3.

CONDUCTING DESIGN OF ROAD

3.1 calculating volume of earth work
Cut and fill excavation is a method of construction used on undulating terrain with ridges and
troughs or more specifically terrain with elevated areas (hills and mountains) and low lying areas
(valleys). This method is widely used in the construction of roads, railways, canals and other
projects where embankments are to be built.

The valleys and ridges (or peaks) on undulating terrain can be depicted with contour lines on a
topographical gradient map.

When building a road across a hill slope, open face excavation is required. The purpose is to cut
the slope to create a surface that is level or parallel with the sea level. Vehicles are capable of
moving on this road as if they are on flat ground, although the road may be at higher elevation
than normal ground. How much earth requires to be cut from the slope depends on the elevation
of the proposed road, its width and gradient of the hill slope. The excavated material is deposited
down the slope in the valleys to create manmade formations known as embankments. As much
filling as possible must be obtained from the excavations. This filling is mechanically compacted
to the required AASHTO density in layers not exceeding 300mm. If material from site
excavations is not enough to fill the embankments, the engineer may order the contractor to
import filling elsewhere. As you can see, the volume of excavations in this type of construction
is not necessarily equal to the volume of total filling. There are many factors which affect the
required balance since each and every project is unique.

After the earthworks (open face excavation and filling, including grading and leveling) are done,
the next step will be preparing the ground to lay the road materials. This includes compacting the
subgrade, laying the sub base course and base course. The final step is laying the surface course
which is composed of the binding course and wearing course (asphalt). Longitudinal surface
water drains made of wet or precast concrete may be excavated for and built on one or both sides
of the road.

One way of draining storm and surface rainwater from roads on hillside slope is building culverts
across the road (also known as under drains) which intercept longitudinal drains and ditches
adjacent to the slope face. The culverts will empty the storm water into the valley and flood plain
on the other side of the road. The diameter of culverts should be sufficiently large to drain away
as much storm water as possible. It also prevents soil erosion and high pressure back spillage
caused by high rainwater intensity and small pipe diameter.

Calculation of cut and fill

There are three method calculation of earth work volume calculations

Cross sectional areas

Spot levels
Contours
1. Cross sectional areas :-

This method is also classified into four

i. Mean sectional area method

ii. Mid sectional area method
iii. Trapezoidal rule
iv. Prisimoidal rule

1.Mean sectional area method :-

in this method average areas of two end section are considered example work out quantity of
earth work for portion of road, formation width of road is 10m side slopes are 1:1 in cutting and
1:2 in filing natural ground level and formation level at different station are given bellow.

Stations 0 30 60 90 120 150

NGL 251 250.9 250.9 250.8 251.2 251.4
FRL 252.0 251.8 251.6 251.4 250.8 250.6
 Solution
Stations NGL FRL depth M.D areas Total Interval quantity
Central Sd2 area or
side
area length Cut or fill
area

0 251 252.0 1.00 0 M3 M3

30 250.9 251.8 0.9 0.95 9.5 1.8 11.3 30 339

60 250.9 251.6 0.7 0.8 8 1.28 9.28 30 278.4

90 250.8 251.4 0.6 0.65 6.5 0.84 7.34 30 220.2

108 0.00 0.3 03 0.18 3.18 18 57.4

120 251.2 250.8 -0.4 -0.2 -2 -0.4 -2.04 12 24.48

150 251.4 250.6 -0.8 -0.6 -6 - -6.30 30 190.8

0.36

o Depth =FRL-FGL
o M.D = DEPTH1+DEPTH2/2
o CENTRAL AREA =DEPTH*WIDTH
o SIDE AREA =D2*S
o Total area = central area+side area
o Cut or fill =total area*interval
 3.2 Super elevation
When a motorist drives through a curve, the roadway is often tilted or banked at an angle,
making it easier to navigate the curve at a safe speed without skidding or tipping. This is super
elevation at work.

