PROJECT ID: CEGE/CEE/2020-21/011

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL, ENVIRONMENTAL AND GEOMATIC ENGINEERING
P.O. Box: 3900 Kigali, Rwanda.

“ASSESSMENT OF WATER AVAILABILITY AND POTENTIAL

IN GASANZE CELL”

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING-ENVIRONMENTAL

Submitted by

1.Patience BAMWEBOSE NIYONGABO 218000568

2. Fabien NIYONSENGA 218004627
3.Josine IYERAYACU 218001577

Under the Guidance of

MR Egide MUNDERERE

4th February 2022

 COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
P.O. Box: 3900 Kigali, Rwanda.

DEPARTMENT OF
CIVIL, ENVIRONMENTAL AND GEOMATIC ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Project Work entitled “ ASSESSMENT OF WATER

AVAILABILITY AND POTENTIAL IN GASANZE CELL” is a record of the
original bonafide work done by: NIYONSENGA Fabien (REG.No:218004627), Patience
BAMWEBOSE NIYONGABO (REG.No:218000568), IYERAYACU Josine
(REG.No:218001577) in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of Bachelor of
Science Degree in Civil Engineering of College of Science and Technology, University of
Rwanda during the Academic Year 2020-2021.

…………………………… ……………………………
SUPERVISOR HEAD OF DEPARTMENT
Name and Signature Name and Signature
MR. MUNDERERE Egide Dr. ABAHO Gershom

Submitted for the final Project Examination/Evaluation held at College of Science and
Technology, on 04th February 2022
DECLARATION

We NIYONSENGA Fabien, BAMWEBOSE NIYONGABO Patience and IYERAYACU

Josine hereby declare that our research project entitled “ASSESSMENT OF WATER
AVAILABILITY AND POTENTIAL IN GASANZE CELL” is our original work, which
has never been presented or nominated for an academic prize at any other university or
institution. We further state that all sources of information quoted or cited are listed in a
complete list of references.

NIYONSENGA Fabien Signature… Date: ….../….../…...

BAMWEBOSE NIYONGABO Patience Signature… Date: ….../….../…...

IYERAYACU Josine Signature… Date: ….../….../…...

i
 DEDICATION

We dedicate our research endeavor to The Almighty God Father, our creator and
planner of our lives, as well as our adoring parents for their unwavering support
throughout our schooling Mr Egide MUNDERERE our Supervisor

To Our siblings and sisters, as well as other family members and

acquaintances. To people we didn't have room to mention on this
page.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are keen to present our final year project, thanking God who was with us during
our studies in a period of four years from 2017 to 2021. Kindly, as well we are grateful
to the University of Rwanda College of Science and Technology especially our
Department of Civil, Environmental and Geomatics Engineering (CEGE) and Our
Supervisor Mr. Egide MUNDERERE for her supervision, encouragement, and useful
comments, we learned a lot from him.

We highly appreciate our families especially our parents; their care, love, support,
kindness, and patience made a big role in our lives. Without them, none of these
would have been realized and we would have not been who we are today.

We can't undermine the effort of all those who provided us with invaluable assistance
and advices especially classmates throughout all the important phases which we have
faced during this project, in summing up our gratitude we would like to thank people
of Gasanze cell who contributed in answering questionnaires used in collecting data
that have been ended up with accurate results that makes our final year project
hysterically memorable. Abundant grace to all of them!

