KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND BUILDING ENGINEERING

TREATMENT AND REUSE OF GREY WATER FOR TOILET FLUSHING IN A

STORIED STUDENTS’ HOSTEL AS A CAPITAL SAVING TECHNIQUE A CASE
STUDY OF NARU HOSTEL.

BY

TUHABWE ANTHONY

16/U/12827/ECD/GV

A RESEARCH REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND

BUILDING ENGINEERING IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE AWARD OF A
BACHELORS IN CIVIL AND BUILDING ENGINEERING OF
KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

SUPERVISOR: ENG. MUBIRU JOEL

HAND-IN DATE; JANUARY 2021

 DECLARATION

I TUHABWE ANTHONY declare that this research is my own work and it has never been
produced and submitted by any other individual person or group of people in any institution of
higher learning, college or university.
Signature: ………………... Date: …………………

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 APPROVAL
I hereby approve that the work in this research was done by Tuhabwe Anthony for his final year
individual project.

Approved by;
Signature: ………………... Date: ………………...
Eng. MUBIRU JOEL
(Supervisor)

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Research was a demanding and challenging pursuit that required the support and participation of
different people. I would like to thank and acknowledge various people who greatly contributed to
the success of my research.

Special thanks to Mubiru Joel (Eng.) for his invaluable time, help and professional advice accorded
to me as my supervisor for research and not to forget Eng. Dr. Anne Nakagiri for her great guidance
and insight as well.

Great thanks extended to my Brother Mr. Tukehayo Allan for the parental love and support showed
to me during the course of research. I am extremely grateful to my sister Sandra Ampairomugisha
who also together with my beloved dad Mr. Tweheyo Ben, mum Mrs. Juliet Tweheyo and my other
brother, Marvin Tushabe supported and encouraged me during my research.

Not forgetting my lecturers who gave me all the necessary theoretical and practical
knowledge, thank you very much.

My sincere thanks to those I was not able to mention.

Above all, I thank the Almighty God for life, health, guidance and wisdom He has given me during
this study period.

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 ABSTRACT
This research deals with the treatment and reuse of grey water for flushing on a ground floor of a
storied students’ hostel, a case in point Naru hostel in Banda. The need was established when it
was discovered that students’ hostels around Banda experience periods of water scarcity even
when it is not during the dry spells. Also a lot of hostels try to reduce the National water bill by
pumping underground water to their overhead tanks to substitute the National water once in a while
as they find it cheaper and does not come with an accumulated monthly bill.

A system that reuses grey water does not only reduce a water bill to a great extent but was also
found to reduce the burden on the waste water conveyance system, increases the life span of the
soak pit and also increases the amount of water available to other users.

Although many articles have been published on the reuse of grey water, there is no comprehensive
literature review on this field. The reuse of grey water for toilet flushing and irrigation has been
well studied at the household level, however little research has been done regarding water reuse at
commercial facilities. The main aim of the study was to recycle and reuse grey water for toilet
flushing. The other aims of this study were; to find out if the quantity of grey water to be reused
for a flushing toilet is sufficient, to design a sand filter that will serve to better the quality of the
grey water to be reused and to prepare a demonstration model for grey water recycling for reuse
in a flushing toilet.
Questionnaires were used to establish the quantity of grey water that was likely to be generated.
The system operated on the principal of a sand filter to recycle grey water and various parameter
tests of turbidity, total coliforms, total dissolved solids, total suspended solids, conductivity and
PH were carried out to ascertain the quality of the grey water and the extent to which the sand filter
improves that quality.

The sand filter was found to better the quality of the grey water and the reuse of grey water was
found to reduce the water bill to a great extent.

Grey water reuse should be sensitized to the population to change the attitude of people towards
the reuse of grey water by telling them about the advantages of reusing grey water especially in
relation to SDG 6 that relates to clean water and sanitation.

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LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

BOD – Biological Oxygen Demand

CO2 – Carbon Dioxide

COD – Chemical Oxygen Demand

GW –Grey Water

GWT-Grey Water Treatment

HRT – Hydraulic Retention Time

MBR- Membrane Bioreactors

MPN-Most Probable Number

MUG- methylumbelliferyl-β-glucuronide

N, P, K – Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium

NEMA – National Environment Management Authority

NWSC – National Water & Sewerage Corporation

ORP-Oxidation Reduction Potential

TDS–Total Dissolved Solids
TSS – Total Suspended Solids

UBOS – Uganda Bureau of Statistics

USGS- United States Geological Survey

WHO – World Health Organization

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION............................................................................................................................ i
APPROVAL .................................................................................................................................. ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................................... iii
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. iv
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................... v
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................ vi
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... ix
LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... xi
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................... 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 BACKGROUND ..................................................................................................................... 3
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT .................................................................................................... 5
1.3 OBJECTIVES ......................................................................................................................... 6
1.3.1 Main objective ...................................................................................................................... 6
1.3.2 Specific objectives ................................................................................................................ 6
1.4 JUSTIFICATION ................................................................................................................... 6
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE ..................................................................................................................... 7
1.6 SCOPE ..................................................................................................................................... 7
1.6.1 Content scope ....................................................................................................................... 7
1.6.2 Geographical scope .............................................................................................................. 7
1.6.3 Time scope ............................................................................................................................ 7
CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................................... 8
2.0 LITERATUE REVIEW ......................................................................................................... 8
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 8
2.2 Grey water composition ......................................................................................................... 8
2.3 Grey water quantity ................................................................................................................ 9
2.4 Microbiological characteristics ............................................................................................ 10
2.5 Determination of the amount of grey water generated in a housing unit ........................ 11
2.6 Successful Case studies ......................................................................................................... 12
2.6.1 Palma Beach Hotel, Spain (March et al, 2004). ............................................................... 12
2.6.2 IAV, Rabat, Morocco (El Hamouri et al, 2007). ............................................................. 13

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2.6.3 Japan (Ogoshi., et al., 2015) .............................................................................................. 14
2.7 Methods of grey water treatment ........................................................................................ 14
2.7.1 Primary Treatment of grey water by filtration ............................................................... 16
2.8 Testing grey water parameters ............................................................................................ 17
2.8.1 Testing PH .......................................................................................................................... 17
2.8.2 Testing for Total Dissolved solids ..................................................................................... 20
2.8.3 Measurement of Total Suspended Solids ......................................................................... 21
2.8.4 Measurement of turbidity. ................................................................................................ 23
2.8.5 Measurement of E.Coli ...................................................................................................... 25
2.8.6 Measuring conductivity ..................................................................................................... 27
2.9 Limitations of grey water reuse ........................................................................................... 28
2.10 Water Quality standards for toilet flushing ..................................................................... 29
CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................... 30
3.0 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................... 30
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 30
3.2 Source water characterization ............................................................................................. 30
3.3 Determining the amount of grey water available for reuse .............................................. 30
3.4 Design of a sand filter ........................................................................................................... 31
3.4.1 Mechanical straining ......................................................................................................... 31
3.4.2 Sedimentation and adsorption .......................................................................................... 31
3.4.3 Biological metabolism ........................................................................................................ 31
3.4.4 Electrolytic action .............................................................................................................. 31
3.4.5 Design parameters ............................................................................................................. 32
3.5 Development of a demonstration model ............................................................................. 35
3.6 Determination of parameters ............................................................................................... 36
3.6.1 Determination of PH .......................................................................................................... 36
3.6.2 Determination of TDS........................................................................................................ 37
3.6.3 Determination of TSS ........................................................................................................ 37
3.6.4 Determination of turbidity ................................................................................................ 38
3.6.5 Determination of E.coli and total coliforms .................................................................... 38
3.6.6 Determination of conductivity .......................................................................................... 39
CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................................... 42

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4.0 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS ............................................................................................... 42
4.1 Grey water generated ........................................................................................................... 42
4.1.1 The design parameters ...................................................................................................... 47
4.2 Sand filter results and maintenance .................................................................................... 48
4.3 Parameters Results ............................................................................................................... 49
4.3.1 Weekend day sample results ............................................................................................. 49
4.3.2 Week day sample results ................................................................................................... 50
4.3.3 Analysis of results .............................................................................................................. 51
CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................ 52
5.0 CHALLENGES, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................ 52
5.1 Challenges .............................................................................................................................. 52
5.2 Conclusion and future direction .......................................................................................... 52
5.3 Recommendations ................................................................................................................. 52
References .................................................................................................................................... 54
Appendix ...................................................................................................................................... 57

