure data of PACs among asphalt paving workers

Previous studies have shown some data regarding the presence of carcinogenic pollutants that

came from the asphalt fumes itself (NIOSH, 2000). According to the analytical laboratory

analysis made by many researchers, they have found that asphalt fumes do have some

carcinogenic pollutant in it that can give adverse health effects to the worker. According to

the gas chromatography (GC) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method,

the carcinogenic pollutant that have been detected in asphalt fumes and vapors are polycyclic

aromatic compounds (PACs), pyrene and benzo[a]pyrene.

Based on the results obtained in previous study (McClean et. al., 2004), inhalation of PACs

exposure are consistent with the workers’ exposure to the asphalt fume such that the adjusted

mean exposures among paving operators are the highest compared to screedmen, rakers and

roller operators such that the mean exposure among paver operators which is found to be 5.0

µg/m3, low Recycle Asphalt Product (RAP); 24 µg/m3, high RAP. It is 12 times higher than

14
among asphalt roller operators which is only 0.4 µg/m3 for low RAP and 2.0 µg/m3 for high

RAP.

Meanwhile in comparison, another study by Cavallari et al., (2012) summarized that

geometric mean (GM) for pyrene is 57 ng m-3 and GM for four to six PACs is 0.13 µg m-3.

PACs were detected in majority of the air samples collected. This study also reported that job

site characteristics such as working with HMA application temperature were found to

significantly (P ≤ 0.001) affect the pyrene and PACs exposure of individual workers.

For dermal PACs exposure, a study conducted by McClean et. al., (2004) reported that PACs

dermal exposure correlated with the degree to which the workers were exposed to asphalt

contaminated surfaces during their working hour. This study found that rakers are highly

exposed to PACs via dermal exposure compared to screedmen, paver operators and roller

operators such that the mean exposures among rakers is 175 ng/cm2, low RAP; 417 ng/cm2,

high RAP were approximately six times higher than among roller operators 27 ng/cm2, low

RAP; 65 ng/cm2, high RAP.

Cavallari et. al., (2012) suggested that biodiesel substitution and dermal protection were

effective in reducing dermal exposures. Based on the results obtained by using multivariate

linear mixed-effects models, increasing in glove usage among asphalt workers was associate

with significant (P < 0.0001) reductions for hand wash and POD phenanthrene. Meanwhile,

pyrene concentrations were reduced between 40% to 90%. Not only that, similar pattern of

reduction can be seen through wash concentrations of phenanthrene (P5 0.01) and pyrene (P5

0.003).

These can be seen when biodiesel was substituted with diesel oil to act as a cleaning agent.

Plus, this study also reported that hot mix asphalt application temperature, asphalt grade, and

asphalt application rate (tons per hour) could affect the dermal absorption exposure. This

15
 study suggested that substituting biodiesel for diesel oil as a cleaning agent, frequent use of

safety glove, and reducing the hot mix asphalt application temperature from 149°C to 127°C

may reduce dermal exposures by 76% to 86% varying by the analyte and the assessment

method (Cavallari et. al., 2012).

In determinig the PACs exposure among asphalt paving workers via urine biomarkers,

McClean et. al., (2012) found that the urine concentration of post-shift is higher than the urine

concentration during the pre-shift. This study also shows that the application temperature of

hot mix asphalt can be associated with urinary measures ranging from 121°C to 154°C

(McClean et. al., 2012).

2.3 Human health effects of PACs exposure among asphalt paving worker

Based on previous studies (Randem et. al., 2004; Hansen, 1991; Järvholm et al., 1999;

NIOSH, 1977; Gamble et. al., 1999) that have been conducted, asphalt fumes were proven to

cause health impairment among asphalt workers and the health effects can be characterized

as acute health effects and chronic health effects (NIOSH, 2000).