Super elevation helps motorists maintain both safety and optimal speeds on curved roads.
Without super elevation, many vehicles would slide or skid through curves — or even tip and
roll over — especially in wet or icy conditions, or at high speeds. It also allows traffic to
maintain some speed on curves, preventing excessive slowdowns every time the road bends.

Super elevation

Super elevation is a method of infrastructure construction used in roadway curves where the
outer edge of the pavement is raised above the inner edge. An aspect of the vertical alignment or
―profile‖ of a road viewed in cross-section, it‘s an important safety element in the design criteria
of any road with curves.

The design of a super elevated road must be exacting. Its construction requires an investment
of heavy equipment, extensive materials, and a sizable labor force. But if it‘s done correctly,
most people barely even notice it‘s there.

Super elevation is more commonly known as ―cant‖ or ―banking,‖ as in the banked track of a
racing speedway.
How Does Super elevation Work?

Super elevation works with several interacting forces of physics to help drivers maintain speed
and stay safely on the road through a curve. A complex combination of centrifugal and
centripetal force, friction, inertia, weight, and velocity or speed all interplay to determine the
need for super elevation on a road or highway.

Forces that act upon super elevation

That feelingof driving into a curve and being pulled to one side? That‘s centripetal force, the
sideways force acting on an object that causes it to move in a circle. If you tie the end of a string
to a tennis ball and start whirling it around you, you‘re creating centripetal force.

On the road, centripetal force pulls moving vehicles toward the inside edge of pavement as they
move through a curve. It can feel like sliding or tipping, or both. It‘s the opposite of centrifugal
force, which pulls you away from the center and toward the outside edge (and also pushes you
into your seat) as your vehicle rounds a curve.

A super elevated curve in a roadway balances these two forces, in combination with several
others that act in various directions.

According to Newton‘s Law of Inertia, any object moving in a straight line will keep moving in
the same direction (a straight line) unless it‘s affected by an unbalanced force, or something that
changes the direction of its motion. In this case, that ―something‖ is a curve — or, more
precisely, a driver‘s decision to turn the steering wheel and change the vehicle‘s course.

But you need traction, or friction, to modify inertia and change direction safely. Friction in this
case is the resistance created between your car‘s rubber tires and the road surface. Its action is to
inhibit motion, slowing the car down by keeping it in constant contact with the road (which also
helps prevent it from sliding or skidding).

A vehicle‘s weight can affect its traction. Heavier vehicles generally press the tires into the road
surface with greater pressure, resulting in better traction than lighter vehicles.

Speed or velocity is also a factor, one that can combine with moisture to counteract friction on
the road. This counteraction is especially pronounced on elevated highway bridges, as it is on
most types of bridges, where cold air can turn the moisture into ice.
If you‘re moving at a low speed in dry conditions, maintaining traction while navigating a curve
likely isn‘t much of a problem. However, the faster you go, the more friction you‘ll need to
offset the degree of velocity you‘ve built up while you were headed in a straight line.

And on a wet or icy road, for example, you won‘t be able to gain much traction at all, which is
why your vehicle may keep sliding straight forward instead of changing directions when you turn
the wheel.
This is also why drivers need to slow down before changing direction on a flat surface:
Centrifugal force can pull a car outward, off the road, on a curve. But super elevation changes
that equation.

On a flat surface, the only thing acting against inertia if you‘re driving straight is the friction
provided by your tires. A banked curve, however, uses centripetal force to redirect some of that
velocity toward the center and allow you to navigate the turn safely.

Super elevation at high speeds

If you‘ve ever seen the banked track of a NASCAR or Indy car race, the banked curves are an
example of this principle in action. First installed in 1959, the 31-degree superelevation
at Daytona International Speedway allows the speeding cars to maintain more of that speed
heading into a curve with less risk of crashing, and gives them added momentum coming out the
other side.