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 shows the domestic water usage in a pie chart representation ......................................... 9
Figure 2 shows domestic water usage in a bar graph representation ............................................ 10
Figure 3 shows a loading units graph (Hall and Greeno, 2007) ................................................... 12
Figure 4 shows grey water treatment process (Wurochekke., et al., 2016) .................................. 16
Figure 5 shows the hydrogen electrode method (Nomura, 2011) ................................................. 18
Figure 6 shows a PH metre (Nomura, 2011) ................................................................................ 20
Figure 7 shows a TDS metre (Atekwanaa, et al., 2004) ............................................................... 21
Figure 8 shows the Jackson candle turbidimeter (Fondriest, 2014).............................................. 23
Figure 9 shows turbidimeter (Fondriest, 2014)............................................................................. 24
Figure 10 shows Secchi lights in different turbidity levels (Fondriest, 2014) .............................. 25
Figure 11 shows membrane filtration method (Garbe, 2007) ....................................................... 25
Figure 12 shows multiple tube method (Garbe, 2007) ................................................................. 26
Figure 13; multiple tube fermentation method (Garbe, 2007) ...................................................... 27
Figure 14; Electromagnetic induction method (Nomura, 2011) ................................................... 28
Figure 15; Conductivity metre (Nomura, 2011) ........................................................................... 28
Figure 16 shows 2 ten litre containers for the setup.(27/11/2020) ............................................... 34
Figure 17 shows the 50mm diameter pipe and tap.(27/11/2020).................................................. 34
Figure 18 shows sand filter set up.(28/11/2020) ........................................................................... 34
Figure 19 shows aggregate being fed into the setup.(28/11/2020) ............................................... 34
Figure 20 set up ready to be used.(28/11/2020) ............................................................................ 34
Figure 21 grey water being fed into the sand filter set up.(29/11/2020)....................................... 34
Figure 22 showing the demonstration model (Autocad 17).......................................................... 35
Figure 23 showing demonstration model.(4/12/2020) .................................................................. 36
Figure24: PH meter.(28/11/2020) ................................................................................................. 41
Figure 25 shows PH test. (28/11/2020)......................................................................................... 41
Figure 26 shows conductivity and TDS metre. (28/11/2020) ....................................................... 41
Figure 27 conductivity and TDS tests. (28/11/2020) .................................................................... 41
Figure 28 shows turbid metre. (28/11/2020)................................................................................. 41
Figure 29 turbidity test. (28/11/2020) ........................................................................................... 41
Figure 30 sorting aggregate for the set up. (1/12/2020)............................................................... 41
Figure 31 original, day1 and day2 samples.(1/12/2020)............................................................... 41
Figure 32 day4, day5 and day6 samples. (4/12/2020) .................................................................. 41
Figure 33 gender composition ...................................................................................................... 44
Figure 34 age group composition ................................................................................................. 44
Figure 35 shows years of study of the study population ............................................................... 44
Figure 36 shows religious affiliation of the study population ...................................................... 44
Figure 37 awareness of the study population about grey water reuse .......................................... 45
Figure 38 attitude of the study group towards grey water reuse ................................................... 45
Figure 41 shows the study population's shower time ................................................................... 45
Figure 42 shows frequency of washing/laundry activity .............................................................. 45
Figure 43 shows frequency of toilet flushing ............................................................................... 46
Figure 44 shows attitude of the study population towards grey water reuse ............................... 46

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Figure 45 shows a graph of turbidity against time ........................................................................ 57
Figure 46 shows a graph of PH against time ................................................................................ 57
Figure 47 shows a graph of TDS against time .............................................................................. 58
Figure 48 shows a graph of TSS against time............................................................................... 58
Figure 49 shows a graph of conductivity against time ................................................................. 59
Figure 50 shows a graph of E.coli against time ............................................................................ 59
Figure 51 shows a graph of change in coliforms against time ...................................................... 60
Figure 52 shows scum. (4/12/2020) .............................................................................................. 64
Figure 53 shows Naru hostel. (27/10/2020) .................................................................................. 64
Figure 54 shows a seperated waste water system at Naru. (28/10/2020) ..................................... 64
Figure 55 shows a water bill. (28/10/2020) .................................................................................. 64
Figure 56 shows a sample of waste water. (4/12/2020) ................................................................ 64
Figure 57 shows a sample to be tested for turbidity. (4/12/2020) ................................................ 64
Figure 58 shows a sand filter. (28/11/2020) ................................................................................. 64
Figure 59 shows a plastic tap for the setup. (27/11/2020) ............................................................ 64
Figure 60 shows a 2 inch pipe and a hack saw. (27/11/2020) ...................................................... 64
Figure 61 shows outlet pipe connected to the tap. (28/11/2020) .................................................. 65
Figure 62 shows a sample being fed into the setup.(29/11/2020)................................................. 65
Figure 63 shows accumulation of scam.(3/12/2020) .................................................................... 65
Figure 64 shows the filtrate on day1.(29/11/2020) ....................................................................... 65
Figure 65 shows safety gloves for handling grey water. (2/12/2020) ........................................... 65
Figure 66 shows a sample of grey water. (3/12/2020) .................................................................. 65

x
 LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 shows conductivity measurement instruments ................................................................ 28
Table 2 shows water quality standards for toilet flushing ............................................................ 29
Table 3 shows the process of fabrication of the filter ................................................................... 34
Table 4 shows demonstration model figures ................................................................................ 36
Table 5 shows various parameter tests.......................................................................................... 41
Table 6 shows quantity of grey water generated at Naru hostel ................................................... 42
Table 7 shows parameter results from sample 1 ........................................................................... 49
Table 8 shows parameter results from sample .............................................................................. 50

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 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Grey water is described as gently used waste water that comes from sources such as the bathroom,
kitchen and laundry. It is relatively clean and cannot be compared with the water from toilets
(black water). Generally, any water that is drained from the house other than toilet water can be
described as grey water. It may also contain traces of food, grease, hair, dirt or particular household
cleaning products (Alliance for water, 2015).

As much as it may look dirty, grey water can be reused for other purposes and does not necessarily
have to be disposed off into the sewage system as other types of waste water do. This means that
it is not really waste water but could be repurposed for safe and beneficial uses such as yard
irrigation and toilet flushing. It therefore serves to substitute fresh water for some purposes thus
allowing for water conservation as well as reducing the amount of water that is sent into the sewage
system for treatment (Lambe, 2016).

Grey water reuse has been considered as a reliable method of ensuring water security as compared
to other methods of water capture such as rainwater harvesting which is dependent on hydrological
conditions. The amount of grey water produced in a household can vary greatly ranging from as
low as 15 L per person per day for poor areas to several hundred per person per day. Factors that
account for such huge disparities are mostly attributed to geographical location, lifestyle, climatic
conditions, type of infrastructure, culture and habits, among others. Grey water accounts for up to
75% of the wastewater volume produced by households, and this can increase to about 90% if dry
toilets are used (Hernandez Leal et al, 2010). It has also been estimated that grey water produced
accounts for about 69% of domestic water consumption ( Oteng et al, 2018).

Increased socio-economic development of Ugandan communities has led to an overall increase in

water demand for various purposes. Globally, grey water reuse is encouraged because of its
potential to; (i) supplement freshwater resources, (ii) provide reliable water services in remote or
environmentally sensitive locations; (iii) mitigate the rising costs of meeting drinking water
treatment and wastewater discharge standards; and (iv) reduce sewage discharges to water bodies.

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Grey water reuse seems inevitable in many Ugandan communities especially those faced with
declining freshwater availability (Ilemobade, 2012). If grey water reuse is to be implemented, it
must be implemented sustainably. Sustainable development requires life-cycle consideration and
assessment of different aspects (e.g. technical, social, economical, environmental, institutional,
and health) impacting on or being impacted by the development (Ilemobade, 2012).

When thinking about how much a toilet flush costs, it’s easy to look at the cost of tap water and
multiply it by the amount of water your toilet uses. While that is certainly one part of the cost,
there is another significant part, waste water. Every time you flush a toilet, you not only spend a
certain amount of water, but you also send (roughly) the same amount of water down the sewage
pipes. Also, you might find it interesting that “throwing” wastewater away is more expensive than
actually buying clean tap water (Bathroom world, 2018).

Development of affordable systems of grey water reuse that filter, improve and cleanse water to
make it suitable for flushing the toilet is what the researcher focused on as a mechanism to cut
costs of purchase of fresh water, transportation, treatment and disposal of grey water. This water
can however be backed up by rain water harvesting to ensure enough quantity and availability.

2
1.1 BACKGROUND

Uganda has experienced several decades of economic growth, leading to large population
movements from rural areas to informal settlements around urban centers. High population growth
nearly triple the global average stressed the water and sanitation services that exist since the
increase in water and sanitation services did not follow the same pace. 51 percent of Ugandans
lack access to safe water and 82 percent do not have access to improved sanitation facilities
(water.org, 2019).

In Australia, there are two types of Grey water Reuse Systems: the Grey water Diversion Device
(GDD) and the Grey water Treatment System (GTS), and both have to be approved prior to
installation. Two types of GDDs exist; the Gravity GDD, and the Pump GDD. The Gravity GDD
as the name suggests relies on gravity and has a manual switch or a valve fitted to the outlet of the
waste pipe such as laundry sink, and the grey water is directly diverted to a sub-surface garden
irrigation system. The Pump GDD incorporates a surge tank to accommodate sudden surges of
grey water and a pump to distribute the collected grey water to the sub-surface garden irrigation
system. The GTS is different to GDD as it collects and treats grey water to a higher quality, which
incorporates the disinfection of grey water, which in turn means that it can be used for surface
irrigation, toilet flushing and possibly for cold-water in washing machines. (DiscussionPaper,
2011).

In Birmingham, Grey water recycling is receiving increasing attention as part of an urban water
management plan. There are numerous case studies of installed GW systems within individual
family dwellings, multiple housing dwellings, multi-storey office buildings and individual hotel
buildings. Toilet flushing is a frequently cited GW application and accounts for approximately
30% of home water use and can reach over 60% in offices. (Alliance for water, 2015). The high
volume of GW generation in domestic properties, which accounts for approximately 50 to 70% of
daily water outflow, is usually greater than the requirement for GW use (i.e., toilet flushing which
requires 20 to 36% water inflow). In other words, there would be a substantial excess of GW
remaining (up to 50% of the GW produced) once toilet flushing demands are met through GW

3
supplies. In contrast, the GW produced in commercial, retail and other non-residential buildings,
which accounts for approximately 21% of water outflow (from hand basins alone), is substantially
less than the requirement for GW use (i.e., toilet flushing, which requires 43 to 65% water inflow).
In other words, a deficit of GW exists; hence, the cost of the infrastructure and treatment equipment
is unlikely to justify the long pay-back periods under current water pricing. (Moslemi, 2013) It is
on this note that the researcher sought to back up grey water with rain water.

Because of the potential risks to public health due to the possible ingestion of contaminated grey
water, grey water reuse in Africa is viewed with caution and not commonly practiced. The most
common grey water reuse sites in Africa have been experimental domestic irrigation and non-
domestic irrigation and this reuse has been driven by the continued awareness of the nutritional
benefits of applying suitably treated grey water to the irrigation of plants and the need to efficiently
manage grey water disposal in especially non-sewered areas. However there still remains need for
reuse of grey water for flushing toilets to reduce the cost of water and increase access to drinking
water (Ilemobade, 2012).