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ABSTRACT

Nowadays, potable water resources are a big problem for many areas around the
world,57% of populations access safe water within 30 minutes of their home. People
spend much time fetching water drilled into the fountains located in marshland, this
distance traveled every day results in school dropout, the problem of gender-based
violence, and due to the shortage of clean water may rise waterborne diseases such as
cholera, amoeba, dysenteries.
Even if water is available in the same marshlands of our country, most are not clean
with respect to quality parameters for drinking and other domestic uses. Therefore
chemical, physical and biological characteristic of water has to be investigated before
entering the water in the supply and distribution system.
The same case in Kigali city, Gasabo District, Nduba Sector, Gasanze cell. It is a
suburban area located at an altitude of 14578m,909mm annually precipitation with
14285 peoples, has a shortage of water sources, habitants of Gasanze Cell move long
distance and spent at least1.5 hours for fetching water in fountains located in Kabungo
and Nyarubande marshland.
This research has been focused on the assessment of water demand available,
identifying adverse Impacts on social Economic, and health status on habitats of
Gasanze Cell by Interviewing people and making observations on these fountains
selected in Nyakabungo and Nyarubande villages. GIS Application has been used to
locate features to be concentrated during this research.
In Gasanze people rely on water from wells drilled in Marshland, as Lived by 14285
people each person consumes 20l/day, this results in health complications at different
extents wherever Malaria is a great concern, diarrhea and dysentery spread up as a
result of drinking untreated water.
Rainwater harvesting in Gasanze cell is at a low level, peoples lack facilities to collect
and store rainwater, at the end of this research we have seen that in case people are
still waiting another source of water supply each house should have tanks to collect
rainwater for future use in rain season.
We end up this research by encouraging people not only to rely on municipal water
but also on rainwater, Quality of drinking water should be maintained by cooking and
planting trees along the Rufigiza river to prevent soil erosion and flooding. WASAC
should increase effort in supply and distribution to end up water scarcity and attract
investors in a different project that may rise social-economic development.
Keywords: Rainwater harvesting, Municipal Water, Groundwater, Water Demand,
Water-related Diseases, Rufigiza Marshland, Gasanze Cell.

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Table of Contents
DECLARATION........................................................................................................................................
DEDICATION...........................................................................................................................................
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.......................................................................................................................iii
ABSTRACT..............................................................................................................................................iv
LIST OF TABLES..................................................................................................................................vii
LIST OF FIGURES...............................................................................................................................viii
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS....................................................................................ix
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................
1.1 Back Ground of The Project.........................................................................................................
1.1.1 Water and Sanitation Sector Strategic Plan 2017 – 2024.................................................
1.2. Problem Statement........................................................................................................................
1.3. Research Objectives.......................................................................................................................
1.3.1. Main objectives...................................................................................................................
1.3.2. Specific objectives...............................................................................................................
1.4. Project Scope and Limitation of the Research.............................................................................
1.5. Research Questions........................................................................................................................
1.6. Contribution of The Research......................................................................................................
1.6.1. Academic contribution.....................................................................................................
1.6.2. Technical contribution.....................................................................................................
1.7. Benefits of The Research...............................................................................................................
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW.................................................................................................
2.1. Water Demand Estimation............................................................................................................
2.1.1. Domestic Water Demands...............................................................................................
2.1.2. Water Consumption Rate..............................................................................................19
2.2. Water Supply and Sanitation in Developing Countries............................................................20
2.2.1. Sustainable Development Goals....................................................................................20
2.2.2. Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda.......................................................................21
2.3. Water Supply Source...................................................................................................................24
2.3.1. Sources of water supply in the study area....................................................................25
2.3.2. Conventional Water Treatment Plant..........................................................................27
2.4. Drinking Water Quality Parameters..........................................................................................29
2.5. Water Related Disease in Rwanda..............................................................................................30
2.5.1. Water Borne Diseases.....................................................................................................30
2.5.2. Water Washed Diseases..................................................................................................31

