corrosion and
materials degradation
Article
Prevention of Corrosion in Post-Tensioned Structures:
Electrically Isolated Tendons
Bernhard Elsener 1,2
Citation: Elsener, B. Prevention of
Corrosion in Post-Tensioned
Structures: Electrically Isolated
Tendons. Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2022,
3, 414–421. https://doi.org/10.3390/
cmd3030024
Academic Editors: Miguel-Ángel
Climent and Carmen Andrade
Received: 11 May 2022
Accepted: 18 July 2022
Published: 20 July 2022
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Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2022, 3, 414–421. https://doi.org/10.3390/cmd3030024
1 Department of Chemical and Geological Science, University of Cagliari, I09042 Monserrato, Italy;
elsener@ethz.ch or belsener@unica.it; Tel.: +39-070-675-44-64
2 Institute of Building Materials, ETH Zurich, CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland
Abstract: Post-tensioning structures with metallic ducts risk corrosion, rupture or collapses due
to chloride ingress. The use of tight corrugated polymer ducts combined with electrically isolated
anchorages (EIT) changed the situation. Laboratory and many field applications proved the tightness
of the duct, showing resistance values higher or much higher than 50 kΩm, the acceptance criteria
for a tight duct. The most important fact is that EIT tendons allow quality control and long-term
monitoring of the duct tightness. EIT ducts (also with resistance values below the threshold criteria)
can be monitored over the whole service life: only a progressive decrease of the measured resistance
indicates a corrosion risk for this specific tendon. The most important structural elements can be
easily monitored for the first time and damage initiation can be detected early. After a successful use
in Europe EIT technology is now expanding progressively in the US.
Keywords: durability; non-destructive testing; polymer ducts; electrically isolated tendons;
long-term monitoring
1. Introduction
Optimum corrosion protection of post-tensioning tendons has been a priority since the
beginning of this technology [1] because tendons are crucial for durability and structural
safety of concrete bridges. However, the metallic ducts of wrapped steel are not fully
tight, the grouting procedure is not perfect and chloride-bearing water enters into the duct,
leading to corrosion of the strands [2]. During service life, inspection of post-tensioning
structures with non-destructive testing and evaluation (NDE) methods is required as
corrosion of the strands cannot be detected by visual inspection. Despite some progress,
none of the existing inspection and monitoring methods allows a complete and meaningful
evaluation of post-tensioning tendons in existing structures [3,4]. Thus, owners of structures
and engineers face uncertainty regarding safety and durability of existing structures and
severe damages and collapses of structures were reported worldwide [5]; the most recent
tragic event was the collapse of the Polcevera viaduct in Genoa, Italy, in 2018 [6].
Nowadays, thanks to the introduction of corrugated polymer ducts and electrically
isolated anchorages (EIT) in civil engineering practice, corrosion protected post-tensioning
tendons can be constructed: polymer ducts prevent the ingress of aggressive substances
into the tendons and the electrical isolation allows quality control and monitoring of the
tightness of the duct. For the first time the most important structural elements, the tendons,
can be easily monitored and initiation of damage can be detected early. This paper sum-
marizes the requirements for EIT system and describes the impedance measurements for
acceptance, quality control and monitoring. Examples from laboratory and field measure-
ments of quality control and long-term monitoring are presented, highlighting the need of
a joint collaboration of owner, structural engineer, contractor and post-tensioning company
to fully benefit from the EIT technology in practice.
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/cmd
Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2022, 3 415

2. Electrically
Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2022, 3, FOR PEER REVIEW Isolated Tendons (EIT) 2
A new generation of thick-walled polymer ducts for bonded, internal tendons was
developed by industry at the beginning of the 19900 s [7] and gradually introduced in
practice.
2. These
Electrically thick-walled
Isolated Tendonsplastic
(EIT) ducts for post-tensioning tendons become popular for
use with
A newcurved tendons.
generation The research
of thick-walled work
polymer andfor
ducts development
bonded, internalof thick-walled
tendons was polymer
ducts andby
developed their performance
industry in practice
at the beginning of the is well[7]
1990′s documented
and graduallyinintroduced
literaturein[7]. A fib report
prac-
presented
tice. the knowledge
These thick-walled atducts
plastic that time and recommended
for post-tensioning tendonsspecifications
become popular [8].forThe
usefollowing
with curved
reasons weretendons.