In Uganda, Access to drinking water in urban areas has stagnated at 71%. During 2016/17FY, a
total of 425,000 people had to be served just to maintain the access to safe water. Of these, 290,000
resulted from population growth in the urban councils that existed in 2016. The remaining 135,000,
approximately, result from the additional unserved population of the new Town Councils created
in 2016/17 (MWE, 2017).

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development includes a dedicated Goal on Water and Sanitation
(SDG 6) that sets out to “ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation
for all.” SDG 6 expands the Millennium Development Goal’s focus on drinking water and
sanitation to cover the entire water cycle, including the management of water, wastewater and
ecosystem resources. With water at the very core of sustainable development, SDG 6 does not only
have strong linkages to all of the other SDGs, it also underpins them; therefore meeting SDG 6
would go a long way towards achieving much of the 2030 Agenda and reducing the cost of water
can be incorporated in this (MWE, 2017).

Targets for Sustainable Development Goal 6, by 2030,among others include Achieve universal
and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all, halving the proportion of

4
untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally, Substantially
increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of
freshwater to address water scarcity and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from
water scarcity (MWE, 2017).
The kyambogo student population in 2012/13 academic year stood at 22,613 which increased to
23,066, to 23,528, to 24,001, to 24,482, to 25,707 and to 26993 students in the 2013/14, 2014/15,
2015/16, 2016/17, 2017/18 and 2018/19 academic years respectively. With figures estimated to
have 10% increase from academic year 2018/19 to 2022/23, the population is projected and
estimated to be in 50,000s by the end of academic year 2022/23, majority of whom are non
residents. (kyambogo development plan, 2013)
During the dry weather season that is January, February, August and September, students hostels
experience water scarcity that affects their day to day activities that require water. This affects
the sanitation of the housing units to a great extent. (NewVision September 18th, 2018)

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Approximately 8.3% of Ugandans use flushing toilets. However, approximately all storied
buildings use flushing toilet systems (Kamara et al, 2013). Toilet flushing is the single highest use
of water in an average home. Because of this, it prevents a prime opportunity for water
conservation. With the average person flushing 5 times a day, toilets make up about 26.7%-37%
of overall house hold consumption. This is after different families have observed the toilet etiquette
and tried some toilet water saving techniques such as; not using the toilet as a trash can, not
flushing every time for the case of yellow water among others (Alliance for water, 2015).

3.5% of daily water usage is spent on the wash basin, 25.5% on the shower, 15% on laundry and
37.2% on toilet flushing if the water is used sparingly. An average human being needs 50 litres of
water per day in order to prepare meals and have enough water for personal hygiene. This means
that 37.2% which is about 19 litres is spent on toilet flushing by one person per day (institute for
water africa, 2017). This is within the standards as per the World health Organisation for
intermediate access of water which specifies 18.6 litres per capita per day but is much below the
standard for optimal access of water which specifies up to 37.2 litres per capita per day (WHO,
2013).

5
Summing up the percentage of water spent on the wash basin, laundry and on the shower gives a
combined 44% which is actually higher than that used to flush the toilet.

Students’ hostels around Banda experience periods of water crisis especially during the sunny
season months of January, February, August and September. This called for an efficient model
that enabled reuse of wash basin, laundry and shower water for flushing the toilet especially in
storied students’ hostels.

1.3 OBJECTIVES
1.3.1 Main objective

To recycle the grey water and reutilize it for use in the water closets in a storied students’ hostel.
1.3.2 Specific objectives

i. To find out if the quantity of grey water to be reused for a flushing toilet is sufficient.
ii. To design a sand filter that will serve to better the quality of the grey water to be reused.
iii. To prepare a demonstration model for grey water recycling for reuse in a flushing toilet.

1.4 JUSTIFICATION

Uganda’s second National Development Plan (NDP II) aims to increase access to safe water in
urban areas to 95% and 100% in National Water and Sewerage Corporation towns by 2020.
Beyond this extremely ambitious target for the sub-sector, the Sustainable Development Goals
Target 6 aims to “achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for
all” by 2030 (UNDP, 2015).

Unfortunately, of the 9.16 million urban dwellers living in the capital Kampala, the 41
municipalities and 210 town councils, about 2.6 million remain without piped water services. Not
included in these figures is the population of town boards, for which no data is available, as well
as an additional population of more than three million people who live in more than 1,100 semi-
urban rural growth centres that are likely to become gazetted urban centres in the near future
(UNDP, 2015).

This scenario calls for further efforts to increase investment in water supply infrastructure to close
the gaps and achieve the sector goals. Currently, sector financing for urban water is not increasing

6
and even at risk to be reduced as some development partners are ending their support after decades
of support (NewVision September 18th, 2018).

Current grey water literature identifies only the issues with ingesting grey water through irrigation
exposure and doesn’t fully investigate toilet flushing applications (Glenn, 2012).

It was therefore vital to employ all the necessary economics such as grey water reuse not only to
reduce the cost of water but also to increase the amount available for the rest to use and reduce the
cost of treatment of waste water.

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE

Upon coming up with the right model of grey water reuse, the effluent quantity discharged to the
flush toilet cistern was sufficient for flushing. The cost of water was reduced to a great extent.

1.6 SCOPE
1.6.1 Content scope

This research was limited to finding out the possibility of cutting water costs by treating and
reusing grey water in a flushing toilet collected from the upper levels of a storied building and
reused on the ground floor level.

1.6.2 Geographical scope

The research was carried out on NARU students’ hostel in Banda kampala. Naru hostel is a five
storied students’ hostel in Banda for both girls and boys. It has a capacity of 125 students with
each floor having averagely twenty five (25) students. Banda serves as a residential area for most
of the students at Kyambogo University comprising of several hostels most of which are storied in
nature.

1.6.3 Time scope

This research was to be carried out between December 2019 and May 2020 but due to the
lockdown, it went as far as December 2020.

7
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATUE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

What is Grey water?

Residential wastewater (i.e. black water) is a mixture of household wastewater from the following
sources – bathroom hand wash basins, bathtubs, showers, toilets, kitchen sinks, washing machines,
laundry tubs and dish washers. Black water is characterized by high concentrations of organic
contaminants, disease and non-disease causing microorganisms and chemicals. This wastewater
may be disaggregated into two sub-categories of grey water (i.e. light grey water and dark grey
water) based on organic strength or the levels of contaminants contained in the water:

i. Light grey water typically consists of wastewater from bathroom hand basins, bathtubs, showers,
and laundry. Light grey water generally has lower concentrations of contaminants than black water
and dark grey water.

ii. Dark grey water is a combination of light grey water and wastewater from kitchen sinks,
dishwashers, or other sinks involving food preparation. Food waste, grease, oils and cleaning
products contribute significantly to increased contaminant loading and disease-causing
microorganisms when combined with light grey water (Ilemobade, 2012).
2.2 Grey water composition

Grey water from Bathroom Water used in hand washing and bathing generates around 50-60% of
total grey water and is considered to be the least contaminated type of grey water. Common
chemical contaminants include soap, shampoo, hair dye, toothpaste and cleaning products. It also
has some faecal contamination (and the associated bacteria and viruses) through body washing.
Grey water from Cloth Washing Water used in cloth washing generates around 25-35% of total
grey water. Wastewater from the cloth washing varies in quality from wash water to rinse water to
second rinse water. Grey water generated due to cloth washing can have faecal contamination with
the associated pathogens and parasites such as bacteria. Grey water from Kitchen grey water
contributes about 10% of the total grey water volume. It is contaminated with food particles, oils,
fats and other wastes. It readily promotes and supports the growth of micro-organisms. Kitchen

8
grey water also contains chemical pollutants such as detergents and cleaning agents which are
alkaline in nature and contain various chemicals. Therefore kitchen wastewater may not be well
suited for reuse in all types of grey water systems (Lambe, 2016).

2.3 Grey water quantity

(Alliance for water, 2015)

8.3% kitchen
13% 3.5%
wash
22.5% basin
toilet
37.7%
15% laundry

shower

others

Figure 1 shows the domestic water usage in a pie chart representation

(American water Works Research, 2010)

9
 A bar graph showing various quantities of water use by %age
30

25

20

15

10

0
shower Toilet kitchen Faucet Laundry other

%age use

Figure 2 shows domestic water usage in a bar graph representation (American water Works
Research, 2010)

2.4 Microbiological characteristics

Grey water may pose a public health risk given its contamination with pathogens, e.g. viruses,
bacteria, protozoa, and intestinal parasites. For light grey water, these pathogens are primarily
faecal in origin (e.g. hand washing after toilet use, washing of babies after defecation, and diaper
washing) while for dark grey water, these pathogens originate from both faecal and food (e.g.
washing of vegetables and raw meat) contamination. Faecal contamination of grey water typically
depends on the age distribution of household members, i.e. the higher faecal contamination of grey
water is typically experienced where babies and young children are present in a household.

The often hesitance by the public and decision-makers to reuse grey water stems from the potential
for human exposure which will lead to illness. Enteric viruses, which are known to be the most
critical group of pathogens, can cause illness even at low doses and cannot be detected by routine
microbial analysis. They also represent the microbial component that is most difficult to process:
it can be assumed that a process effective in removing enteric viruses will be similarly effective
for all other pathogens. It is normal, however, to base standards on the more readily quantifiable
indicator organisms of faecal or total coliforms since the main issue when reusing greywater is the
potential risk to human health. These indicator species demonstrate a potential for disease
10
transmission, rather than an actual risk of illness, but are more familiar bacteriological quality
determinants than viruses and are more easily measured. On the other hand, no proven correlation
exists between concentrations of indicator species and actual pathogen levels, and some pathogens
are known to be more resistant to treatment than the indicator species.

This has resulted in the more conservative approach being adopted in the USA, Japan and Australia
where grey water reuse is an established operation. In the USA specifically, the USEPA guideline
for water recycling (USEPA, 2012) promotes non-detectable concentrations of faecal coliform for
urban reuse combined with a specification for a minimum level of treatment required.

