EVALUATION OF BUILDINGS FOR FLOOD

RESILIENCE IN OGBARU LOCAL GOVERNMENT

AREA, ANAMBRA STATE, NIGERIA.

By

OKECHUKWU FIDELIS EZEOKOLI

2015287009F

DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING
FACULTY OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
NNAMDI AZIKIWE UNIVERSITY,
AWKA.

APRIL, 2019

ii
 EVALUATION OF BUILDINGS FOR FLOOD
RESILIENCE IN OGBARU LOCAL GOVERNMENT
AREA, ANAMBRA STATE, NIGERIA.

By
OKECHUKWU FIDELIS EZEOKOLI
2015287009F

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING,

FACULTY OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES, NNAMDI AZIKIWE
UNIVERSITY, AWKA, NIGERIA; IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(PHD) IN CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT.

SUPERVISOR
DR. K.C. OKOLIE

APRIL, 2019

iii
 CERTIFICATION

I, OKECHUKWU FIDELIS EZEOKOLI hereby certify that I am responsible for the

work submitted in this dissertation and that this is an original work which has not been
submitted to this University or any other institution for the award of a degree or diploma.

__________________ _______________
Okechukwu Fidelis Ezeokoli Date
2015287009F

iv
 APPROVAL PAGE

This dissertation written by OKECHUKWU FIDELIS EZEOKOLI has been examined and
approved for the award Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Construction Management,
from Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka

----------------------------------- --------------------
Bldr. (Dr.) K. C. Okolie Date
(Supervisor)

----------------------------------- ---------------------
Bldr. (Dr.) K. C. Okolie Date
(Head of Department)

----------------------------------- -------------------

Prof. Emmanuel Achuenu Date

(External Examiner)

---------------------------------- --------------------
Prof. Cliff Nwanna Date
(Dean, Faculty of Environmental Sciences)

------------------------------------ --------------------
Prof. P.K. Igbokwe Date

(Dean, School of Postgraduate Studies)

v
 DEDICATION
Every challenging endeavour need self-effort as well as the guidance of elders that were close
to our hearts.

My humble effort I dedicate to the loving memory of:

LATE Dr.(Bldr.) John Ugochukwu Ezeokonkwo (KSC)

Whose affections, love and encouragements made it possible for me to attain this height.
Indeed, you left a fingerprint of grace in my life.

ADIEU! My hero till the resurrection morning.

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The Lord has been my strength and his mercies have been abundant during the course of this
study, I am humble always to His will.

The development of this research owes much to the contributions of many people and
institutions who have helped both directly and indirectly, in providing information, in
confronting ideas, and in expressing support and encouragement. Firstly, I would like to
express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor and HOD, Dr. (Bldr.) K.C. Okolie for his
guidance, support and valuable comments which were very helpful in shaping and developing
this research. Especially his constructive critiques that have helped to improve my research
skills.

I am grateful to staff of Anambra State Emergency and Management Agency; Red cross and
Anambra Physical Planning Board for their valuable contribution toward the development of
this work. Also, I am very grateful to the residents of Ogbaru communities for their
cooperation and contribution, particularly to Mr Obidi Okoronkwo for taking me round the
entire communities of Ogbaru. I am grateful to research assistants: Emma, Louis and Emma
Enyesionwu

From the Department, I would like to express my gratitude to my Head, Dr K.C. Okolie, to
Dr. M.E. Obiegbu, Late Dr. J.U. Ezeokonkwo and Dr. P.E. Ogunoh (the triplet who has
helped me in different ways). My appreciation also extended to my other colleagues and
friends especially Prof. Mbamali, Dr. Shalom Onwuka, Bldr. D.A. Obodoh, Bldr. E.C.
Mbanusi, Bldr P.U. Okoye, Arc Austin, Mr. G.C. Ohazulume, and Mr. C. Bert- Okonkwor. I
must also thank our administrative staffs – Mrs. Chinwe Ogbuefi, Mrs. Anthonia Ifedi, Mrs.
Mabel Isiogu Mrs. Theresa Onuzulike and Mrs. Onyinye Nweke-Iwuchukwu for her kindness
and support throughout this period.