at the The researchof
beginning work and development
corrugated polymerofducts:
thick-walled polymer ducts
and their performance in practice is well documented in literature [7]. A fib report pre-
(a) increased fretting fatigue resistance of the tendons [9,10],
sented the knowledge at that time and recommended specifications [8]. The following
(b) improved corrosion protection, especially in the case of stray currents, which is a vital
reasons were at the beginning of corrugated polymer ducts:
aspect for railway bridges [11],
(a) increased fretting fatigue resistance of the tendons [9,10],
(c) feasibility of electrical monitoring of the tendon during the whole service life [12]
(b) improved corrosion protection, especially in the case of stray currents, which is a vital
(d) aspect
reduced frictionbridges
for railway losses [11],
during stressing of the tendon,
(c) feasibility of electrical monitoring of the tendon during the whole service life [12]
2.1. Protection
(d) Levelslosses during stressing of the tendon,
reduced friction
The following three categories of protection levels for post-tensioning tendons evolved
2.1.
from Protection Levels
the developments carried out in Switzerland since 1995, jointly performed between
The following
industry, railway and three categories
road of protection
authorities levelsInfor
and research. thepost-tensioning
first pioneeringtendons
Swiss guideline
evolved
from 2001 from theand
[13] developments
the revised carried out infrom
guideline Switzerland since
2007 [14], the 1995,
term jointly performed
“category” was used to
between
describeindustry, railway
the different and road authorities
post-tensioning and research.
systems. In the
The letters a, first
b, andpioneering Swissthe lowest,
c indicated
guideline from 2001 [13] and the revised guideline from 2007 [14], the term “category”
respectively, highest protection level. In fib bulletin 33 “durability of post-tensioning
was used to describe the different post-tensioning systems. The letters a, b, and c indicated
tendons” [15]—which has adopted the concept of three levels of protection of the mentioned
the lowest, respectively, highest protection level. In fib bulletin 33 “durability of post-ten-
Swiss guidelines—the
sioning tendons” [15]—which termhas
“protection level”
adopted the is used
concept instead
of three levelsofof“category” and
protection of thethe letters
mentioned Swiss guidelines—the term “protection level” is used instead of “category”level, PL3,
a, b, and c were replaced with the numbers 1, 2 and 3. The highest protection
corresponds
and the letters to electrically
a, b, and c wereisolated
replacedtendons.
with the numbers 1, 2 and 3. The highest protec-
tion level, PL3, corresponds to electrically isolated tendons.
2.2. The EIT System
2.2. The
TheEIThighest
System protection level, PL3, can be reached with fully encapsulated and electri-
callyThe highest
isolated protection
tendons. Inlevel, PL3, to
addition canthe
be protection
reached withoffully
the encapsulated
tendons fromand electri-of chloride
ingress
cally isolated tendons. In addition to the protection of the tendons from
containing water and corrosion the system is monitorable. Isolated tendons used in bridgeingress of chloride
containing
structureswater have andto becorrosion
considered the system
a systemis monitorable. Isolated tendons
of many components, used inthick
including bridgecorrugated
structures have to be considered a system of many components,
polymer ducts, polymer couplers and trumpet, grout vents etc. (Figure 1a) including thick corru-
that together
gated polymer ducts, polymer couplers and trumpet, grout vents etc. (Figure 1a) that to-
ensure a tight envelope that prevents ingress of water and chloride. The thick corrugated
gether ensure a tight envelope that prevents ingress of water and chloride. The thick cor-
polymer duct avoids direct metallic contact between the mild steel reinforcement or sup-
rugated polymer duct avoids direct metallic contact between the mild steel reinforcement
ports
or and the
supports andhigh-strength
the high-strength steel strands.
steel strands.As Aswith
with conventional post-tensioning, stress
conventional post-tensioning,
is stillis transferred
stress from
still transferred fromthetheindividual
individual posttensioned strands
posttensioned strands via via wedges
wedges in an in
an-an anchor
headhead
chor thatthatin turn presses
in turn pressesagainst
againstaa bearing plateembedded
bearing plate embedded in the
in the surrounding
surrounding con- concrete.
The anchor-bearing
crete. The anchor-bearing plate is is
plate electrically
electrically isolated fromthe
isolated from the anchor
anchor headhead by inserting
by inserting a a spe-
cial electrically
special electricallynon-conductive
non-conductive isolation platethat
isolation plate thatsupports
supportsthe thehigh
high compression forces
compression
forces
(Figure (Figure
1b). 1b).