Grey water, which can contain at least 105/100 ml of potentially pathogenic microorganisms,
typically changes in quality over time. Research has shown that counts of total coliform and faecal
coliform increased from 100-l05/100 ml to above 105/100 ml within 48 hours in stored grey water
from various sources. Easily biodegradable organic compounds, which are typically found in dark
grey water, also favour the growth of microorganisms (Ghrair, 2011).
2.5 Determination of the amount of grey water generated in a housing unit

The volumetric flow rate of water generated from activities of laundry, toilet use, showering,
hand washing and kitchen is commonly determined using loading units. Loading units are factors
which can be applied to a variety of appliances. They have been established by considering the
frequency of use of individual appliances and the desired water flow rate. By determining the
number of appliances on a pipework system and summating the loading units, an equivalent flow
in litres per second can be established from the following conversion graph. (Hall and Greeno,
2007)

11
 Figure 3 shows a loading units graph (Hall and Greeno, 2007)

2.6 Successful Case studies

2.6.1 Palma Beach Hotel, Spain (March et al, 2004).

Palma Beach Hotel is a three-star hotel that has 81 rooms (63 of which include a kitchen) located
on 9 floors. It is mostly occupied by foreign visitors (most of them from Scandinavia) who come
to Spain for summer holidays. Usually, customers stay at the hotel for either 1 or 2 weeks.

A simple grey water recycling system was introduced for toilet flushing with the aim of conserving
the available potable water. The treatment involved filtration using a nylon sock type filter (0.3
mm mesh size and 1 m2 filtration surface), sedimentation, and disinfection with sodium
hypochlorite. The treated grey water was initially stored in a ground level tank (4.5 m3) and from
there was pumped using an automatic pump to a terrace tank, which could also be fed with drinking
water, if necessary. From the terrace tank, the toilet cisterns in the rooms were fed by gravity.
While undertaking an economic analysis of the system, a 14 year payback period was computed.
The payback period was based on the seasonal characteristics of the tourist industry with the
system operating over an average of 7 months a year with an average hotel occupancy of 85%.

12
In terms of educating users and determining perceptions, an informative pamphlet was left in all
the rooms. The pamphlet included a short introduction on the importance of water management, a
description of the grey water reuse project, identification of the institutions involved, input for
residents’ personal data (nationality, age, gender, duration of stay at the hotel) and several
questions requesting residents’ perceptions regarding the reuse system. Data from residents
indicated a general satisfaction with the system. Unpleasant odours was mentioned by one of the
hotel’s customers who also gave a "fair" overall impression of his holiday period.

No complaints about the system were reported to the hotel administration. The system has been
proven to be sustainable in terms of energy consumption, land requirements and waste production.

2.6.2 IAV, Rabat, Morocco (El Hamouri et al, 2007).

This pilot study was conducted on the campus of the Institute Agronomique et Veterinaire (IAV),
Rabat, Morocco which is located next to the Club of the Association Culturelle et Sportive de
l’Agriculture (ACSA). Wastewater generated in the showers and the toilet wash basins of the
ACSA club gym is segregated thus allowing the collection of 8 m3/d of grey water. A reservoir
outside the gym collects grey water which was then pumped through a 50-mm diameter pipe over
a distance of 504 m to the wastewater treatment facility located inside the IAV Campus.

Grey water is then treated in a two-step gravel/sand filtration unit. Step 1 consists of a planted
horizontal-flow gravel filter, while step 2 is a vertical-flow multilayer sand filter.

After passing through the filters, grey water is disinfected in an Ultra-Violet spa. The treated and
UV disinfected grey water is then stored in a black, polyethylene reservoir and conveyed, using a
50-mm diameter pipe, over a distance of 460 metres to the building housing the Department of
Rural Engineering (DRE).

The four toilets on the ground floor of this building are connected to the grey water supply pipe.
A dual piping system was adopted in the DRE building toilets to avoid any cross connections
between potable and recycled grey water. Hence, the toilet cisterns have access to potable water

13
when grey water is not available. For comparison purposes, 4 other toilets, located on the first floor
of the DRE building, were flushed with potable water.
2.6.3 Japan (Ogoshi., et al., 2015)

Grey water reuse is also practiced in Japan on a scale that ranges from the simple residential use
of untreated grey water for toilet flushing to complex systems in office blocks.
This technology is popular in Japan and installed in many Japanese homes, as well as in
commercial areas. This system incorporates a hand basin at the top of the cistern, with a tap for
hand washing. The tap automatically and simultaneously operates with each toilet/urinal flush
refilling the toilet cistern while permitting the washing of hands. While this system is very simple,
it nevertheless promotes the conservation of water for residential use. In applications where the
grey water has been captured from other household sources for toilet flushing, unpleasant odors
and discoloration of the toilet bowl were reported (CSBE, 2013).
The Japanese government does not provide incentives for household residents to implement grey
water systems in their own living spaces. Nevertheless, many people choose to implement them in
urban areas because water costs are very high.
On the other hand, the Japanese government is making an effort to implement grey water
technology in more extensive urban commercial uses. In the capital city,
Tokyo, grey water reuse is mandatory for buildings with an area over 30,000 m2 or with potential
reuse of 100 m3/day. In order to offset the costs associated with construction, the Japanese
Ministry of Construction provides subsidies of up to 50 percent of the capital costs. The
government also assists in connecting commercial grey water systems to the public sewerage
system. Therefore, while residential grey water use is minor in Japan, commercial grey water use
is very extensive (kim., et al., 2012)

2.7 Methods of grey water treatment

There are numerous methods for grey water treatment (GWT), differing in their characteristics,
forms, pollution loadings and treatment procedure. The selection of the suitable technology
depends on the quantities of grey water, organic contents, final application and standards
acceptance. The treatment processes included preliminary, primary and secondary processes.

14
However, there is no established design for GWT globally, except for in a few countries like
Australia and America, and it is basically designed in relation to the grey water source, quality and
quantity, site condition and reuse alternatives (Edwin., et al., 2014).

Moreover, the accepted fact is that grey water should be treated with an eco-friendly technology
and without chemical additives or toxic by-products. Some authors indicated that the grey water
might be subjected to a storage period before the treatment process; however, a storage period
should be conducted for a short time to prevent microbial growth (Harju, 2010).

Filtration and disinfection methods are mainly used in physical/chemical GWT systems, while
aeration and membrane bioreactors (MBRs) are biological treatment methods. The majority of
treatment methods seen universally are sequence batch reactors, MBRs and biologically aerated
filters which may have high potential to produce higher grey water quality than that generated
from the traditional processes such as the primary and secondary processes. However, the energy
consumption and capital cost of these methods are high (Allen., et al., 2010). Therefore, they are
not appropriate techniques for low and middle income or developing countries. In Germany, high
water bills and water saving actions led to a complicated GWT system that included active aeration
(Shaikh, 2013). Numerous systems are in operation for the removal of nutrients from grey water,
although these are expensive and generate elevated amounts of thick, soft mud (Alejandro., et al.,
2010).

The system used should be designed to have the potential to work at a small scale without the need
to use advanced technology. Taking the maintenance aspect of the system into account as well,
depending on the maintenance, the biodegradability of the influent substances will have to be
watched for clogging. For long term maintenance, it might be expected that biomass needs to be
withdrawn from the bioreactor periodically. Filtration with natural materials followed by a phyco-
remediation process with microalgae can be used to meet the standard limits required.
(Wurochekke., et al., 2016)

15
 Figure 4 shows grey water treatment process (Wurochekke., et al., 2016)

2.7.1 Primary Treatment of grey water by filtration

The primary treatment mostly consisted of coarse sand and soil filtration, where the coarse filter
alone has a limited effect on the removal of the pollutants present in the grey water, hence it is
usually combined with soil filtration and is called the hybrid treatment process.

Several types of natural materials such as sand beds, fine particles, coarse size brick beds, charcoal
beds, ceramics, clamshell, limestone, wooden sawdust beds and beds of coconut shell cover have
been combined to design a filter bed in the filtration unit (Wurochekke., et al., 2016)

Slow sand filtration is a type of centralised or semi-centralised water purification system. A well-
designed and properly maintained slow sand filter (SSF) effectively removes turbidity and
pathogenic organisms through various biological, physical and chemical processes in a single
treatment step. Only under the prevalence of a significantly high degree of turbidity or algae-
contamination, pre-treatment measures (e.g. sedimentation) become necessary. Slow sand
filtration systems are characterised by a high reliability and rather low lifecycle costs. Moreover,
neither construction nor operation and maintenance require more than basic skills. Hence, slow
sand filtration is a promising filtration method for small to medium-sized, rural communities with
a fairly good quality of the initial surface water source. As stated by the WHO, slow sand filtration

16
provides a simple but highly effective and considerably cheap tool that can contribute to a
sustainable water management system. (SSMW, 2019)
2.8 Testing grey water parameters
2.8.1 Testing PH
There are different methods of measuring PH of grey water some of which include: using an
indicator, hydrogen electrode method, Quinhydron electrode method, Antimony electrode method,
Glass-Electrode Method, Semiconductor sensor method and using the PH metre. (Nomura, 2011)

2.8.1.1 Using and indicator

This category basically includes two methods: One involves comparing the standard color
corresponding to a known PH with the color of an indicator immersed in the test liquid using buffer
solution. The other method involves preparing pH test paper which is soaked in the indicator, then
immersing the paper in the test liquid and comparing its color with the standard color. This method
is simple, but prone to error. A high degree of accuracy cannot be expected. The indicator method
cannot measure the pH of high-purity water, since the influence of the indicator itself is too large
(Nomura, 2011).