To my colleagues and friends Chukwuebuka Onyia, Uche Ekekezie, Onye Olisa, Dr.
Chijioke, Oluchi Onyia, and Okey Ezeonwu and host of my other friends I am very grateful
to your valuable suggestions/contributions/encouragements on different parts of this research.

vii
Lastly, my deepest and sincere gratitude goes to my family, especially to my mother, and to
my brothers Ifeanyi, Ugoh, Dozie, Udoka and my sisters: Chisa, Uju and Ijeoma and my
sisters’ in-law: Barbara, Nnenna and Uju for their help and supports.

Thank you all.

viii
Abstract:

Flood disaster threatens and continuously wreak havoc in most communities of Ogbaru. The
intensity of damages associated with flooding in these communities have continually depicted
the limitations to support resilience after flood events in Ogbaru. Thus, vulnerabilities to
flood disaster in Ogbaru have continually increased over the past decade whereas resilient
building have not kept pace with this increase. Accordingly, the study evaluates the flood
hazard resilience of buildings in Ogbaru, with a view to developing a template for flood
resilient buildings in the study area. Being a mixed-design research, the study used
interview, walk-through evaluation, questionnaire survey and review of related literature to
source for data needed. Data obtained were analysed using frequency tables, charts, mean
score, standard deviation, Pearson product moment correlation, one-sample and independent
t-test, z-test, and Principal Component and Factor analysis. The benchmark for judgment was
placed at 95% confidence interval which in other words is 0.05% level of significance. All
analyses were done using Statistical Package for Service Solution (SPSS) version 25. The
research showed that the characteristics of flooding in Ogbaru significantly affect building
resilience. Flood depth is not more than 1800mm deep. Flood velocity is either laminar or
moderate depending on the location. Flood last for more than a month in most areas and
moves with floating debris, lowering the ground surface and removing refilled earth of the
foundation. The form of building construction in response to flood event does not guarantee
functional building during/after flood hazard event and are mainly sand-crete/concrete block
walls (42.7%) and Mud houses (33.0%). Further, the study revealed that flood resilient
measures are not largely incorporated into the design and construction of buildings in the
area. Also, the study established that the factors affecting flood resilient buildings in Ogbaru
are issues related to home owners’ preference, regulation & permitting requirements, hazard
identification, sitting, design and construction of building but the critical factors are siting
and construction of buildings. Therefore, the study recommends that the characteristics of
flooding and factors affecting flood resilience in the area should be thoroughly examined and
considered before construction. Durable building forms with all necessary flood resilience
measures should be fully incorporated into building development/construction in Ogbaru.
The study developed and recommended construction template and process flowchart for
achieving flood resilient buildings in the study area.

ix
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Title page iii

Certificate Page iv

Approval Page v

Dedication vi

Acknowledgement vii

Abstract ix

Table of content x

List of Figures xiv

List of Tables xv

List of Plates xvii

Appendices xviii

Abbreviations xix

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1: Background to the Study 1

1.2: Statement of the Problem 4

1.3: Aim and Objectives 8

1.4: Research Questions 8

1.5: Research Hypotheses 9

1.6: Significance of the Study 9

1.7: Scope and Delimitation of the Study 10

1.8: Study Area 10

1.9: Limitation of the Study 16

CHAPTER TWO: THEORETICAL & CONCEPTUAL BASIS OF THE STUDY 17

2.1 Location of the theoretical basis of the study 17

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2.2 System – Theoretic Accident Model & Processes (STAMP) 20