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure1.1.The
TheEIT system:
EIT system:thick corrugated
thick polymer
corrugated duct with
polymer ductgrout
withvent coupler
grout ventdesigned
coupler and
designed and
produced to fit perfectly tight on the duct in order to guarantee a fully leak tight duct system (a),
produced to fit perfectly tight on the duct in order to guarantee a fully leak tight duct system (a),
electrically isolated anchorage plate requires a high-strength, isolating polymer disc put between
anchor bearing plate and anchor head (b).
 Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2022, 3, FOR PEER REVIEW 3

electrically isolated anchorage plate requires a high-strength, isolating polymer disc put between
Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2022, 3 anchor bearing plate and anchor head (b). 416

2.3. System Approval

2.3. Any system
System to be used for post-tensioning tendons of PL2 or PL3 requirements has
Approval
to pass a rigorous set of pre-qualification tests in order to be accepted for production [16].
Any system to be used for post-tensioning tendons of PL2 or PL3 requirements has
These involve a series of individual materials tests, followed by qualification of compo-
to pass a rigorous set of pre-qualification tests in order to be accepted for production [16].
nents that check mechanical properties, wear resistance and especially water-tightness.
These involve a series of individual materials tests, followed by qualification of components
Finally, the assembled system has to pass qualification tests, including:
that check mechanical properties, wear resistance and especially water-tightness. Finally,
 the full-scale duct system assembly must be airtight.
the assembled system has to pass qualification tests, including:
 Water-tightness of the anchorage-duct assembly.
• High
the full-scale
electrical duct systemofassembly
resistance the duct must be airtight.
and the duct with connector (with/without
• vent).
Water-tightness of the anchorage-duct assembly.
• Maintaining
High electrical
highresistance of the ductofand
electrical resistance the the duct with connector
anchorage-duct assembly(with/without
for 28 days. vent).
• Maintaining high electrical resistance of the anchorage-duct assembly for 28 days.
2.4. Measuring Principle
2.4. The
Measuring Principleof the resistance and the capacitance are performed with a hand-
measurements
The meter
held LCR measurements
connectedoftothetheresistance and the capacitance
normal reinforcement in concreteareonperformed with
one side and thea hand-
heldstrands
steel LCR meter connected
in the grouted to the on
ducts normal reinforcement
the other (Figure 2a).in The
concrete on onesystem
measuring side and the steel
thus
includes
strands the concrete
in the surrounding
grouted ducts on thethe other
duct, the polymer
(Figure 2a). duct
The (with ev. pores
measuring and defects)
system thus includes
and grout in the duct. Both grout and concrete can be considered pure
the concrete surrounding the duct, the polymer duct (with ev. pores and defects) resistances inand
the grout
frequency range
in the duct. between
Both grout and100 and 1000 Hz.
concrete can Instead, the polymer
be considered pure duct is essentially
resistances in the afrequency
ca-
pacitance (Ch) in 100
range between parallel
andwith
1000aHz.
veryInstead,
high resistance Rh (Figure
the polymer duct 2b). Not fully closed
is essentially grout (Ch )
a capacitance
vents and / or
in parallel defects
with in the
a very highduct are represented
resistance by R2b).
Rh (Figure d, a small ohmic
Not fully resistance
closed groutinvents
paral-and/or
lel.
defects in the duct are represented by R , a small ohmic resistance in parallel.
d

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure2.2.Measuring
Measuring principle: system
principle: of steel
system strands
of steel in grouted
strands polymer
in grouted duct vs reinforcement
polymer in
duct vs reinforcement
concrete (a), electrical circuit of individual duct segments with and without defect (b). Rd defect
in concrete (a), electrical circuit of individual duct segments with and without defect (b). Rd defect
resistance, Ch duct capacitance, Rh duct resistance.
resistance, Ch duct capacitance, Rh duct resistance.
2.5.
2.5.Results
ResultsofofLaboratory
LaboratoryMeasurements
Measurements
InInorder
ordertotostudy
studythe
theeffect
effectof
of defects
defects inin the
the duct,
duct, laboratory
laboratory impedance
impedancemeasure-
measurements
ments in the full frequency range from 0.1 to
5 10 5 Hz were performed on grouted plastic
in the full frequency range from 0.1 to 10 Hz were performed on grouted plastic ducts (ø
ducts
59 mm, (ø 59 mm, length
length 1 m) embedded
1 m) embedded in concrete
in concrete blocksblocks
[17].[17].