2.8.1.2 Using hydrogen electrode method

A hydrogen electrode is made by adding platinum black to platinum wire or a platinum plate. It is
immersed in the test solution and an electric charge is applied to the solution and the solution is
saturated with hydrogen gas. The electrode potential is measured between platinum black electrode
and silver chloride electrode. This potential is inversely proportional to pH of the solution. The
hydrogen-electrode method is a standard among the various methods for measuring PH. The values
derived using other methods become trustworthy only when they match those measured using
hydrogen electrode method. However, this method is not appropriate for daily use because of the
effort and expense involved, with the inconvenience of handling hydrogen gas and great influence
of highly oxidizing or reducing substances in the test solution. (Nomura, 2011)

17
 Figure 5 shows the hydrogen electrode method (Nomura, 2011)
2.8.1.3 Quinhydron electrode method

When quinhydron is added to a solution, it separates into hydroquinone and quinone.

Because quinone’s solubility varies depending on the PH value of the solution, PH can be
determined from the voltage between a platinum and reference electrode.
Although this method is simple, it is seldom used today, because it does not work when oxidizing
or reducing substances are involved, or when the test solution has a pH above 8 or 9.

Note: Quinhydron solution of a certain PH is sometimes used to check whether an Oxidation

Reduction Potential (ORP) meter is operating normally. The principle of the quinhydron electrode
is applied in such a case (Nomura, 2011).

2.8.1.4 Antimony electrode method

This method involves immersing the tip of a polished antimony rod into a test solution, also
immersing a reference electrode, and measuring pH from the difference in potential between them.
This method was once widely used because the apparatus is sturdy and easy to handle. However,
its application is now quite limited because results vary depending on the degree of polish of the
electrode, and reproducibility is low.

18
Note: This method is now used only in cases where a high degree of accuracy is not required (only
for industrial use) (Nomura, 2011).

2.8.1.5 Glass-Electrode Method

The glass electrode method uses two electrodes, a glass electrode and reference electrode, to
determine the PH of a solution by measuring the voltage (potential) between them.
This method is the one most commonly used for pH measurement, since the potential quickly
reaches equilibrium and shows good reproducibility, and because the method can be used on
various types of solutions, with oxidizing or reducing substances having very little impact on the
result. Measurement using a glass electrode is recommended for industrial pH measurement
(Nomura, 2011).

2.8.1.6 Semiconductor sensor method

The semiconductor pH sensor, whose development started around 1970, replaces a glass electrode
with a semiconductor chip. This sensor, known as an ion sensitive field effect transistor (ISFET),
is not only resistant to damage but also easily miniaturized. Miniaturization allows the use of
smaller amounts of sample for measurement, and makes it possible to perform measurements in
very small spaces and on solid state surfaces. This sensor promises useful applications in
measurement in the fields of biology and medicine (Nomura, 2011).

2.8.1.7 Using the PH metre

This meter is used to measure the acidity of the water by comparing readings from a reference
electrode and a sample electrode. To determine pH the output of these electrodes must be
temperature-compensated, so most pH meters also measure temperature (Brikowski, 2003).

19
 Figure 6 shows a PH metre (Nomura, 2011)

2.8.2 Testing for Total Dissolved solids

The two principal methods of measuring total dissolved solids are gravimetric analysis and
conductivity. Gravimetric methods are the most accurate and involve evaporating the liquid
solvent and measuring the mass of residues left. This method is generally the best, although it is
time-consuming. If inorganic salts comprise the great majority of TDS, gravimetric methods are
appropriate. (Wurochekke., et al., 2016)

Electrical, or specific, conductivity of water is directly related to the concentration of dissolved

ionized solids in the water. Ions from the dissolved solids in water create the ability for that water
to conduct an electric current, which can be measured using a conventional conductivity meter or
TDS meter. When correlated with laboratory TDS measurements, conductivity provides an
approximate value for the TDS concentration, usually to within ten-percent accuracy.

The relationship of TDS and specific conductance of groundwater can be approximated by the
following equation:

TDS = keEC

20
Where TDS is expressed in mg/L and EC is the electrical conductivity in micro Siemens per
centimeter at 25 °C. The correlation factor ke varies between 0.55 and 0.8.

Some TDS meters will use this electrical conductivity measurement to then infer the number of
parts per million (ppm); 1 ppm indicates 1 mg of dissolved solids per kg of water (Atekwanaa, et
al., 2004).

Figure 7 shows a TDS metre (Atekwanaa, et al., 2004)

2.8.3 Measurement of Total Suspended Solids

Due to the correlations between turbidity and total suspended solids (TSS), turbidity measurements
are often substituted for suspended sediment concentrations and TSS measurements. However,
when possible, it is more accurate to measure total suspended solids by weight. Turbidity readings
can be affected by colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM), while sediment and TSS
measurements are not. While the most accurate and accepted method for measuring suspended
sediment and TSS is by weighing a sample, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) has
begun using acoustic Dopplers for in-situ sediment monitoring.

21
2.8.3.1 Total Suspended Solids and Suspended Sediment Concentration by Weight

This is measured in milligrams per liter of water (mg/L), suspended sediment concentration and
total suspended solids readings are based on filtered and dried water samples. TSS encompasses
any particles larger than 2 microns in diameter. Any particle smaller than this is considered a
dissolved solid. (Atekwanaa, et al., 2004)

The main difference between total suspended solids (TSS) and suspended sediment concentration
(SSC) is in the amount of water analyzed. After filtering a water sample with a 2-micron filter, the
particles are dried and weighed to determine suspended solids. When an entire sample is filtered,
dried and weighed, the American Society for Testing of Materials considers the measurement to
be the suspended sediment concentration. If a water sample is further subsampled, the subsequent
mass measurement will be the TSS measurement. This can be done by shaking/stirring and pouring
from the sample bottle (EPA method) or by stirring and collecting a sample with a pipette (APHA
method). The EPA method is considered more consistent than the pipette method (Fondriest,
2014).

A water sample is filtered, dried and weighed to determine suspended sediment concentrations.
For samples with fine suspended particles (less than 53 microns), the total suspended solids
measurement and the suspended sediment concentration will be both precise and accurate relative
to the true concentration and each other. However, if larger (medium-coarse) particles are included
in the sample, sub-sampling can often introduce error into the TSS measurement. The larger the
particle, the more likely that it will not be included in the sub-sample. Coarse sediment, such as
sand, is often not included in the TSS measurement. This is due to the rapid settling of larger
particles. On the other hand, regardless of particle size, the SSC is usually within 5% of the true
particle concentration.
(Fondriest, 2014)
2.8.3.2 Total Suspended Sediment by Acoustic Doppler Measurements

The U.S. Geological Survey has started using acoustic Doppler meters to determine continuous
sediment loads estimates. As the Doppler meter pulses sound through the water, the frequency
beams will bounce off suspended particles in the water. While these meters are generally used to

22
measure water velocity, the returned beams, known as backscatter, can be used to indicate
suspended sediment concentrations. This method requires correction for any sound absorption and
beam spread. While it is not as accurate as a TSS mass measurement, and while its performance is
still under study, the use of an acoustic Doppler meter opens the door to the possibility of
continuous suspended sediment estimates (Fondriest, 2014).

2.8.4 Measurement of turbidity.

2.8.4.1 Historical Turbidity Measurement Method
The historical method for measuring turbidity was the Jackson Candle Turbidimeter. Developed
over a century ago, this instrument was constructed from a candle and a flat-bottomed glass tube.
Much like a transparency tube, water is poured down into the tube until the candle flame is no
longer distinctly visible. The light does not disappear completely, only the image of the flame will.
This occurs when the intensity of the transmitted light is equal to the amount of light scattered by
particles in the water. The more turbid the water is, the quicker the image of the flame disappears.
(Fondriest, 2014)

Figure 8 shows the Jackson candle turbidimeter (Fondriest, 2014)

2.8.4.2 Measuring Turbidity with a Turbidity Meter
One of the more common methods of measuring turbidity is with a turbidity meter. Turbidity
meters can be handheld and field-ready or intended for laboratory bench top use. These instruments
use a light source and one or more detectors to measure the light scattered by particles in water
samples. (Fondriest, 2014)

23
 Figure 9 shows turbidimeter (Fondriest, 2014)

2.8.4.3 Measuring Turbidity through Water Clarity Methods

Water clarity and turbidity are directly related. In any body of water, the higher the turbidity, the
lower the water clarity will be. However, while one is often an indicator of another, measurements
between the two parameters are not interchangeable. Water clarity is measured by a Secchi disk.
Named after Angelo Secchi, these discs are usually quartered in black and white, though solid
white and solid black discs are used in certain environments. Secchi disks are used in lakes, oceans
and deep rivers, where they are lowered into the body of water until they are no longer visible.
Then they are slowly raised back to the last point of visibility, and that depth is recorded. The
depth at which visibility is lost is known as the Secchi depth. High Secchi depths are associated
with high water clarity and low turbidity, while low Secchi depths indicate high turbidity.

Secchi disk readings rely on light attenuation in water. In other words, they measure the depth of
visibility based on light penetration. When the disk is underwater, light reflects off of it, making
the disk visible to the human eye. When the disc is obscured by suspended sediment, algae or
dissolved colored material, the light is no longer directly reflected back to the viewer. Instead, it
is scattered and diffused. The more scattered the light becomes, the less visible the disc will be
until it disappears completely. (Fondriest, 2014)

24
 Figure 10 shows Secchi lights in different turbidity levels (Fondriest, 2014)

2.8.5 Measurement of E.Coli

2.8.5.1 Membrane Filtration

In the membrane filtration approach, a water sample is filtered through a membrane. The
membrane is then placed on culture media that is selective for E. coli. Because the bacteria are
retained on the surface of the filter, they grow on the media and develop into a visible colony.
The number of colonies that are formed are counted and reported as the colony forming units
(CFUs). (Garbe, 2007)

Figure 11 shows membrane filtration method (Garbe, 2007)

25
2.8.5.2 Multiple Tube/Multiple Well method
In the multiple tube/multiple well approach, a water sample is mixed with a commercial reagent
containing methylumbelliferyl-β-glucuronide (MUG). E. coli enzymatically cleaves MUG
forming a fluorescent product. Samples are distributed into a multi-well plate. After incubating for
24 hours, the MPN is estimated from the number of wells that are positive for the presence of
bacteria growth using a standardized table. The most probable number is a statistical estimate of
the mean bacteria density (Garbe, 2007).