2.3 Fundamental concept 23

2.3.1 Constraints (Emergent Properties) 23

2.3.2 Hierarchical Levels of Control 24

2.3.3 Process Model 25

CHAPTER THREE: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 28

3.1 Nature & Characteristics of Flooding 28

3.1.1: Overview of Flooding 28

3.1.2: Physical Characteristics 29

3.2: Building Forms 33

3.2.1: Mud Houses 33

3.2.2: Concrete Blocks Houses 36

3.2.3: Burnt Bricks Houses 40

3.2.4: Timber Houses 42

3.3: Measures, Indicators & Safety Features of Flood Resilient Buildings 42

3.3.1: Flood Resilient Building & Safety 42

3.3.2: Safety Features/Characteristics/Guidelines of Flood Resilient Building 48

3.3.3: Techniques/Strategy/Measures of Flood Resilient Building 56

3.3.3.1: Let the Water come 62

3.3.3.2: Go with the Water 63

3.3.3.3: Fend the Water 65

3.4: Factors/parameter affecting Flood Resilient Building 66

3.4.1: Home Owners Preference Factors 69

3.4.2: Community Regulation & Permitting Requirements 72

3.4.3: Technical Parameter 73

3.4.3.1: Hazard Identification 73

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3.4.3.2: Siting 76

3.4.3.3: Design 80

3.4.3.4: Construction 87

3.4.3.5: Maintenance 94

3.5: Study Gap 95

CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 96

4.1 Research Design 96

4.2 Population, Sampling and Sampling Techniques 96

4.2.1 Population of the Study 96

4.2.2 Sample, Sample Size and Techniques 97

4.3 Data Collection Methods and Instruments 99

4.3.1 Design and Administration of Questionnaires 101

4.3.2 Interview and Interview Guide 102

4.3.3 Focus Group Interviews 103

4.3.4 Walk-Through Survey/Physical/Direct Observation 103

4.4 Method and Instrument of Data Analysis 104

4.5 Validity and Reliability of Instruments 106

5.0: CHAPTER FIVE: 108

5.1: Focus group discussion and In-depth interview 108

5.1.1: Flooding & Building 108

5.1.2: Forms of Building Construction 109

5.1.3: Flood Resilient Measures 109

5.1.4: Factors affecting Flood Resilient 110

5.2: Presentation & Analysis of Questionnaire 111

5.2.1: Respondents Profile 111

xii
5.2.2: Nature & Characteristics of Flooding in Ogbaru 115

5.2.3: Building Forms in response to Flood events in Ogbaru 120

5.2.4: Flood Resilient Indicators & Measures 125

5.2.5: Factors affecting Flood Resilient Building 129

5.2.6: Test of Hypotheses 137

5.3: Walkthrough, Physical Observation & Direct Observation 140

5.3.1: Physical Observation /survey results 141

5.3.2: Level of Compliance to Flood Indicators in Building 148

5.3.2.1: Material Quality 149

5.3.2.2: Stability & Integrity 150

5.3.2.3: Water Resilience 155

5.4: Development of Flood Resilient Template for Building 160

5.5: Summary of Findings 172

5.6: Contribution to Knowledge 174

6.0: CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS 176

6.1: Conclusion 178

6.2: Recommendations 178

6.3: Recommendation for Further Studies 178

References 180

Appendices 195

xiii
 List of Figures

1.1: Map of Nigeria showing Anambra State 13

1.2 Map of Anambra State showing the Ogbaru LGA 14

1.3 Map of Ogbaru LGA 15

2.1 Hierarchical control structure in Iraqi No-fly zone 22

2.2 General Classification of Control Flaw 24

3.1 Elevation showing DHL 52

3.2: Minimum elevation requirements for building in flood zones 61

3.3 Hydrostatic Forces 75

3.4 Hydro-dynamic and Impact Forces 76

5.1 Gender distributions 112

5.2 Age distribution 113

5.3 Employment status 113

5.4 Years of experience 115

5.5 Scree plot of flood resilient factors in Ogbaru LGA of Anambra State 135

5.6 Wall Mortar/Plaster Materials 143

5.7 Foundation details 144

5.8 Foundation Depth 145

5.9 Foundation Width 146

5.10 Height of the Walls 147

5.11 Wall thickness 148

5.12 Presence of ring-beam/lintel 154

5.13 Water proof materials 157

5.14 Sacrificial mass in building 158

5.15 Roof overhang 159

5.16 Drainage 160

5.17 Process flow chart/model building development in flood-prone area 171

xiv
 List of Tables

2.1 Key criteria, indicators and variable of resilience 26

3.1 Flood depth & its impacts of building elements 30

3.2 Typical flood duration 31