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 2.5.3. Water Based Diseases.....................................................................................................32
2.5.4. Water Related Diseases...................................................................................................32
2.6. Wash in Rwanda..........................................................................................................................33
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY...........................................................................35
3.1. Introduction.................................................................................................................................35
3.2. Description of The Study Area....................................................................................................35
3.2.1. Population of Study Area.................................................................................................37
3.2.2. WASAC Water Supply System.........................................................................................38
3.3. Research Design...........................................................................................................................38
3.4. Target Population........................................................................................................................39
3.5. Sample Size and Sampling Procedure........................................................................................39
3.6. Data Collection Methods.............................................................................................................39
3.6.1. Primary data.....................................................................................................................39
3.6.2. Methods of data analysis...................................................................................................40
3.7. Research Instruments..................................................................................................................40
3.8. Limitation of Data Collection.....................................................................................................40
CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS..............................................41
4.1. Introduction.................................................................................................................................41
4.2. Data Collection and Analysis of Results.....................................................................................41
4.3. Analysis for Results of Questionnaire........................................................................................41
4.3.1. Water Demands in Gasanze cell.......................................................................................41
4.3.2. Impact of Water resources in Gasanze cell......................................................................43
4.3.3. Levels of Water Scarcity in Rwanda................................................................................47
4.3.3.1. Level of Water scarcity in Gasanze cell............................................................48
4.3.4. Design of Water Tank for Rainwater Harvesting...........................................................49
4.4. Results of Field Observation.......................................................................................................50
4.5. Current Water Supply-Demand Balance...................................................................................51
4.5.3. Access to infrastructure.....................................................................................................52
4.6. Discussion of The Results............................................................................................................54
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS...........................................................55
5.1. Conclusion....................................................................................................................................55
5.2. Recommendation.........................................................................................................................55
REFERENCES........................................................................................................................................56
APPENDINCES........................................................................................................................................59

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 LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1:Illustration major water sources in Kigali city..............................................................11
Table 1.2:Targets and Indicators given for stormwater management in urban Rwanda...............13
Table 1.6:Runoff coefficient based on land use.............................................................................17
Table 1.7:Runoff coefficients based on a rooftop system..............................................................17
Table 1.3:Illustrating the water consumption rate.........................................................................19
Table 1.4:Example of water borne diseases of major concern in Rwanda....................................30
Table 1.5:Example of water borne diseases in Rwanda................................................................31
Table 1.8:Description of Respondents...........................................................................................41
Table 1.9: Daily water use in Gasanze Cell...................................................................................42
Table 2.0:Status of Drinking water In Gasanze Cell.....................................................................44
Table 2.1:results showing Status of water related diseases...........................................................46
Table 2.2: Social Impact due to insufficient of water resources in Gasanze cell..........................46
Table 2.3:level of water scarcity in Gasanze cells by considering all sources available...............48

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1:Illustrating the children fetching untreated ground water..............................................5
Figure 1.2:Illustrating the people fetching untreated ground water.................................................5
Figure 1.3:Illustrating the people washing in surface water of Rufigiza River...............................6
Figure 1.4:Rwanda Population growth from 2010 to 2020...........................................................10
Figure 1.5:Illustration of Guinea worms that cause Dracunculiasis..............................................32
Figure1.6:Illustrating the Study Area of the research....................................................................36
Figure 1.7:Illustrating the fountain site of our research.................................................................37
Figure 1.8:level of water scarcity in Gasanze cell.........................................................................44
Figure 1.9:Illustration status of drinking water in Gasanze...........................................................45
Figure 1.10:Illustration of status of water related diseases............................................................46
Figure 1.11:Illustration the percentage of social impact due to insufficient of water resources in
Gasanze cell
.......................................................................................................................................................
47
Figure 2.2:Illustration Runoff river with high turdity....................................................................50
Figure 2.1:Illustration of washed wheel in Rufigiza surface water...............................................50
Figure 2.4:This picture shows Nyakariba ground water source....................................................50
Figure 2.3: Illustration of Agasoko ground water source..............................................................50
Figure 2.5:Illustration large number of people accessing Nyarubande ground water source........51
Figure 2.6: World population with and without access to improved sanitation 1990, 2004 and
2005