2.3.1 Acute health effects

Studies have found similar cases reported where asphalt workers were exposed to asphalt fume

with acute toxic effect with irritant symptoms like eye irritation, mucous membranes of the

nasal and throat irritation (NIOSH, 2000). These health effects were found to be related to

asphalt paving workers and despite than that, similar symptoms also being reported in workers

who were exposed to asphalt fumes in manufacturing of asphalt roofing shingles and

fluorescent light industry, the insulation of cables industry, and during the malfunctioning of

light fixture in an office environment (NIOSH, 2000).

Researcher also found that the exposure to asphalt fumes was associated with the incidence of

16
 respiratory symptoms (Randem et. al., 2004) as there is a case of bronchitis and emphysema

being reported among asphalt worker (Hansen, 1991).

2.3.2 Chronic health effects

Previous studies indicated an increased risk of cancer for workers exposed to asphalt fumes,

but it is probable that the exposure to PAH was much higher when coal tar was a common

component in asphalt (Partanen & Boffetta, 1994). The concentrations of PAH from coal tar

pitch are some orders of magnitude higher than those from bitumen (Machado et. al., 1993).

There was no obvious correlation between the total concentration of PAH in bitumen fumes

from paving asphalt and mutagenicity and yet only several PAHs can cause cancer and the

exposure to PAH should be as low as feasible (Järvholm et al., 1999).

Some of the earliest study also relate the exposure of asphalt fume to cancer mortality but then,

it was judged as the data was not sufficient and were said to be inconclusive because of

methodological problems, lack of data, insufficient of latency periods and the presence of

confounding factors such as smoking habit of the worker, lifestyle of the worker and exposure

to other potential carcinogens agents such as coal tar products (NIOSH, 1977).

Nevertheless, there were also studies which have not found any consistent relationship between

the exposure of asphalt fumes and decline in function of the lung nor increase in the prevalence

of respiratory symptoms in asphalt workers (Gamble et. al., 1999) and only a few studies

reported that there is a correlation between exposure to asphalt fumes among asphalt workers

with cancer (NIOSH, 2000). Previous studies failed to elaborate more on the correlation

between the exposure of PACs from asphalt fumes and vapors with cancer effect to workers as

their findings is limited by the study designs and the lack of good exposure data and consistent

17
findings, hence no conclusion can be made related to this issue.

It is clearly seen that exposure of PACs that came from the asphalt fumes and asphalt vapors

really give a negative health effects to the asphalt workers but the statistics of showing these

asphalt fumes and vapors which have been the culprit of making the workers to have cancer

still a controversial issues that need to be resolved.

Hence, more study needs to be conducted to really examine whether these exposures really can

give cancer to its worker or not and whether the cancer itself is just affected by other contributor

factors such as the lifestyle of the workers or smoking habits among the worker especially here

in Malaysia.

18
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Study design

Personal air samples will be collected from 12 workers (three workers from each job task)

during full working shift which is eight hours for five working days. Each sampling day

includes the collection of personal air samples (particulate and vapor), meteorological

information, questionnaire (information of smoking habit, lifestyle, demographic, job

characteristics) and detail observations for each asphalt paving workers.

3.2 Study population

The study population will include workers from four different groups of asphalt paving

workers based on job task which is the asphalt paver, asphalt raker, asphalt roller

operator and asphalt paving machine operator. All study population must be male

asphalt workers who are working with same working hour at the same working place

and currently are working for the same company.

19
3.3 Methods

Methods that will be used in this study are personal air samples, lab analysis and

statistical analysis.

3.3.1 Personal air samples

Personal air samples will be collected for each of the participating worker based on the

NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods (NMAM) 5506. Then, the air sampling system

used in this method will consist of a filter with a cassette holder to collect only PACs.

The filter that will be used to collect PACs in this study is a Teflon filter. A specialized

sorbent tube XAD-2 is used to collect the PACs but in vapor phase. The personal air

sampling pump must be able to operate at 2 L/min.

Then, a cassette consists of PTFE laminated filter with 2µm pore size and 37 mm

diameter will be attached to the worker’s lapel near the zone of breathing. Meanwhile,

XAD-2 sorbent tube will be attached from each filter cassette in inline and downstream

position. Nevertheless, the personal air samplers flow rates will be checked before,

during and after.