Figure 12 shows multiple tube method (Garbe, 2007)

2.8.5.3 Multiple Tube Fermentation
The multiple tube fermentation approach is a two-step process. First, a water sample is added to
test tubes containing bacteria growth media and incubated for 24-48 hrs. Tubes that are positive
for the production of acid and/or gas are then added into a series of tubes with media containing
MUG. After 24 hours, the tubes are examined for fluorescence.
The bacteria level is reported as the most probable number (MPN). The MPN is estimated from
the number of tubes that are positive for the presence of bacteria growth using a standardized table.
This approach is not used frequently as the precision is low unless a large number of samples are
collected and it is more labor and time intensive than the other approaches (Garbe, 2007).

26
 Figure 13; multiple tube fermentation method (Garbe, 2007)

2.8.6 Measuring conductivity

Conductivity can be measured either by the 2-AC bipolar method or electromagnetic induction
method. The bipolar method measures the current that passes through the solution between a pair
of electrodes. The electromagnetic induction method measures the induction current generated by
a pair of coils immersed in a solution at that particular time and results are obtained as observed.
Conductivity meters that use the bipolar method have a simple structure, allowing the creation of
a compact measurement system. They are also good for measuring low-conductivity aqueous
solutions such as pure water. However, they cannot be used to measure samples that stain or
dissolve electrode surfaces, such as highly-concentrated acids and alkaline solutions.
In conductivity meters that work by the electromagnetic induction method, corrosion-resistant
materials such as plastics can be used for the parts that become wet, and these meters are good for
measuring highly-concentrated acids and alkaline solutions. However, they are not suitable for
measuring low-conductivity aqueous solutions such as pure water (Nomura, 2011).

27
Table 1 shows conductivity measurement instruments

Figure 14; Electromagnetic induction method Figure 15; Conductivity metre (Nomura,
(Nomura, 2011) 2011)

2.9 Limitations of grey water reuse

Although grey water is not the same as black water, a lot of care must be taken when handling
grey water to make sure it does not become a serious health threat. Not all plumbers are familiar
with grey water systems, so you need to make sure that whoever you hire to install one, knows
about these kinds of systems. It is good to keep in mind also that the maintenance and parts for
these systems can be very costly. One should consult their town council about the guidelines that
should be followed when it comes to reuse of grey water. (Inspector, 2018)

When grey water is used for toilet flushing, the only area of concern is public health.
Additionally, the health concern is more prominent in toilet flushing applications since human
contact may be difficult to avoid. Interestingly, current grey water literature identifies only the
issues with ingesting grey water through irrigation exposure and doesn’t fully investigate toilet
flushing applications. (Glenn, 2012)
There is a possibility of unpleasant orders in the toilets where grey water is being reused. There
is also a possibility of clogging of the pipes due to accumulation of scum. This all goes back to

28
the maintenance of the grey water reuse systems and the partial treatment of grey water before
reuse. (Lambe, 2016)

There is need for dual plumbing so as to create an alternative system of grey water as well as
leave the normal system in operation as a backup and maintenance option and this is a bit costly.
(smith, 2012)

2.10 Water Quality standards for toilet flushing

(Levistrauss, 2014)

Table 2 shows water quality standards for toilet flushing

Parameters Toilet Flushing

US Japan LS&Co

PH 6-9 5.8-8.6 6-9

Turbidity ≤2 No limit
(NTU)
TC ≤5x100
(CFU/ml)
Odor Odorless Not
unpleasant
TDS No limit
(mg/l)
TSS ≤30
(mg/l)
E.coli Not ≤10 200-800
(CFU/ml) detectable

29
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter delineates the methods I used to assess and determine the amount of grey water
available for reuse, the materials used to come up with this assessment, design of a sand filter,
development of a demonstration model and the materials used as well as the tests carried out to
ascertain the quality of the grey water.

3.2 Source water characterization

Grey water used was from the activities of laundry, showering and washing hand washing at Naru
hostel. Naru hostel has a system that separates grey water from black water. Two Samples of
20litres each were picked on a week day and on a weekend day. It was ensured that kitchen water
supply was cut off by opening the bottle trap to cut off supply.

This water generally depicted high levels of turbidity and contained high concentrations of
biodegradable organic materials, nutrients such as nitrates, biological microbes, faecal coliforms,
oils from soaps etc.

3.3 Determining the amount of grey water available for reuse

Grey water generated from showering, laundry and washing hands was generally targeted. The
goal was to ascertain how much water is spent on the mentioned activities by students residing on
the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th floors at a one Naru hostel and compare that amount of grey water with that
needed by students residing on the ground floor to flush their toilets.

Electronic questionnaires were used to find out how often students shower, wash hands and
clothes, they were also used to find out how much time students spend on these activities. Tally
forms were also used to enable students residing at this hostel to time themselves through different
activities as well as take record for every time they use a water fixture. Knowing how often one
showers and how much time they spend on the activity enabled me to ascertain how much water
they spend on the activity. This was done for all other activities and a combined amount of water
was obtained. However, to cater for the worst case scenario, lower durations of shower and laundry
activities were taken to consider the least possible amount of grey water that can be collected and
the upper limits of frequency of toilet flushing were considered to avoid inadequacy of water
needed for flushing.

30
Total amount of grey water collected from all floors above the ground floor was then determined
putting into consideration the number of residents on these floors. Also the total amount of water
needed for toilet flushing on the ground floor was determined putting into consideration the
number of residents on the ground floor and the frequency of toilet flushing obtained using tally
forms.

3.4 Design of a sand filter

This grey water reuse system operated on the principal of a sand filter where water was allowed to
pass through a thick layer of sand. It was observed that by doing so, the suspended and colloidal
matter in the water was partially removed, the chemical characteristics of water changed and a
number of bacteria reduced.

The phenomenon of filtration can be explained by the following actions

3.4.1 Mechanical straining

This was responsible for removing such particles of suspended matter that are too large to pass
through the pores between the sand grains.
3.4.2 Sedimentation and adsorption
These account for the removal of colloids, suspended and bacterial particles. The pores between
the sand grains acted as minute sedimentation basins in which suspended particles smaller than the
voids in the filter bed settled upon the sides of the sand grains.

The particles adhered to the grains because of the physical attraction between the two particles of
matter and because of the presence of the gelatinous coating formed on the sand grains by the
bacteria and colloidal matter.

3.4.3 Biological metabolism

This is the growth and life process of the living cells. The surface layer of water got coated with a
zoogeal film in which the bacteria activities were highest and which fed on the organic impurities
converting them by a complex biochemical action into simple harmless compounds resulting in
the partial purification of water.

3.4.4 Electrolytic action

A certain amount of dissolved and suspended matter was ionized that is carried charge of one
polarity and the particles of sand in the filter which were also ionized, possessed electrical charges

31
of opposite polarity. These neutralized each other and while in so doing changed the chemical
character of water.

In this slow sand filter, the action took place principally at the surface of the sand bed though it
also continued for some distance below. The surface got coated with a skin or layer formed due to
the bacterial action of finely suspended matter, plankton and other organic matter present in grey
water. The layer is called schmutzdecke. The successful operation of a slow sand filter was
principally dependent on the existence of this layer. Below this layer were other bacterial zones.
Here the actions involved were to completely oxidise the organic matter, destroy most of the
bacteria present and let only simple and unobjectionable organic salts to pass through the filter bed
into the effluent.

3.4.5 Design parameters

Flow rate, Q: this was determined from the total amount of grey water collected from all flows
above the ground flow

Q= 1871 l/day= 0.078m3/hr

Surface area, S = Q/V

Where V= velocity of filtration.

From the filter set up, velocity of filtration was derived from timing the effluent after optimum
level of filtration was achieved and this gave 5cm for every 15 minutes

Thus V = 0.2m/hr

S= Q/V

= 0.078/0.2

=0.39m2

S=(ΠD2)/4

0.39= (3.14xD2)/4

D=0.705m

Provide a 3000 litre tank, diameter 1.5m, height 1.7m

32
New surface area= (3.14x1.52)/4

= 1.77sq metres

New velocity of filtration = Q/S

= 0.078/1.77

= 0.044m/hr

Permissible head loss = 60-75cm. beyond this point the sand filter needs skimming. This can be
done by scrapping off 1-3cm of the top most layer of sand and this can be washed and reused.

In comparison to the surface area of the setup, the 3000 litre tank would need skimming after
approximately 395 days.

The set up was comprised of 2 ten litre plastic containers representing the sand filter tank and the
effluent tank. The effluent tank has an outlet pipe that extends to up to 75% height of the tank that
enabled the system to only convey the relatively less turbid top layer of the effluent to the cisterns
for reuse.

The sand filter tank consisted of 17% gravel at the base, 33% layer of sand and the 50% was
covered by grey water at optimum capacity.

Materials used to come up with the set up include: 2 10 litre plastic containers, 90º elbow joint, 2
inch pvc pipe, hack saw and a plastic tap.

33
Table 3 shows the process of fabrication of the filter

Figure 16 shows 2 ten litre Figure 17 shows the 50mm Figure 18 shows sand filter
containers for the diameter pipe and set up.(28/11/2020)
setup.(27/11/2020) tap.(27/11/2020)

Figure 19 shows aggregate Figure 20 set up ready to be Figure 21 grey water being
being fed into the used.(28/11/2020) fed into the sand filter set
setup.(28/11/2020) up.(29/11/2020)

34
3.5 Development of a demonstration model
This is a representation of the plumbing system needed right from collection of grey water from
different floors, conveying it to the sand filter system from which it goes to a filtrate tank after
which it is conveyed to the ground floor cisterns under gravity to be reused for toilet flushing.

This was drawn using Auto Cad software. And the actual model was made with mounting boards,
card boards, plastic columns, straw boards, wood glue and super glue.