Figure 2.7: Coverage with improved drinking water sources by region in 2004

viii
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

WHO: World Health

Organization WQO: Water
Quality Office AQC: Analytical
Quality Control CoK: City of
Kigali
NISR: National Institute of Statistics Rwanda
SDGs: Sustainable Development Goals
RWFA: Rwanda Water and Forestry
Authority
MINIRENA: Ministry of National Resources of Rwanda
RNRA: Rwanda Natural Resources Authority
UNICEF: United Nations Children's Fund
HIV: Human Immunodeficiency Virus
CSIRO: Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization
MDG: Millennium Development Goal
WASAC: water and sanitation
corporation RWB: Rwanda water board
LPCD: Liters Per capital per day
EDPRSII: The Second Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy
USGS: United States Geological Survey
JMP: Joint manpower program
WSS: Water supply and sanitation
MININFRA: Ministry of infrastucture
HIG: High Income Group
LIG: Low Income Group
BOM: Bureau of Meteorology

ix
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Back Ground of The Project

Unsafe drinking water is one of the world greatest problem on health and environment
especial for poorest in the world. Researchers shows that 1.1 billion peoples in the
world lack access to improved water supplies and also 2.6 billion peoples lack
adequate sanitation (UNICEF et la, 2004). This became global burden on people
where some infectious diseases including cholera, diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid is
measure concern on death of many people especial for young children, by refer to the
global burden of diseases 1.2 million died in 2017 due to unsafe drinking water
sources (Roser, 2017).

Sustainable Development Goals had target to achieve universal and equitable access to
safe and affordable drinking water for all by 2030, In 2020 researchers shows that
almost three quarter (75%) of peoples around the world had access to a safely
managed water source. That mean one- in four people does not have access to safe
drinking water (Roser, 2017).

Even if these policies had been in progress report shows that in 2015 seventy percent
of world population had access to safe drinking water, also report shows that in 2020
seventy five percent reaches access to safe and drinking water this means that rate of
progressing is still quite slow, whenever there is no other effort by 2030 only 82 %
will achieve sustainable development goals instead of being 100% (Roser, 2017).

Although, access to safe drinking water in Africa is still problem where in sab-Saharan
30% of peoples only use safe drinking water, policies have been established to supply
safe and drinking water in all regions especially those in rural areas. Here in Rwanda,
we have Rwanda Water Board (RWB), Water and Sanitation corporation (WASAC)
those boards have in charge to distribute safe water in rural and urban areas with the
1
aim of achieving millennium sustainable development Goals as discussed above.

2
In Rwanda during 30 minutes of domestic uses fifty seven percent (57%) of
population access safe drinking water (Mcmichael, 2019), children spend much time
for fetching water and this results into social problems such as school dropout, gender-
based violence.

Even if water is available in all region of country, that water is not safe for drinking,
when people drink contaminated water may result into infectious diseases and even
death may occur from that issues. In Kigali also there exist region that has not access
to water supply like Gasanze cell, Nduba Sector in Gasabo district where people move
kilometers to fetch water located in fountains of Rufigiza marshland.

After looking that many household in Gasanze cell lack access to potable water for
using in daily activities also after knowing that to get 20 litter of water from the source
require 400frws, In addition water has not monitored to see whether comply with
water quality parameters as specified by world health organization, We decide to
conduct this research that will recommend government to supply safe water in this
region and handle these problems that may result for drinking contaminated water.

Water resources are a Global challenge; Peoples always like to have only access to the
municipal water supply. similarly, Rwanda is one among others that has the greatest
population density with 483people/square kilometers, Kigali, as the capital city has
76% of the population, lived in urban areas.
Rwanda has a high potential for Rainwater Harvesting (RWH) with an annual average
rainfall of 1200 mm with monthly consistency throughout the year (ranging 800mm in
Eastern Province to about 2000mm in high altitude). Even if we have enough rainfall
country has a low annual per capita water demand of (670m3/capita/year) therefore
insufficient rainwater harvesting prone to soil erosions and flash floods during the rain
period.

