NARAYANA E-TECHNO SCHOOL

VELAPPANCHAVADI,CHENNAI

A PROJECT REPORT ON
Vaccination and immunization
SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:
MR. SUNDARMOORTHY Kapilesh Saami Nagesh
MRS. MALA
[DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY]
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Kapilesh Saami Nagesh a student of grade XII has
successfully completed the research on the below mentioned project under

the guidance of Mr. SUNDARMOORTHY & Mrs.R.MALA

(Subject teachers) during the year 2022-2023 in partial fulfilment of Biology

practical examination conducted by AISSCE, New Delhi.

Internal Examiner External  Examiner

Principal
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I would like to sincerely and profusely thank our reverent Principal

Mrs.RANI THOMAS and our Biology faculties Mr.

SUNDARMOORTHY & Mrs.R.MALA for their

guidance and support in completing my project. Also I thank
Ms.P.SUDHA (Junior Lecturer) for her timely help and
encouragement for the successful completion of the project. Finally,
I thank all the facilitators who have provided all the facilities
required.

Kapilesh Saami Nagesh

Class:XII
Kapilesh Saami Nagesh
CLASS: XII

INDEX

S.NO PAGE NO.

TOPIC
1.
Abstract

2.
What is Antibiotic Resistance

3.
Need of this Experiment

4.
Fighting Antibiotic Resistance:

5.
Material Required

6.
Observation

7.
CONCLUSIONS
Abstract:

An antibiotic is an agent that either kills or inhibits the growth

of a microorganism. The term antibiotic was first used in 1942
by Selman Waksman and his collaborators in journal articles
to describe any substance produced by a microorganism that is
antagonistic to the growth of other microorganisms in high
dilution. This definition excluded substances that kill bacteria
but that are not produced by microorganisms (such as gastric
juices and hydrogen peroxide). It also excluded synthetic
antibacterial compounds such as the sulfonamides. Many
antibacterial compounds are relatively small molecules with a
molecular weight of less than 2000 atomic mass units.

With advances in medicinal chemistry, most modern

antibacterial are semi synthetic modifications of various
natural compounds. These include, for example, the beta-
lactam antibiotics, which include the penicillin (produced by
fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporin, and the
carbapenems. Compounds that are still isolated from living
organisms are the amino glycosides, whereas other
antibacterial—for example, the sulfonamides, the quinolones,
and the oxazolidinones—are produced solely by chemical
synthesis.

In accordance with this, many antibacterial compounds are

classified on the basis of chemical/biosynthetic origin into
natural, semi synthetic, and synthetic. Another classification
system is based on biological activity; in this classification,
antibacterial are divided into two broad groups according to
their biological effect on microorganisms: Bactericidal agents
kill bacteria, and bacteriostatic agents slow down or stall
bacterial growth.
 What is Antibiotic Resistance?

Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria develop the ability to survive

exposure to antibiotics that were previously effective at killing or
inhibiting the growth of those bacteria. This can occur through a variety
of mechanisms, such as the bacteria acquiring mutations that make
them resistant to the antibiotics, or through the bacteria acquiring genes
that encode for enzymes that can inactivate the antibiotics. Antibiotic
resistance is a major public health concern because it can make
infections caused by antibiotic-resistant bacteria more difficult to treat,
and can lead to the spread of these infections to other people. Antibiotic
resistance can also lead to the development of more virulent strains of
bacteria, which are more likely to cause serious illness or death.

Need of this Experiment:

Antibiotic resistance is becoming more and more common. Antibiotics

and antimicrobial agents are drugs or chemicals that are used to kill or
hinder the growth of bacteria, viruses, and other microbes. Due to the
prevalent use of antibiotics, resistant strains of bacteria are becoming
much more difficult to treat. These "super bugs" represent a threat to
public health since they are resistant to most commonly used antibiotics.
Current antibiotics work by disrupting so-called cell viability processes.
Disruption of cell membrane assembly or DNA translation are common
modes of operation for current generation antibiotics. Bacteria are
adapting to these antibiotics making them ineffective means for treating
these types of infection. For example, Staphylococcus aureus have
developed a single DNA mutation that alters the organism's cell wall.
This gives them the ability to withstand antibiotic cell disruption
processes. Antibiotic resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae produce a
protein called MurM, which counteracts the effects of antibiotics by
helping to rebuild the bacterial cell wall.