TheseThese
teststests
werewere performed
performed in order
in order to acquire resistance and capacitance values in well controlled laboratory condi-
to acquire resistance and capacitance values in well controlled laboratory condition with
tion with defined diameters of the holes. The results (Figure 3) have shown a very high
defined diameters of the holes. The results (Figure 3) have shown a very high resistance
resistance value for ducts without defects (reference), for welded and coupled ducts that
value for ducts without defects (reference), for welded and coupled ducts that essentially
essentially behave as capacitance (2.34 nF). On the contrary, the measured resistance de-
behave as capacitance (2.34 nF). On the contrary, the measured resistance decreased for
creased for ducts with holes: ducts with a 2 mm hole showed values <100 kΩ, ducts with
ducts with holes: ducts with a 2 mm hole showed values <100 kΩ, ducts with a large 40 mm
a large 40 mm hole showed resistance values lower than 1 kΩ. At the measuring frequency
hole
of 1 kHzshowed
ducts resistance
with holesvalues
behavelower than 1 kΩ.
as resistance. At the
A small measuring
electrolytic frequency
contact of 1grout
between kHz ducts
with holes behave as resistance. A small electrolytic contact between grout
and concrete as, e.g., an open grout vent in the concrete was found to have a resistance ofand concrete as,
e.g., an open grout vent in the concrete was found to have a resistance of 573 kΩ and a loss
factor of 0.098 [17]. As the length of the tendon in the laboratory experiments is 1 m, the
measured values correspond directly to the specific capacitance (2.34 nF/m), respectively,
the specific resistance value in kΩm. Performing measurements on real tendons with much
higher length (m), the specific capacitance is calculated as Cspec = Cmeas /m. The specific
resistance values of a tendon with length m are calculated by Rspec = Rmeas x m. This is
clearly described in the guidelines.
 573 kΩ and a loss factor of 0.098 [17]. As the length of the tendon in the laboratory exper-
iments is 1 m, the measured values correspond directly to the specific capacitance (2.34
nF/m), respectively, the specific resistance value in kΩm. Performing measurements on
real tendons with much higher length (m), the specific capacitance is calculated as Cspec =
Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2022, 3 417
Cmeas/m. The specific resistance values of a tendon with length m are calculated by Rspec =
Rmeas x m. This is clearly described in the guidelines.

Figure
Figure3.3.Results of laboratory
Results impedance
of laboratory measurements
impedance on 1 m on
measurements long1 grouted
m long ducts ø 59ducts
grouted mm em-
ø 59 mm
bedded
embedded in concrete for perfectly intact duct (reference), coupled or welded ducts, ductsgrout
in concrete for perfectly intact duct (reference), coupled or welded ducts, ducts with with grout
vents and ducts with artificial holes from 2 mm to 40 mm [17].
vents and ducts with artificial holes from 2 mm to 40 mm [17].
3.3.Quality
QualityControl
Controlofof
Electrically Isolated
Electrically Tendons
Isolated Tendons
Quality
Qualitycontrol in in
control thethe
design stage,
design during
stage, handling
during and execution,
handling as well
and execution, asaswell
work-
as work-
manship and good instruction are crucial for success. The various parties (engineer, owner,
manship and good instruction are crucial for success. The various parties (engineer, owner,
PT system supplier, contractor) should coordinate prior to and during construction. Ex-
PT system supplier, contractor) should coordinate prior to and during construction. Ex-
pectations should be defined when writing the contract based on the level of risk. Note
pectations should be defined when writing the contract based on the level of risk. Note
that EIT allows to verify the integrity of a tendon’s encapsulation—to protect a tendon
that EIT allows to verify the integrity of a tendon’s encapsulation—to protect a tendon
from corrosion, the strands should be fully embedded in stable grout within the leak tight
from corrosion, the strands should be fully embedded in stable grout within the leak
encapsulation.
tight encapsulation.