Figure 22 showing the demonstration model (Autocad 17)

35
Table 4 shows demonstration model figures

Figure 23 showing demonstration model.(4/12/2020)

3.6 Determination of parameters

3.6.1 Determination of PH
3.6.1.1 Apparatus
PH meter; this was used because it gives readings quickly and was readily available in the
laboratory.

3.6.1.2 Procedure
 Washed pH meter probe using distilled water
 Switched on.
 Verified meter using buffer solutions at pH of 7, 4 and 10 for good pH meter condition.
 Washed the meter with distilled water.
 Dipped the pH meter probe into the sample and stirred for 30 seconds and left to stand
and the reading taken with corresponding temperature.
36
 3.6.2 Determination of TDS
3.6.2.1 Apparatus
TDS meter; this was used because it gives readings quickly and was readily available in the
laboratory.

3.6.2.2 Procedure
 Remove cap from the probe.
 Washed the TDS meter probe using distilled water to wash off bacteria and other bacteria
and wiped to dry.
 Switched on the meter using the mode button to test TDS
 The TDS meter probe then dipped into the sample and stirred for about 30 seconds and
left to stand reading taken with corresponding temperature.
 Removed from sample and washed off using distilled water.
 Recapped with 3M KCl solution to maintain probe.

3.6.3 Determination of TSS

3.6.3.1 Apparatus
2conical flasks, 2 measuring cylinders, 2 funnels, 2 filter papers, Drying oven with temperature at
1050C, Weighing balance with 0.01g sensitivity, Desiccators for cooling filter papers and 2 petri
plates.

3.6.3.2 Procedure
 Sample was poured into 2 measuring cylinders up to 50ml each.
 Weighed two oven dried and cooled filter papers and mass recorded.
 Using filter papers, conical flasks and funnel sample was poured to be filtered for some
time.
 After the filter papers and residues were then placed on petri plates, transferred to the
drying oven at a set temperature of 1050C for about 1hour and 30 minutes.
 Reweighed the filter papers with the residues and difference in mass determined.
 Mass converted into mg/L

37
 3.6.4 Determination of turbidity
3.6.4.1 Apparatus
Turbidimeter; this was used because it gives readings quickly and was readily available in the
laboratory.

3.6.4.2 Procedure
 Pressed ”ON” to turn the metre on
 Pressed “OK” to select measure
 Rinsed a clean tube three times with the blank
 Filled the tube to the fill line with the blank. Poured blank down the inside of the tube to
avoid creating bubbles. Caped the tube.
 Dried the tube with a lint-free cloth. Put on a dry positioning ring. Caped the tube. Wiped
the tube thoroughly again with a lint-free cloth.
 Opened the metre lid. Inserted the tube into the chamber. Aligned the index notch on the
positioning ring with the index arrow on the meter. Closed the lid.
 Pressed “OK” selected scan blank. Removed the tube.
 Rinsed a clean tube
 Filled the tube to the fill line with standard. Poured the standard down the inside of the tube
to avoid creating bubbles.
 Caped the tube. Wiped the tube thoroughly again with a lint-free cloth.
 Opened the meter lid. Inserted the tube into the chamber. Aligned the index notch on the
positioning ring with the index arrow on the meter. Close the lid.
 Pressed “OK” to select scan sample
 Recorded the result

3.6.5 Determination of E.coli and total coliforms

3.6.5.1 Apparatus
Media bottles, Cotton wool, 70% ethanol, Autocalve, Media (E.Coli/coliforms chromogenic
media), Water bath, Dilution bottles, Pipette and pipette tips, Buffered peptone water (diluent),
Petri plates, Disinfectant, Distilled water, Incubator, Vortex mixer and Mccatney bottles

38
3.6.5.2 Procedure
 Wiped the working bench with ethanol using cotton wool.
 Prepared media based on the manufacturer’s instructions.
 Put the media in the water bath at 450C.
 Dispensed 9ml of Buffered Peptone water into 5 mccatney bottles.
 Homogenized the sample using a vortex mixer.
 Pipetted 1ml of sample and transferred into the first mccatney bottle.
 Mixed well using a vortex mixer.
 Using a different pipette tip got 1ml from the first bottle and transferred it into the second
mccatney bottle. Repeated till the fifth bottle. By doing this, the sample was undergoing a
tenfold dilution.
 Transferred 1ml from the original sample and from the various mccatney bottles into
different petri plate and labeled as 100, 10-1, 10-2, 10-3, 10-4 and 10-5 respectively.
 Poured 15ml of media into each petri plate and mixed by whirling. Left the plates covered
for about 30 minutes in order for them to set. A method called pour plate. For control
experiment, poured 15ml of the media on an empty petri plate and labeled –C. poured again
15ml of the media on a petri plate inoculated with a known amount of coliform and labeled
+C.

 Put them in an incubator at 350C in an inverted position for 24 hours.

 Removed the plate and counted the number of colonies using a colony counter. Coliforms
were identified as color red while E.Coli identified as color blue.

3.6.6 Determination of conductivity

3.6.6.1 Apparatus
Potable Conductivity meter; this was used because it gives readings quickly and was readily
available in the laboratory.

3.6.6.2 Procedure
 Remove cap from the probe.
 Washed the conductivity meter probe using distilled water
 Switched on the meter using the mode button to test conductivity

39
 The conductivity meter probe then dipped into the sample and stirred for about 30 seconds
and left to stand reading taken with corresponding temperature.
 Removed from sample and washed off using distilled water.
 Recapped with 3M KCl solution to maintain probe.

40
Table 5 shows various parameter tests

Figure 25 shows PH test. Figure 26 shows conductivity

Figure24: PH (28/11/2020) and TDS metre. (28/11/2020)
meter.(28/11/2020)

Figure 29 turbidity test.

Figure 27 conductivity and Figure 28 shows turbid (28/11/2020)
TDS tests. (28/11/2020) metre. (28/11/2020)

Figure 31 original, day1

Figure 30 sorting aggregate and day2 Figure 32 day4, day5 and day6
for the set up. (1/12/2020) samples.(1/12/2020) samples. (4/12/2020)

41
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Grey water generated
Table 6 shows quantity of grey water generated at Naru hostel

Average/50th Limit chosen Quantity

percentile

Showering 3-5 minutes 3.5 minutes 12 litres

Laundry 2-3 jerry 2 jerry 40 litres/capita/week

cans/capita/week cans/capita/week

Hand Wash basin Negligible Assume 1 I litre /capita/day

litre/capita/ day

Flushing 3-5 times a day 5 times a day (10 litres X

5)/capita/day

From the questionnaires

(https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSffyCI0vf_6g7f6z1yFnU1HRR9sNcVuNNYp-
Sr8maEn8RoD1A/viewform?usp=fb_send_twt),

i. 67 out of 125 responses were obtained and this makes 53.6% of total residents, all respondents
were students.
ii. 44.6% of whom were female and 55.4% male as reflected in figure 33
iii. 93.8% of the respondents were aged between 18-25 years as shown in the pie chart figure 34.
iv. Water usage being greatly associated to one’s religious affiliation, it had to be considered.
59.7% of respondents were Anglican, 25.4% catholic and 7.5% other religions which included
SDA, Orthodox and Islamic religions as shown in figure 36.
v. 61.5% of the respondents had never heard of grey water reuse before whereas 38.5% had ever
heard about grey water reuse as shown in figure 37.

42
 vi. After explaining the process of grey water reuse to the respondents, it was discovered that
69.7% of the respondents actually reuse grey water for mopping, watering gardens, car
washing among others whereas 30.3% do not reuse grey water as shown in figure 38.
vii. 32.3% of the respondents strongly agree that grey water reuse is a good idea, 24.6% agree,
18.5% are neutral about it, 18.5% disagree and 6.2% strongly disagree.
viii. 68.3% of the respondents shower twice a day whereas 25.4% shower once a day and the rest
shower more than twice a day.
ix. 43.3% of the respondents spend 3-5 minutes showering, 28.4% spend 6-9 minutes, 20.9%
spend 10 and more minutes whereas 7.5% spend less than two minutes showering as shown in
figure 41.
x. 63.6% use an overhead shower, 28.8% use a basin whereas 7.6% use a mobile shower.
xi. 62.7% of the respondents were found to wash once a week, 23.9% twice a week, 6% thrice a
week and 7.5% more than thrice a week as shown in figure 42.
xii. Majority of the respondents use between 2-3 20 litre jerry cans for whenever they wash.
xiii. 48.4% flush their toilet 3-5 times a day, 25% 1-2 times, 15.6% 6-9 times and 10.9% 10 times
and above.

Tally forms were used as a verification process to ascertain how true and fair the results availed
by the questionnaires were. In this, different students timed themselves on different days of the
week and different times of the day to determine the shower time upon which the same time was
used to collect water likely to flow within that time assuming flow of water for the entire shower
time.

Also using these tally forms, individuals were able to note for every time they flushed their toilet,
the cistern volume was determined and the amount of water spent on flushing per capita per day
was thus determined.

Questionnaires to hostel custodians also indicated that a lot of hostels opt for underground water
systems and would rather incur pumping costs than pay the national water bills

43
Figure 33 gender composition Figure 34 age group composition

Figure 35 shows years of study of the study Figure 36 shows religious affiliation of the study
population population

44
Figure 37 awareness of the study population about Figure 38 attitude of the study group towards grey
grey water reuse water reuse

Figure 40 shows frequency of washing/laundry

activity
Figure 39 shows the study population's shower time

45
Figure 41 shows frequency of toilet flushing Figure 42 shows attitude of the study population
towards grey water reuse

46
 4.1.1 The design parameters
Showering; lower limit of 3.5 minutes which in turn gave 12 litres and consider once a day.

Flushing; upper limit of 5 times per capita per day to design for a relatively high water demand for
flushing

Laundry; 2 jerry cans per capita per week

Wash basin; assume 1 litre per capita per day

Naru hostel is a student’s hostel with 5 floors. Each floor comprises 9 singles rooms and 8 double
rooms bringing about a total of 25 students per floor.