Fighting Antibiotic Resistance:

There are several ways to address the problem of antibiotic resistance:

1. Antimicrobial Stewardship: This involves the careful and responsible use

of antimicrobials (including antibiotics) to ensure that they remain effective
for as long as possible. This includes only prescribing antibiotics when they
are truly necessary and using the most appropriate antibiotic for the
specific infection being treated.
2. Infection Control: Implementing good infection control practices, such
as proper hand hygiene and isolation of infected individuals, can help
prevent the spread of antibiotic-resistant infections.

3. Development of New Antimicrobials: There is a need for the

development of new antimicrobials to replace those that have become
ineffective due to resistance.

4. Education and Awareness: Raising awareness about the issue of

antibiotic resistance and the importance of responsible antimicrobial use
can help reduce the unnecessary use of antibiotics and slow the
development of resistance.

5. Surveillance: Monitoring the prevalence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria

and tracking the spread of these infections can help inform public health
efforts to control and prevent the spread of resistance.

Material Required:

1. Sterilized Petri dishes

2. Sterilized culture tubes with media

3. Transfer loops

4. Forceps

5. Flask

6. Beaker

7. Burner

8. Penicillin

9. Aureomycin
10. Hay

11. Alcohol

12. Agar

13. Starch

14. Distilled water

Experimental Procedure:

1. To 200ml of distilled water in a flask, I added 8 grams of agar powder

and 2 grams of starch. Then putting a few pieces of dry hay into the
medium I covered the flask with an Inverted beaker. Boiling the medium
for 5 minutes and then cooling the medium to room temperature. After
that placing the flask in a warm place. Within 2-3 days, formation of scum
of cloudy suspension appeared on the medium indicating the growth of
Bacillus subtilis.

2. Taking culture tubes with agar medium and heating the test tubes in
warm water to melt agar. Cooling each test tube so that I can hold it in my
hand and the agar remains liquid. After that removing the cotton plug and
I passed the mouth of the test tube through the burner flame twice.
Flaming the transfer loop after dipping it in alcohol and I let it cooled.
After that picking up a loop full of bacterial culture from flask and then I
transferred it to the warm agar in the culture tube. Flaming the loop and
the mouth of the culture tube and then I replaced the cotton plug. Rolling
the culture tube of warm agar between palms to I mixed the bacteria well
with agar.

*Transferring the bacteria should be done as quickly as possible.

3. After that I took sterilized petridishes. Removing the cotton plug and
flamed the mouth of the culture tube. Then I lifted the cover of the
Petridish at an angle 45 Degree and then quickly pouring the medium of
the culture tube into the bottom half the dish. Removing the culture tube
and replacing the cover tube into the bottom half of the dish. Removing the
culture tube, and replace the cover of the Petridish. Moving the covered
Petridish along the table top to distribute the medium evenly. Then I
allowed the agar to cool. After that I prepared two petridishes and marked
them A & B.

4. I prepared Penicillin and Aureomycin solution by dissolving the

powdered drugs in distilled water. Then I cut down a few discs of filter
paper of 1 cm diameter. Then I soaked a disc in each of the penicillin and
Aureomycin solutions. Dipping the forceps in alcohol and the I passed the
forceps’ tip quickly over the burner flame. Using the sterilized forceps I
put Penicillin and Aureomycin soaked discs at two distant sites of Petridish
A. Considering Petridish B as control. Then I kept both the Petridishes
undistributed in warm place to allow the bacteria to grow. Then I observed
the Petridishes for several days.

Observation:

The area around the antibiotic discs in the Petridishes will be

clear. In other areas, colonies of bacteria will be observed.
Then I examined the clear area in each Petridishes for few
more days. A few very colonies may appear in the clear areas.
These are the colonies of resistant strains of the bacteria.

CONCLUSIONS:

Antibiotic drugs killed most of the bacterial strain, hence the

areas appeared clear. However, a few strains which were
resistant in the bacterial population survived and produced
colonies later. This proves the resistant strain to antibiotics
were present in the bacterial population.

Bibliography
 NCERT Book
 https://chat.openai.com/chat
 https://www.sciencebuddies.org/
 https://studiousguy.com/
 https://www.seminarsonly.com/
 https://www.1000sciencefairprojects.com

THANK YOU…..