The curves at Martinsville Speedway in Virginia, by contrast, are banked at just 12 degrees
because it‘s a shorter track and drivers don‘t build up as much speed on the straightaways. In
simple terms, the faster cars go, the higher the bank will need to be, to absorb the vehicles‘ more
forceful inertia at higher velocities.

Of course, roads and highways require banked curves, as well. Transition curves or turning
roadways, like freeway cloverleaf on- and off-ramps, are common examples. However, the
maximum super elevation for well-traveled open highways is 10% to 12% — much lower than at
a speedway like Daytona, where vehicles move at higher speeds.

What Happens Without Super elevation?

Super elevation is a crucial element in roadway design. Without it, curves have to be taken much
more slowly for safety. Otherwise, skidding can occur as friction fails to compensate for
continued forward motion and centrifugal force on a curve.

Of course, the driver‘s attention and knowledge about how much to decelerate are also
important. This is why freeway ramps and winding mountain roads are equipped with guardrails
and carry signs warning of curves ahead, often with suggested maximum speeds. There‘s even a
warning sign that shows a truck tipping to the side on two wheels because it‘s going too fast.

If you‘re moving too fast on an unbanked curve to the left, you can run off a two-lane road. If, on
the other hand, you come to an unbanked curve to the right, momentum can send you into the
median or across the center line into oncoming traffic. Or if you‘re in the slow lane on a multi-
lane road (depending on the number of lanes), it can push you into the path of traffic in the faster
lane.

Large vehicles, as mentioned, are especially vulnerable to rollover crashes because of their high
center of gravity. If they try to negotiate an unbanked curve at too great a speed, they are
vulnerable to flipping onto their sides.

Another consequence of inadequate super elevation can be road damage caused by poorly
distributed load, with the result being higher costs to maintain curved sections of roadways.

Factors That Affect the Need for Super elevation

How and where super elevation is used can vary based on several factors, many of which involve
how fast vehicles are likely to be moving.

For instance, with too great an angle of super elevation, slower-moving vehicles might slide
down the slope of a curve on a wet or icy road. For vehicles moving too fast on such roads, by
contrast, hydroplaning may occur. Where snow and ice are factors, a maximum super elevation
of 8 percent may be called for.

The type of pavement is also worth considering. Rougher roads, where vehicles would likely be
moving more slowly, would employ less super elevation. The amount of traffic (such as in urban
areas, where speeds are likely to be lower) is also a factor, along with the terrain.

The size of the vehicle involved is another factor to consider. Trucks, RVs, heavy construction
vehicles and others with high centers of gravity are more likely to tip or roll over on curves that
don‘t have adequate super elevation.
3.3 Definitions of Super elevation and Related Terms

As in any design situation involving multiple physical forces and construction elements, visual
representations such as blueprints are helpful. To accompany the drawings, it‘s also a good idea
to define and understand the relevant terms.

Super elevation is defined as ―the rotation of the pavement on the approach to and through a
horizontal curve.‖ Other terms include:

Axis of rotation — The lengthwise axis around which a roadway is rotated to change horizontal
alignment and create the desired super elevation.

Camber or cross slope — A lateral slope across a traveled way that drains water away from the
pavement down to the edges, often into ditches or drains.

Crown — The highest point on a road‘s surface. A centerline crown is a slightly elevated point at
the center of the road from which water sheds in both directions.

Curve radius (also known as curvature) — Radius is measured by envisioning a full circular
curve, then measuring the distance from the center of the circle to its outer edge. The smaller the
radius, the more centripetal force is invoked.

Full super elevation — The point in a curve when the entire segment of roadway is subject to
super elevation, usually at the curve‘s apex.

Maximum super elevation rate — The highest percentage of angle allowed to prevent the danger
of vehicles overturning. Expressed in formulas as e max.

Minimum super elevation — The lowest percentage of angle allowable for road drainage
purposes, especially on a large-radius horizontal curve. Typically 2% to 4%.