3.1. Tests before Grouting the Tendons
3.1. Tests before Grouting the Tendons
The Swiss Guideline [14] recommends performing several tests before grouting. Be-
The Swiss Guideline [14] recommends performing several tests before grouting. Before
fore pulling strands in the duct, said duct should be checked for deformations. To screen
pulling strands in the duct, said duct should be checked for deformations. To screen for
for incomplete seals in the connections, fog prepared from dry ice (CO2) should be
incomplete
pumped sealsthe
through in duct.
the connections, fog is
After placement prepared
complete, from dry ice impedance
the strands (CO2 ) should be pumped
measure-
ments are recommended to detect short circuits (direct contact between strands and rein- are
through the duct. After placement is complete, the strands impedance measurements
recommended
forcement). Afterto detect short
concrete circuits
placing (direct contact
and tensioning betweenanother
of the strands, strandsEIT
and reinforcement).
check is re-
After concrete placing and tensioning of the strands, another EIT check is required
quired to detect that application of prestress has not further abraded the duct or otherwise to detect
that application of prestress has not further abraded
caused electric contact with the external reinforcement. the duct or otherwise caused electric
contact with the external reinforcement.
3.2. Tests after Grouting the Tendons—Acceptance Criteria
3.2. Tests after Grouting the Tendons—Acceptance Criteria
These measurements are mandatory in order to confirm the integrity of the fully con-
These
structed measurements
tendon areThe
enclosure [14]. mandatory
resistanceinand
order
the to confirm the
capacitance integrity
of each tendonof are
the fully
constructed
measured tendon enclosure
simultaneously [14].the
but only The resistance
resistance and the
is used capacitancecriteria.
as acceptance of eachThese
tendon are
measured simultaneously
measurement on each tendon butare aonly
verythe resistance
effective and a is used
rapid as acceptance
quality criteria.
control measure for These
measurement
installation. As aon each tendon
criterium, are a very effective
the length-normalized and Ral rapid
resistance = Rmeas quality
x length control
[Ωm] mustmeasure
for installation. As a criterium, the length-normalized resistance Rl = Rmeas x length
[Ωm] must be applied because the measured resistance Rmeas is inversely proportional
to the length of the tendon. The measured resistance Rmeas is influenced by the quality
(porosity, water content) of the concrete and the grout; however, a high resistance ensures a
continuous physical barrier against the ingress of water. The Swiss Guideline [14] defines
the acceptance criteria for the resistance readings of the EIT system,
• To avoid fatigue and fretting corrosion, the criteria for resistance is R ≥ 20 Ω, in
order to ensure that no direct contact between the normal reinforcement and the
high-strength steel (short circuit) occurs.
 be applied because the measured resistance Rmeas is inversely proportional to the length of
the tendon. The measured resistance Rmeas is influenced by the quality (porosity, water
content) of the concrete and the grout; however, a high resistance ensures a continuous
physical barrier against the ingress of water. The Swiss Guideline [14] defines the ac-
Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2022, 3 ceptance criteria for the resistance readings of the EIT system, 418
 To avoid fatigue and fretting corrosion, the criteria for resistance is R ≥ 20 Ω, in order
to ensure that no direct contact between the normal reinforcement and the high-
• strength for
Criteria steel (short circuit)
long-term occurs. is Rl ≥ 50 kΩm. This allows detecting the ingress of
monitoring
 water (and chlorides) at eventualisdefects
Criteria for long-term monitoring Rl ≥ 50 kΩm. This
present inallows detecting the ingress of
the duct.
• water (and chlorides) at eventual defects present in the duct.
Full electrical isolation with Rl ≥ 250 to 125 kΩm (according to duct diameter) is
 Full electrical
required isolation with
for protection Rl ≥ 250
against tocurrents.
stray 125 kΩm Note
(according to duct
that stray diameter)
current is theisprimary
re-
quired for protection against stray currents. Note that stray current is the
reason that Swiss Federal Railway Authorities declared EIT mandatory on DC railways primary
reason that Swiss Federal Railway Authorities declared EIT mandatory on DC rail-
and tramways.
ways and tramways.
As the testing method for EIT (impedance measurements) is very rigorous, the Swiss
As the testing method for EIT (impedance measurements) is very rigorous, the Swiss
Guideline accepts 10 percent of tendons not obtaining the required electrical resistance [14].
Guideline accepts 10 percent of tendons not obtaining the required electrical resistance
In addition, experience in Switzerland and Italy (see following sections) has shown that
[14]. In addition, experience in Switzerland and Italy (see following sections) has shown
even when the measurements may not meet the criteria R ≥ 50 kΩm, the tendons are
that even when the measurements may not meet the criteria Rl ≥l 50 kΩm, the tendons are
protected
protected against
against corrosion
corrosion and
andlong-term
long-termmonitoring
monitoringisisstill possible.
still Thus,
possible. thethe
Thus, acceptance
ac-
criteria should not be interpreted too strictly.
ceptance criteria should not be interpreted too strictly.