Then, the air samples will be collected by using a calibrated rotameter. For

precautionary method to prevent the sample from degrading in the presence of sunlight,

an opaque filter cassettes and foil-wrapped sorbent tubes will be used in this study.

Lastly, the samples need to be transported to a cooler and stored at temperature -20°C

20
3.3.2 Laboratory analysis

The analytical methods used in this study is to measure PACs are based on a modified

NIOSH Method 5800 (McClean et al., 2004). This is because, each of the individual

components of asphalt-related PACs are neither hard to separate nor quantified

(NIOSH, 2000). For this analysis, the excitation wavelength of PACs will be optimized

to 270 nm and the emission wavelength of PACs will be optimized to 415 nm.

The excitation and emission wavelength need to be optimized in this study in order to

get PACs with four-ring only. Meanwhile, PACs with larger range includes

carcinogenic compounds such as benzo[a]pyrene (BAP), benzo[a]anthracene,

benzo[b]fluoranthene, chrysene and dibenz[a,h]anthracene. Vapor and particulate

samples will be extracted as follows: first, 4 ml of hexane will be added. Second, all of

the samples taken will be sonicated for 1 hour. Third, 2 ml of sonicated hexane will be

syringe-filtered and transferred to a clean tube. Fourth, 2 ml of dimethyl sulfoxide

(DMSO) will be added to the remaining 2 ml of sonicated hexane until the final volume

reach 4 ml.

Then, all extracted mixtures of air samples will be “tumbled” overnight, to produce

layers. The top layer will then be transferred to a new tube and the DMSO layer will

be analyzed by using high-pressure liquid chromatograph (HPLC) to detect PACs,

pyrene and BAP. Then, known amount of PACs, pyrene and BAP will be diluted to

prepare concentrations of 0, 10, 30, 100, 200, 400 and 800 ng/ml.

21
3.3.3 Statistical analysis

For statistical analysis, all of the air samples exposure results will be analyzed by using

several methods. First by using descriptive statistics of p-test. Second, for correlation

coefficients, it will be estimated by using linear mixed-effects model and lastly by

using Statistical Analysis System (SAS) statistical software to display the graphic and

statistical significance value will be reported (McClean et. al 2004).

22
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 CURRICULUM VITAE

A. Personal Profile
Full name: Nur Faizatul Nadirah binti Razaha
National IC no: 960126-06-5714
Birth date: 26 January 1996
Citizenship: Malaysian
Place of birth: Pekan, Pahang
Gender: Female
Correspondence address:
BM 31,
Kampung Pulau Jawa,
26600 Pekan,
Pahang Darul Makmur
Telephone No. (HP): 011–1996 8284
Email address: faizatulnadirah@gmail.com

B. Hobbies and Interests

Socializing with friends and family, watching televisions (documentaries
and news), reading on non-fiction books, cooking and baking and do some
volunteering work.

C. Academic Qualification
2017 - current: Degree in Science (Hons.) Environmental Technology
UiTM Shah Alam
2014 - 2016: Diploma in science (CGPA 3.10), UiTM Pahang
2009 - 2013: Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM), SEMSAS Kuantan
D. Work Experience
Cashier at Ikmal Shah café on 2013-2014
Private Tutor for UPSR and PMR student 2013-
2014

E. Related experiences
Joining sports and management society (Majlis Sukan Pelajar) as vice
president and manage all the events that the society organized, became
treasurer in the Environmental Technology Society (ETES) on 2018-2019,
internship at Isuzu Hicom Malaysia and do some volunteering work at Baitul
Al Mawaddah in Selangor, 2019 and at Elephant Sanctuary Kuala Gandah in
Pahang, 2019.

F. Awards
Malaysian Book of Records longest musicthon 2013, Silver Medalist in Wind
Orchestra 2012, Bronze Award in Singapore International Band Festival.

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