Runoff length (also known as super elevation runoff length) — The distance required to
transition the outside lane of a roadway from a flat cross slope to full super elevation. Usually
runs from the end of the tangent run out to the full super elevation section.

Side friction (also known as lateral friction) — The resistance between the surface of the road
and a vehicle‘s rubber tires, which inhibits motion and slows vehicles down.
Slope — A measurement of steepness, level of incline, or upward or downward slant, as in
pavement slope.

Spiral runoff – A section of highway that transitions the angle and width between a section of
tangent runout and a section of full super elevation, making it easier for drivers to navigate the
change in curvature and angle.

Super elevation rate — The degree of banking imposed on a horizontal curve to safely
counterbalance the centrifugal force of a vehicle on the curve.

Tangent run out — The distance needed to change from a normal crown section of road to a
point where the adverse cross slope is removed and the outside lane is level.

Super elevation Formula: Calculating for Roads

When designing and building roadways, it‘s imperative to calculate the correct values for each
aspect of the design. Of course, numerous formulas are involved in this process, including those
for minimum/ maximum super elevation, the maximum design speed for safety, and necessary
super elevation transition length.

Here we depict the formulas for full super elevation and basic rate of super elevation. Definitive
details and formulas calculating for super elevation can be found in the manual ―A Policy on
Geometric Design of Highways and Streets‖ — commonly known as ―The Green Book‖ — by
the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, or AASHTO.
To calculate the formula for full super elevation, you‘ll need to know the radius of the curve and
the velocity or speed a vehicle is likely to be traveling. Also know the breadth of the road (how
wide it is), and the rate of acceleration (which is a constant at 9.8 meters/second2).

To determine the super elevation, multiply the breadth by the speed of the vehicle squared, then
multiply the acceleration rate by the radius of the curve. Divide the first number by the second to get the
full super elevation.
Alternatively, the sum of the rate of super elevation and the friction factor is equal to the rate of
velocity (or speed) squared, divided by the total you get from multiplying gravity‘s rate of
acceleration by the radius of the curve.

Example calculate super elevation for circular road having radius of 300m and its 8m wide take
50km/hr as speed of vehicle and take centrifugal ratio =1/10

Solution:- super elevation =h=bv2/gR

V=50km/hr so you have to convert m/s

V=50km/hr*1000/60*60=13.89m/s

h=8*13.892/9.8=0.5244meters or 52.5cm

check super elevation limit=1/10*8=0.8m

since 0.8 which is SE limit is greater than 0.52 which is super elevation its oky.

The distance along the center line of the road at which a driver has visibility of an object,
stationary or moving at a specified height above the carriage way is known as sight distance.

Sight distance is the length of road visible ahead to the driver at any instance. The standards for
sight distance should satisfy the following conditions :

Driver travelling at the design speed has sufficient sight distance or road length visible to stop
vehicle, in case of any obstruction on the road ahead, without collision.

Driver travelling ahead should be able to overtake slow moving vehicles, at reasonable intervals,
without causing obstruction or hazard to traffic of opposite direction.

The driver entering a uncontrolled intersection, he should have sufficient visibility to enable him
to control his vehicle in order to avoid collision with another vehicle.

Factors Affecting Sight Distance

The sight distance depends upon following factors

Speed of the vehicle.

The frictional resistance of the road surface.

 Height of drivers eye.

 Slope of the road surface.

Perception time and brake reaction time.

 3.4 Types of Sight Distance

Following `types of sight distances are considered for geometrical design of road :

I. Stopping or non-passing sight distance

II. Overtaking or passing sight distance
III. Intermediate sight distance
IV. Lateral sight distance.
1. Stopping or Non-passing Sight Distance :

The clear distance ahead needed by a driver to bring his vehicle to a stop before meeting a
stationary object on the road is called as stopping or non-passing sight distance.

Below are given some of the examples of sight distance at various situations of road.