3.3. Quality Control after Grouting and Tensioning
3.3. Quality Control after Grouting and Tensioning
Compared
Compared to tostructures
structureswithwith metallic
metallic ducts,
ducts, thethe quality
quality control
control reaches
reaches a new a dimen-
new dimen-
sion: the electrical
sion: the electricalisolation
isolationofofeach
each single
single tendon
tendon fromfromthe the normal
normal rebar rebar network
network can becan be
easily checkedby
easily checked byresistance
resistancemeasurements.
measurements. TheThe tightness
tightness of the
of the ductduct
and and the anchor
the anchor head head
are
are not only influenced
not only influencedby bythethepost-tensioning
post-tensioning system,
system, butbut by design
by design and and
mainlymainly
by theby the
execution of the structure. One of the possible disadvantages of EIT tendons
execution of the structure. One of the possible disadvantages of EIT tendons is that design, is that design,
handling
handling andand placing
placing must
must be be performed
performed with
with much
muchmore morecarecarecompared
comparedtotometallic
metallicducts.
Experience from several structures in Switzerland is reported in [18]
ducts. Experience from several structures in Switzerland is reported in [18] with good re- with good results,
although
sults, although on both structures one out of six tendons had a short circuit or a resistancebelow
on both structures one out of six tendons had a short circuit or a resistance
the acceptance
below criteria.
the acceptance criteria.
The Piacenza
The Piacenzaviaduct
viaducton onthetheMilano-Bologna
Milano-Bologna lineline
in the Italian
in the high-speed
Italian high-speednetwork
network
consists of
consists of 151
151 simply
simplysupported
supported full-span
full-spanpre-cast
pre-cast andandprestressed
prestressedconcrete decksdecks
concrete com- com-
posed by aa monolithic
posed monolithicbox boxgirder
girderwithwithtwo
twocells.
cells.Each segment
Each segmentspans 33.1 33.1
spans m and m weighs
and weighs
about 1000
about 1000 tons
tons(Figure
(Figure4)4)[19].
[19].During
During construction
construction data have
data beenbeen
have collected fromfrom
collected the first
the first
71 decks
71 decks ofof the
thePiacenza
Piacenzaviaduct,
viaduct,eacheachcontaining
containing 9 cables
9 cableswith 12 wires,
with ductduct
12 wires, ø 76 ømm76 (in
mm (in
the lower
the lower slab)
slab)and
and15 15cables
cableswith
with1919 wires, duct
wires, duct ø 100 mmmm
ø 100 (in (in
the the
webs).
webs).

Figure 4. Full span precast deck of the Piacenza viaduct in the stocking area.

Measuring the capacitance C allowed a first control on the execution quality. The
values of the capacitance of the tendons ø 76 mm are Gaussian distributed with a mean value
of 70.3 nm ± 2.3 nm, the very small standard deviation indicates the good reproducibility
in production. The specific capacitance C/m (per meter length) is well below the control
values specified in [14], indicating that the duct wall thicknesses are slightly higher than
specified [20].
The measured resistance value R of more than 1000 tendons of the Piacenza viaduct—
despite the constant length of the tendons—do not show a gaussian distribution. The
 Measuring the capacitance C allowed a first control on the execution quality. The
values of the capacitance of the tendons ø 76 mm are Gaussian distributed with a mean
value of 70.3 nm ± 2.3 nm, the very small standard deviation indicates the good reproduc-
ibility in production. The specific capacitance C/m (per meter length) is well below the
Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2022, 3
control values specified in [14], indicating that the duct wall thicknesses are slightly higher 419
than specified [20].