3.3 Soil erode-ability threshold 32

3.4 Minimum wall thickness 38

3.5 Maximum spacing of lateral supports for empirically designed walls 38

3.6 Material characteristics of bricks 40

3.7 System life cycle 47

3.8 List of acceptable & unacceptable for flood resilient buildings 54

3.9 Summary of materials suitability for building components 55

3.10 Measures listed with respect to different flood depth 60

3.11 Factors affecting flood resilience 66

3.12 Possible flood mitigation actions 78

3.13 Measures for effective sitting in flood zone 79

3.14 Potential geotechnical issues 83

3.15 Flood resilient measures issues 86

3.16 Flood resilience characteristics of building materials 88

3.17 Flood resilience characteristics of wall 92

4.1 Distribution of houses by type of housing unit in Ogbaru LGA 97

4.2 Likert scale responses and meaning 102

5.1 Population distribution of questionnaire & percentage response 111

5.2 Building Ownership Status of the respondents 114

5.3 Professional affiliation of respondents 114

5.4 Personal flood experience 115

5.5 Flood characteristics of Ogbaru 117

5.6 Independent of sample t-test 118

xv
5.7 Building typologies 120

5.8 Building location 121

5.9 Height of building above NSL 121

5.10 Effect of flood water on building component 122

5.11 Condition assessment of Building in Ogbaru 123

5.12 Flood resilient measures incorporated into Buildings in Ogbaru 126

5.13 Level of compliance to flood resilient indicators in Ogbaru 128

5.14 Factors affecting achieving flood resilient buildings in Ogbaru 130

5.15 Correlation matrix result 134

5.16 Percentage of total variance explained 136

5.17 Component matrix 136

5.18 One-Sample Test (a) 137

5.19: One – sample test (b) 138

5.20: Z- test (a) 139

5.21: Z-Test (b) 140

5.22 Building material typologies 141

5.23 Slenderness ratio 150

5.24 Opening sizes and spacing 151

5.25: Proposed Building Construction Template for Flood Resilient Buildings 164

xvi
 List of Plates

1.1: Partially collapsed building 6

1.2 Collapsed Mud House 6

1.3 Collapsed foundation wall 6

1.4 Separated wall 6

1.5 Collapsed perimeter fence 6

1.6 Exposed foundation 6

1.7 Damaged sewerage system 7

1.8 Destroyed foundation wall 7

1.9 Exposed foundation 7

1.10 Partially collapsed building 7

1.11 Collapsed building 7

1.12 Destroyed manhole 7

3.1 Typical damages to mud houses 34

3.2 Typical damages to RC Buildings 37

3.3 Typical damages to masonry types of building 37

3.4 Horizontal truss-type of joint reinforcement 39

5.1 Focus group discussion & administration of questionnaire 111

5.2 Flood depth in Ogbaru (a,b,c) 119

5.3 Damaged floors 122

5.4 Exposed foundation depth 149

5.5 Collapsed wall due to insufficient spacing between opening 152

5.6 Failed roof 154

5.7 Raised foundation using closed foundation system in Ogbaru 155

5.8 Raised foundation using open foundation system in Ogbaru 155

xvii
 Appendices
A Interview & Focus group discussion guide 194

B Questionnaire 195

C Physical Observation guide 206

xviii
 Abbreviations

ABCB Australian Building Codes Board

AEC Architecture, Engineering and Construction

ANSG Anambra State Government

BFE: Base Flood Elevation

CHSOOPLF Centre for Human Security of the Olusegun Obasanjo Presidential Library
Foundation,

CDRM & DS Centre for Disaster Risk Management and Development Studies

COH City of Hoboken

DFL Designed Flood Level

EEDC Enugu Electricity Distribution Company

EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agencies

FHL Flood Hazard Level

FIG Figure

FODN Foundation

LGA Local Government Area

HSPA Health and Safety Professionals Alliance

NEMA Nigeria Emergency Management Agency

NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations

NIHSA Nigeria Hydrological Services Agency,

NIMET Nigeria Meteorological

NSL Natural soil level

NPC National Population Commission

RIBA Royal Institute of British Architect.

STAMP Systems-Theoretic Accident Model and Processes

QFMP Queensland Flood Mapping Project

xix
PHCN Power Holding Company of Nigeria

U.S. United State

U.N. United Nation

xx