Sight Distance @ Horizontal Curve

Sight Distance @ Road Intersection

Sight Distance @ Vertical Summit Curve
In this case of a summit curve, minimum stopping sight distance is the distance measured along
the center line of a road at which a drive whose eye sight is 1.22 m above the road surface can
see the top of an object 15 cm high on the road.

Factors affecting stopping sight distance

3.5 Following are the factors affecting the stopping sight distance:-

1. Total reaction time:- It is the time taken from the instant the object is visible by the driver to
the instant the brake is applied by the driver‘s feet. The total reaction time is divided into two
components- i) perception time ii) reaction time.

Perception time is the time required between the instant when the drivers see the object on the
road and the instant of realization that brake reaction is required. The length of perception time
depends upon the following factors:-

i) Distance to the object.

ii) Color, type, and size of the object

iii) Condition and location of the road

iv) Optical ability of the driver

v) Speed of vehicle
Brake reaction time is the time between the moment the foot is removed from the accelerator
paddle and placed on the brake paddle and the time to actual brake action. The brake reaction
time depends upon the skill of the driver, environmental factors, etc.

Total reaction time is calculated based on PIEV theory and varies with the situation as well as
the velocity of the vehicle. The total reaction time of an average driver may vary from 0.5
seconds for simple situations to as much as 4 seconds for complex situations. On average total
reaction time is taken as 2.5 sec. Total reaction time is inversely proportional to the speed of the
vehicle.

2. Speed of vehicle:- Stopping distance is directly proportional to the initial speed of. vehicle.
Higher the speed of vehicles higher the kinetic energy developed by it and a longer distance will
be required to dissipate the energy and stop the vehicle.

3. Braking efficiency:- Braking efficiency is said to be 100% if the wheels are fully locked
preventing them from rotations upon the application of the brake. The efficiency of brake
depends upon the system of brake (hydraulic or pneumatic), age, maintenance care, wear, and
tear, etc. To consider all the negative effects, the efficiency of the brake is considered about 75%.

4. Coefficient of friction:- In the process of stopping a vehicle the driver applies brakes
consequently, depending upon the condition of road surface and tyres, the vehicle may skid over
the surface of the brakes are applied suddenly. The numerical value of the coefficient of friction
is inversely proportional to the speed of the vehicle.

5. Slope of the road surface:- While traveling along with the uphill grade the stopping distance
will be less and when downhill it is high for gravity forces if other conditions are the same.

Expression for Stopping distance

Stopping distance is the sum of lag distance and braking distance.

SD = Lagging distance + Braking distance———(i)

Lagging distance:- The distance traveled by the vehicle during the total reaction time is known
as lag distance. It is also known as reaction distance. Let ‗t be the total reaction time of the driver
in seconds and v is the design speed in m/sec then Lagging distance = vt m —————(ii)
Braking distance: – The distance traveled by the vehicle after the application of brakes to the
instant the vehicle comes to a dead stop is known as braking distance. The braking distance can
be visualized depending upon the initial speed of the vehicle and friction developed between tyre
and road.

Assuming a level road, the braking distance may be calculated by equating the work done in
stopping the vehicle and the kinetic energy.

If F be the maximum frictional force developed and I, be the braking distance then, Work done
in stopping the vehicle at initial = F x I = fwl —-(iii)

Where, f = coefficient of friction

w = total weight of the vehicle

Kinetic energy is developed by the vehicle at initial speed, vm/sec.

Substituting the value of lag distance in equation (i)

Numerical Example

Q) determine the safe stopping sight distance while traveling at speed of 60 kmph. Assuming
perception and brake reaction time is 2.5 sec. and coefficient of friction varying from 0.40 at 20
kmph to 0.35 at 100 kmph.

Case:-

level Ground

Upward gradient of 3%

Solution:- Coefficient of friction,

Case:-1 Level ground

Case:-2 Upward grading of 3%

Relation between stopping distance and stopping sight distance.