The measured resistance value R of more than 1000 tendons of the Piacenza viaduct—
despite the constant length of the tendons—do not show a gaussian distribution. The cu-
cumulative probability
mulative probability plotplot
for for
the the tendons
tendons withwith
ø 76ømm 76 mm
and and
ø 100ømm 100 from
mm from the segments
the segments
of the
the Piacenza
Piacenzaviaduct
viaduct(Figure
(Figure 5) 5)
showshow that
that lessless
thanthan
1% 1% ofvalues
of all all values are below
are below 10 Ohm,
10 Ohm,
thus cables
cableswith
withaashort
shortcircuit
circuit (electrical
(electrical contact
contact between
between tendon
tendon and and
normalnormal rebars).
rebars). The The
limiting valueof
limiting value ofthe
thespecific
specificresistance
resistance Rl R = kΩm
= l50 50 kΩm according
according to [14]
to [14] results
results in a limiting
in a limiting
resistance valueRR= 1.5
resistance value = 1.5
kΩkΩfor for
the the tendon
tendon withwith
length length
33.1 m. 33.1
Thism.acceptance
This acceptance criteria
criteria are
not reached
are by about
not reached 8—10%
by about of all of
8–10% theall
tendons. In addition,
the tendons. it can be itnoted
In addition, thatnoted
can be for each
that for
tendon
each position
tendon about 5%
position of all
about 5%full span
of all bridge
full spandeckbridgesegments were produced
deck segments with per- with
were produced
fect isolation (reaching the theoretical value of a completely tight plastic
perfect isolation (reaching the theoretical value of a completely tight plastic duct). duct). The broad The
distribution of resistance values measured shows that there is a strong
broad distribution of resistance values measured shows that there is a strong influence influence of the of
human factor, as written procedures, as the approved material and
the human factor, as written procedures, as the approved material and components (deck components (deck
formwork, reinforcement
formwork, reinforcementand andpre-stressing)
pre-stressing) were
were identical.
identical.

Figure 5. Resultsofofmeasurements
5.Results measurements of of
thethe electrical
electrical resistance
resistance of 33.1
of 33.1 m long
m long tendons
tendons in thein the segments
segments
of the
of the Piacenza
Piacenzaviaduct
viaductwith
withLCRLCR meter
meterat at
1000 Hz.Hz.
1000 Left: ø 76ømm,
Left: right:
76 mm, ø 100ømm.
right: The threshold
100 mm. The threshold
value of
value of R
Rll==5050kΩm
kΩmresults in in
results a limiting resistance
a limiting R ofR1.5
resistance of kΩ. The lines
1.5 kΩ. with with
The lines different colourcolour
different refer refer
to the individual EIT ducts present in the web (see Figure 4).
to the individual EIT ducts present in the web (see Figure 4).
4. Long
4. Long Term
TermMonitoring
MonitoringofofStructures
Structures
One
One of
ofthe
themain
mainadvantages
advantages ofof
EIT systems
EIT systemsin post-tensioned
in post-tensionedtendons is that
tendons is they
that can
they can
be periodically tested during the whole service life to assess whether
be periodically tested during the whole service life to assess whether the strandsthe strands in thein the
tendon are
tendon arestill
stillprotected
protectedfrom
fromcorrosion.
corrosion.In In
general,
general,the the
electrical resistance
electrical of a tendon
resistance of a tendon
inside a concrete structure exposed to the atmosphere increases (similar to the concrete
inside a concrete structure exposed to the atmosphere increases (similar to the concrete
strength) over time due to cement hydration and due to drying out, following a trend line
strength) over time due to cement hydration and due to drying out, following a trend line
in the log R vs. log t graph (Figure 6). This increase in resistance has been determined in
in the log R vs. log t graph (Figure 6). This increase in resistance has been determined in
laboratory experiments [17], the observed increase can be used to compensate for the time
laboratory experiments [17], the observed increase can be used to compensate for the time
of measurement (often preferable before 28 days) with the formula R28d = Rt x √28/t √as in
of measurement (often preferable before 28 days) with the formula R28d = Rt x 28/t as in
the Swiss Guideline 2007 [14].
the Swiss Guideline
A decrease in the2007 [14]. electrical resistance over time clearly indicates that water
measured
is penetrating in the duct and has entered the tendon encapsulation at one of the defects
 rides) in the duct. Once a decrease in the resistance of a tendon is detected, the defects in
the duct can be located, imposing an AC voltage between the high strength steel and the
reinforcement (using the same electrical connections as for the impedance measurements).
As a result, an electrical current is flowing through the tendon. Measuring the magnetic
field associated with this current with sensors put on the concrete surface, the points
Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2022, 3 420
where the current is leaving the tendon can be located and the defect can be detected
[17,18].