Amount of water need for toilet flushing per day on the ground floor = 25X5X10

= 1250 Litres per day

Amount of grey water generated from all floors above the ground floor

Shower = number of residents X amount of water per capita

= (25x4) X12

= 1200 litres per day

Laundry = (25x4) X (40/7)

= 571 litres per day

Wash basin = (25x4) X 1

= 100 litres per day

Total amount of grey water generated from all floors above ground floor = 1200+571+100

= 1871 litres>> 1250

Assume 10% water losses due to leakages and evaporation= 0.9 X 1871 =1683 litres >> 1250 litres

47
Therefore this means that the amount of grey water generated from all floors above ground floor
is sufficient for flushing on the ground floor and also gives the actual volumetric flow rate as
compared to the loading units method.

4.2 Sand filter results and maintenance

The sand filter played a great role in improving the quality of the grey water as shall later be
observed from the parameters tested before and after use of the sand filter. The parameters
included: E.Coli, total coliforms, turbidity, PH, conductivity, TDS, TSS among others.

Maintenance of a sand filter is necessary to enable the sand filter serve for as long as it can and
ensure the velocity of filtration is kept within a certain range. It also helps to ensure a certain
desired standard of water to be used and this puts into consideration public health.

Maintenance can be done by Scrapping off of 1-3cm of the top layer of sand after a specified
period usually determined by the head loss and backwashing.

48
4.3 Parameters Results
4.3.1 Weekend day sample results
Table 7 shows parameter results from sample 1
Original Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6
sample

Conductivity 1413 1007 852.5 663.8 550 458.8 400.2

(µs/cm)

TDS (mg/l) 706.7 553.9 426 328 275 252.7 200

PH 9.8 9.23 8.77 8.1 8.07 8.05 8.03

Temperature 24.6 24.8 25 24.8 25 25 24.9

(ºC)

Turbidity 454 325 282 137 111 97 89

(NTU)

E.Coli 4x103 6x102 5x101 3x101 2x101 <10 <5

(CFU/ml)

TSS 285 201 185 183 179 175 173

(mg/l)

Total 7x103 1x103 2x102 6x101 3x101 2x101 <10

coliforms

(CFU/ml)

49
 4.3.2 Week day sample results
Table 8 shows parameter results from sample
Original Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6
sample

Conductivity 1316 993 820.2 605.9 516 412 398.2

(µs/cm)

TDS (mg/l) 668.2 505.8 401 304.8 227 218 198

PH 9.5 9.21 8.52 8.09 8.06 8.05 8.02

Temperature 24.6 24.8 25 24.8 25 25 24.9

(ºC)

Turbidity 394 308 257 172 92 77 67

(NTU)

E.Coli 3x103 4x102 4x101 2x101 1x101 <10 <5

(CFU/ml)

TSS 215 192 174 165 152 148 133

(mg/l)

Total 6x103 8x102 1x102 5x101 2x101 1x101 <10

coliforms

(CFU/ml)

50
4.3.3 Analysis of results
The results obtained from the tests indicate that the sand filter played a great role in improving
the quality of the grey water as observed in the tables and the line graphs in the appendix.

The PH on day 6 of testing for both samples lies between 6 and 9 which is within the range
according to standards by NWSC, LS&Co., US , and Japan. The TDS reduced by over 50%
by day 6 to 200mg/l and 198mg/l for weekend and week day samples respectively which gives
the sand filter an efficiency of 71.6% in removal of total dissolved solids.

Turbidity levels reduced to a large extent but could not match the NWSC standard of ≤5. This
was because the sand used in the sand filter was dusty and still had dust traces even after
washing which greatly affected the turbidity levels.

Total suspended solids were also reduced to a great extent that is from 285mg/l to 173mg/l for
a weekend which gives a removal efficiency of 39.3% and 215mg/l to 133mg/l for a week day
which gives an efficiency of 38.13%. This however deviates from NSCW standards which
specify 50mg/l. This can however be improved by oven drying the sand used in the sand filter.

The sand filter also depicted a 99% removal efficiency of E.coli and total coliforms reducing
them to a maximum of 10CFU/ml which is within the toilet flushing water standards according
to NWSC, Japan and LS&Co.

Total Dissolved solids were also reduced to a great extent that is from 706mg/l to 200mg/l for
a weekend which gives a removal efficiency of 70.4% and 668.2mg/l to 198mg/l for a week
day which gives an efficiency of 70.3%. This however deviates from NSCW standards which
specify 50mg/l. This can also be improved by oven drying the sand used in the sand filter.

51
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CHALLENGES, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Challenges
 Most hostels do not have separate systems for black water and grey water as they use
combined systems to save costs which makes it difficult to tap the grey water.
 The sand used was not as clean as the desired sand which affected the turbidity levels
and TDS levels.

5.2 Conclusion and future direction

 The grey water reuse system was found to be effective as it enables a reasonable
amount of water to be saved hence reducing the water bill and also helps increase the
life span of a soak pit as it reduces the amount of water being conveyed to the soak
pit. It also makes more water available for other users as water is a scarce resource.
 The sand filter was also found to be effective in the betterment of the quality of grey
water to be reused as it reduces the parameters of turbidity, TDS, TSS, E.Coli and total
coliforms significantly.
 The sand used in the sand filter has a high effect on the turbidity, total suspended solids
and total dissolved solids.
 Grey water is greatly contaminated with high levels of total coliforms, E.Coli,
turbidity, total suspended solids and total dissolved solids.

5.3 Recommendations
 The sand used in the sand filter should be thoroughly washed to make it relatively
free from dust and suspended solids before using it as a filter bed.
 Grey water reuse should me sensitized to the population to change the attitude of
people towards the reuse of grey water by telling them about the advantages of
reusing grey water especially in relation to SDG 6 that relates to clean water and
sanitation.
 Waste water systems that separate grey water from black water should be
encouraged as they make the reuse of grey water possible.

52
 The cisterns and toilet seats used in the grey water reuse systems should be designed
to minimize contact with the personnel using the facility as this may pose a potential
health risk.

53
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56
 Appendix
Appendix 1

A graph showing change in turbidity with time

800
700
600
Turbidity (NTU)

500
400
weekend
300
week day
200
100
0
0 24 48 72 96 120 144
Time (hours)

Figure 43 shows a graph of turbidity against time

A graph showing change in PH with time

12
10
8
PH

6
4
2
0
0 24 48 72 96 120 144
Time ( hours)

weekend week day

Figure 44 shows a graph of PH against time

57
 A graph showing change in TDS with time
800
600
TDS (mg/l)

400
200
0
0 24 48 72 96 120 144
Time (hours)

weekend week day

Figure 45 shows a graph of TDS against time

A graph showing change in TSS with time

300
250
TSS (mg/l)

200
150
100
50
0
0 24 48 72 96 120 144
Time(hours)

weekend week day

Figure 46 shows a graph of TSS against time

58
 A graph showing change in conductivity with time
1600
1400
Conductivity (µs/cm)

1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 24 48 72 96 120 144
Time (hours)

weekend week day

Figure 47 shows a graph of conductivity against time

A graph showing change in Ecoli with time

4500
4000
3500
Ecoli (CFU/ml)

3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 24 48 72 96 120 144
TIme (hours)

weekend week day

Figure 48 shows a graph of E.coli against time

59
 A graph showing change in coliforms wit time
8000

7000

6000
Coliforms (CFU/ml)

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 24 48 72 96 120 144
Time (hours)

Figure 49 shows a graph of change in coliforms against time

60
QUESTIONAIRE (This was filled by hostel custodians)

Dear respondent:

I am Tuhabwe Anthony, a fourth year student at Kyambogo University undertaking a research

study on the treatment and reuse of grey water for flushing in a storied students’ hostel. Thereby
request you to fill this questionnaire, please note that all the information given will be treated with
confidentiality. I kindly request you to spare a few minutes and answer the following questions by
ticking and filling where necessary.

Instructions;

a) Tick where necessary

b) Fill in your answers in the space provided

1. Name

…………………………………………………….. (Optional)

2. Capacity

……………………………………………………….

3. Signature

………………………………………………………

4. Hostel name

……………………………………………………….

5. Students’ population

………………………………………………………..

6. What is your source of water?

…………………………………………………………

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7. What is your average water bill per month?

………………………………………………………….

8. Do you experience periods of water scarcity?

………………………………………………………….

9. Have you heard about grey water reuse before?

Yes No

10. Do you reuse any grey water (after understanding what it means) at this hostel?

……………………………………………………

11. If yes, what for?

For mopping For watering gardens For car washing

Other

12. Would you consider reuse of grey water for flushing?

Yes No

Thank you so much for your time

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TALLY FORM (this was filled by only residents of Naru hostel)
Floor number… Room Number…
ACTIVITY Morning Afternoon Evening Number of
shower shower shower times of
time(minutes) time(minutes) time(minutes) flushing(No)
DAY

MONDAY

TUESDAY

WEDNESDAY

THURSDAY

FRIDAY

SATURDAY

SUNDAY

E.g.

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 Appendix 2

Figure 50 shows scum. Figure 51 shows Naru hostel. Figure 52 shows a seperated
(4/12/2020) (27/10/2020) waste water system at Naru.
(28/10/2020)

Figure 53 shows a water bill. Figure 54 shows a sample of

(28/10/2020) Figure 55 shows a sample to
waste water. (4/12/2020) be tested for turbidity.
(4/12/2020)

Figure 56 shows a sand filter. Figure 57 shows a plastic tap Figure 58 shows a 2 inch
(28/11/2020) for the setup. (27/11/2020) pipe and a hack saw.
(27/11/2020)

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 Figure 60 shows a sample Figure 61 shows accumulation
Figure 59 shows outlet pipe being fed into the of scam.(3/12/2020)
connected to the tap. setup.(29/11/2020)
(28/11/2020)

Figure 62 shows the filtrate Figure 63 shows safety Figure 64 shows a sample of
on day1.(29/11/2020) gloves for handling grey grey water. (3/12/2020)
water. (2/12/2020)

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