Case-I SSD=SD for one-way traffic with a single lane.

Case-II SSD=SD for two-way traffic with a multi-lane.

Case-III SSD=SD For two-way traffic with a single lane.

2. Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD) :

The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver on a two way road to enable him to
overtake another vehicle ahead with safety against the traffic from opposite direction is called
overtaking or passing sight distance.

The minimum over taking sight distance depends upon the following factors:

Speed of overtaking, overtaken and the speed of the vehicle coming from the opposite direction.
Distance between the vehicles.

Rate of acceleration of the overtaking vehicle.

Skill and b reaction time of the driver.

3.Theoretical Derivation of OSD

 Consider a two lane straight road with three vehicles A, B and C as shown
in Fig.
  Let the speed of fast moving vehicle A be V1 m/sec and that of slow moving vehicle B be
V2 m/sec. Let a third vehicle C be coming from opposite direction with a speed of V3
m/sec.
 Assume V = design speed in m/sec.
∴ V = V1 ⊂ V3

In order to overtake vehicle B, driver of vehicle

‗A‘ should apply the following criteria :

He should slow down his speed to V2 and come out on second lane. When he begins to come
out, vehicle ‗A‘ should be at a safe distance ‗S‘ behind vehicle ‗B‘.

Driver at ‗A‘ should accelerate his vehicle on second lane ‗A‘ till vehicle ‗B‘ is overtaken. He
should then run his vehicle back on his original first lane, ahead of vehicle ‗B‘ and at this instant,
vehicle ‗A‘ should be again at a safe distance and a head of vehicle ‗B‘.

In this process of overtaking he must avoid collision with vehicle ‗C‘ because then he is moving
with the acceleration on the second lane on which vehicle ‗C‘ is coming from the opposite
direction.

Then, L = Length of OSD

L = d1 + d2 + d3

Where,
d1 = The distance travelled by the overtaking vehicle ‗A‘ on the first lane before it comes out
on second lane for the purpose of overtaking during this it slows down.
Its speed V2, by allowing space ‗S‘ is a safe spacing between A and B,

∴ d1 = (V2 × t)

d2 = The distance by vehicle ‗A‘ during the total overtaking time while coming from first lane to
second lane, accelerating along the second lane and coming back to,
First lane = (2S × V2 × t0)

Where,

t0 = Time taken in overtaking, with acceleration ‗a‘ m/sec² to cover a distance of (d2 – 2S).
d3 = Distance travelled by vehicle ‗C‘ on second lane during the accelerating time, t0 = (V x t0).
 Substituting for d1, d2, and d3 in Equation, L = (V2 x t) + (2S + V2 x t0) + (V x t0) = [
V2t +(Vst0+2S) + V t0]
 The safe spacing ‗S‘ to be kept between vehicle ‗A‘ (fast moving) and vehicle B (slow
moving) is given by expression. S = ( V2 × 0.7 ) + length of vehicle ‗A‘ (assume 6m) =
0.7 V2 + 6.
 The value of t0 is obtained by the following equation, t0 = 2√S/a, here a = acceleration in
m/sec².
4.Intermediate Sight Distance (ISD) :
The distance which affords reasonable opportunities to drivers to overtake the vehicle ahead with
caution is known as intermediate sight distance. ISD is taken as twice the safe stopping distance.
Let us consider,

A1, A2, A3 Stands for overtaking vehicle being the various position of the vehicle during
overtaking operation.

B1 Stands for the overtaken vehicle which reached at position B2 during overtaking operation.

C1, C2 Stands for the vehicle coming from the opposite direction.

d1: Distance traveled by overtaking vehicle during reaction time ‗t‘ taken by the driver to decide
he should overtake or not.

d2: Distance traveled by overtaking vehicle during actual overtaking operation.

d3: Distance traveled by a vehicle coming from the opposite direction during actual overtaking
operation.