Figure
Figure6.6.Examples
Examples of of
long-term
long-termmonitoring of the
monitoring ofelectrical resistance
the electrical of tendons
resistance in bridge
of tendons girders,girders,
in bridge
resistance plotted in a log R vs log t graph. Prés du Mariage, pilot object with six tendons, continuous
resistance plotted in a log R vs log t graph. Prés du Mariage, pilot object with six tendons, contin-
increase (left), bridge where one tendon shows a clearly decreasing resistance after 300 days, indi-
uous increase (left), bridge where one tendon shows a clearly decreasing resistance after 300 days,
cating ingress of water (right).
indicating ingress of water (right).
5. Conclusions and Outlook
A decrease in the measured electrical resistance over time clearly indicates that water
Electrically in
is penetrating isolated
the ducttendons (EIT)
and has are a proven
entered system
the tendon to enhance the
encapsulation atdurability
one of theofdefects
structures with post-tensioned tendons to the highest protection level PL3. Results from
(present from the beginning) in the duct (Figure 6). It is important to note that even tendons
structures in Switzerland and a large-scale application in the Piacenza Viaduct of the high-
that did not meet the required acceptance threshold (except a short circuit occurred) may
speed train lines in Italy document the successful application of the EIT in practice.
still be monitored in the long-term for the effect of ingress of water (and mostly chlorides)
Measurements of the electrical resistance on electrically isolated tendons have shown
in the duct. Once a decrease in the resistance of a tendon is detected, the defects in the
to be an efficient way for quality control of the tendons. The acceptance criteria should be
duct can be located, imposing an AC voltage between the high strength steel and the
considered as a guideline and not enforced strictly. There are instances where readings
reinforcement
may (using
not fully meet the but
criteria samemayelectrical connections
still allow long-term as for the impedance measurements).
monitoring.
As aMonitoring
result, an over
electrical current is flowing through the tendon.
time the electrical resistance of the tendons Measuring
allows thepen-
detecting the magnetic
etration of (chloride containing) water at defects into the ducts, long before corrosion dam- where
field associated with this current with sensors put on the concrete surface, the points
theoccurs.
age currentFor
is leaving
the first the tendon
time, can cost-effective
a simple, be located and thewarning
early defect can be detected
system [17,18].
for post-ten-
sioned tendons is available.
5. Conclusions and Outlook
Measurements of the magnetic field associated with an imposed current between ten-
don and Electrically isolated
reinforcement allowtendons
locating(EIT) are
defects a proven
(short system
circuits to enhance
and holes) the durability
in the tendons. For of
structures
optimum with the
success post-tensioned
tendons should tendons to electrical
have an the highest protection
connection level
at both PL3. Results from
ends.
structures
The useinof Switzerland and atendons
electrically isolated large-scale
(EIT)application
can provide in the Piacenza
in-service PT tendonViaduct
dura- of the
bility information
high-speed trainand improve
lines in Italythe construction
document the /successful
installationapplication
quality. In recognizing
of the EIT inthese
practice.
benefits EIT technology
Measurements is becoming
of the electrical implemented
resistance on more and more
electrically in US
isolated construction
tendons have shown
practice
to be an[21,22].
efficient way for quality control of the tendons. The acceptance criteria should be
considered as a guideline and not enforced strictly. There are instances where readings may
Funding: This criteria
not fully meet researchbutwas
mayfunded by long-term
still allow the Swissmonitoring.
Federal Highway Authority,
Brückenunterhaltsforschung, grant number 564 and 647
Monitoring over time the electrical resistance of the tendons allows detecting the
Data Availability
penetration Statement: containing)
of (chloride Data can be obtained
water atupon reasonable
defects request
into the fromlong
ducts, the author.
before corrosion
damageofoccurs.
Conflicts Interest:For
Thethe firstdeclares
author time, anosimple, cost-effective
conflict of interest. early warning system for post-
tensioned tendons is available.
Measurements of the magnetic field associated with an imposed current between
tendon and reinforcement allow locating defects (short circuits and holes) in the tendons.
For optimum success the tendons should have an electrical connection at both ends.
The use of electrically isolated tendons (EIT) can provide in-service PT tendon dura-
bility information and improve the construction/installation quality. In recognizing these
benefits EIT technology is becoming implemented more and more in US construction
practice [21,22].

Funding: This research was funded by the Swiss Federal Highway Authority, Brückenunterhalts-
forschung, grant number 564 and 647.
Data Availability Statement: Data can be obtained upon reasonable request from the author.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.
Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2022, 3 421

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