Vb: Speed of slow moving (overtaken) vehicle. In design practice it is taken as (V- 16),

V = Design Speed in kmph or (V-4.5) V in m/s. [If not given in Numerical]

Vc: Speed of oncoming vehicle, same as design speed.

Now from figure,

(Overtaking sight OSD = d1 + d2 + d3———(i)

Distance),
But, d1 = Vb * t (t=2 sec.)———(ii)
(Overtaking sight
Distance), And, d2 = b + 2S

= (Vb*T + 2S)——– (iii)

Where, S= (0.69 Vb + 6.1) is spacing (T) is overtaking time between (A2) to
between vehicles. (A3).

b = Vb*T Here, T is overtaking time from Therefore,

A2 to A3. Putting the value of equation (ii), (iii),
(iv), and (v) in equation (i)
Then d2
We get,
becomes ,
d2 = {(Vb*T + 2(0.69Vb + 6.1)} OSD = d1 + d2 + d3

Also, = Vb.t+Vb.T+1/2.a.√(4S/a)+vT

d2 = VbT + 1/2 (aT^2)———–(iv) = (Vb + VbT+ 2S + vT)

From Solving equation (iii) and (iv) For single lane road, neglect (d3)

So, OSD = d1 + d2
We get,
T = √(4S/a) Where (a) is the Minimum length of overtaking zone
acceleration of overtaking the vehicle.
= 3 * OSD
Again,
But, desirable length of overtaking zone
d3 = v * T —————-(v)
= 5 * OSD
Where (v) is designed speed i.e speed of
For clear understanding let us take a
overtaking vehicles while overtaking and numerical example on it.
2.Overtaking Sight Distance numerical

Q) The speed of overtaking and the overtaken vehicle is 80kmph and 65 kmph respectively on
two-way traffic. The acceleration of the overtaking vehicle is 3.6 kmph. Calculate. (i) Safe
overtaking sight distance. (ii) Minimum and desirable overtaking zone.
Solution:-

Given,

Design velocity(v) = 80 d3 = v * T
kmph
= 22.22 * 8.61
=22.22 m/s Slow moving vehicle
= 191.31 meter.—–(iv)
(Vb)= 65 kmph
Hence,
= 18.05 m/s We know, OSD = d1+d2+d3—
——(i) OSD = d1+d2+d3 {from equation (i).}

Let us assume total reaction time = 2 Put the value of equation (ii), (iii), and (iv)
seconds. in equation (i)

Then, We get ,

d1 = Vb * t (1) Safe overtaking sight distance

= 18.05 * 2 OSD= 36.1+ 292.51 + 192.51

= 36.1 meter. ———(ii) = 420 Approx. (2) Minimum overtaking

zone
d2 = 2S + b
= 3 * OSD
=2(0.69Vb+6.1) + Vb*T
= 3 * 420
= 2*18.55+18.05+8.61
= 1260 meter.
= 192.51 meter.——–(iii)
Desirable overtaking zone example of overtaking sight distance
(OSD)‖ and remains helpful.
= 5 * OSD
Read Also,
= 5 * 420
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= 2100 meter. cement and sand required in a wall?

Hence, In this way, the overtaking sight Types of bond in brickwork

distance can be calculated.
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Lateral Sight Distance :

The sight distance needed by the driver of a vehicle who see another vehicles approaching the
intersection, reacts and applies brakes to bring his vehicle to dead stop at the intersection without
any collision or accident is called safe sight distance for entering into an intersection or lateral
sight distance. The lateral sight distance should be sufficient to satisfy the following three
conditions : To enable both or at least one approaching vehicles to change their speeds to avoid
collision.To bring at least one or both the approaching vehicles to stop before reaching a point of
collision. To enable the stopped vehicles on minor road to start, accelerate and cross the main
road before the approaching vehicle, traveling at design speed on main road, reaches the
interaction.