Rwanda has two main rainy seasons, a short rainy season (mid-September to mid-
December) locally known as ‘Umuhindo’ which is characterized by high precipitation

3
in November, and a long rainy season (March to May) locally known as ‘Itumba’,
which is characterized by higher precipitation in April compared to that in November.

Rainwater is harvested by collecting rain from rooftops of schools, industries, hotels,

Markets, residential buildings, neighborhoods. Other waters are drained from ditches
centralized into groundwater tanks and being used for irrigation and washing
activities, this has contributed to the urban environment, reducing the danger to the
flood, increasing opportunities for recreation and leisure activities with minimum
possible damage to infrastructures. Not only rainwater being collected and harvested
but also helps in recharging of aquifers and help in rising of ground water sources.

The objective of this research is to identify Available water sources, water demand
required to satisfy Gasanze Cell, establish Adverse Impact for available Sources and
propose meaningful result to improve Access to water Sources.

1.1.1 Water and Sanitation Sector Strategic Plan 2017 – 2024

Improving the access, quality, availability, and sustainability of water supply services
in RWANDA is the top priority in the sector; Rwanda has committed to reaching
SDGs targets by 2030 through various programs such as the NST1 and 7 Years
Government Program with the goal of achieving universal access to basic water and
sanitation. A suitable institutional system must be in place in order to attain this goal.
(MININFRA, 2019) Through construction, extension and rehabilitation of water
supply and sanitation facilities.

Rwanda is implementing the Rwanda sustainable water supply and sanitation

initiative, which is supported by the African Development Bank (AFDB), to enhance
water and sanitation services in Kigali and six secondary cities, as well as adjacent
peri-urban areas, through WASAC.
As the water and sanitation sector coordinates to ensure that MDG indicators and
targets are met throughout NST1, SDG indicators and targets are being domesticated
in accordance with the country's capacity, with all Rwandans using "basic" water and
sanitation services by 2024 and "safely" managed water and sanitation services by
4
2030.

5
1.2. Problem Statement

In Rwanda, universal access to safe water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services
is a top priority. Human rights include access to clean water and sanitation. Improved
nutrition, good health, gender equality, economic growth, and environmental
management are all linked to WASH.

Only 57 percent of Rwanda's population has access to safe drinking water within 30
minutes of their house (UNICEF et la ,2019). When youngsters spend time collecting
water, they are frequently absent from school. This is particularly problematic for
girls, who are sometimes expected to perform the majority of household duties. Even
if water is readily available near the residence, it is frequently unsafe to drink. Water-
borne infections can cause serious sickness – and even death – in children who
consume contaminated water.

In Rwanda, the picture on improving household access to basic infrastructure and

services is variable. Only 47.3 percent of the population has access to improved water
within 500 meters of their home, and 49 percent of households travel 30 minutes or
rounder trip to get to a water source. The situation is most serious in Kigali, where
present production of around 90,000 m3/day only meets roughly three-quarters of
demand of about 120,000 m3/day. (Tsinda & Abbott, 2018).

Currently consumption of clean water in Kigali Gasanze becomes problem of getting

sufficient demand where peoples move long distance for fetching water under the
mountain especially in wetlands and marshlands.
They move long distances from village to the marshland to fetch water from fountain
generated manually by habitants, the lack of water in Gasanze sector causes different
problems to social and health status of habitants, in Gasanze cell peoples uses
fountain called Kabungo, Agasoko, Nyakariba located in Nyakabungo and
Nyarubande village, because there is no other supply in this cell people lack water at
great extent and this result into sanitary complication where diseases increase, school
dropout rise up, and gender equality being biased at great extent, Even if they use
these fountains, everyone can complain its safety and clearness, sources are not
monitored so as to meet quality standard of potable water, also these sources are
located in Nyabugogo catchment which are mostly polluted by anthropomorphic(A et
al., 2010).
To handle those problems, we propose measures to overcome such problems by
making investigation for available water sources, by interviewing people from each
available source and thereafter we have determined discharge to be supplied in
Gasanze Cell.

Figure 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3 below presents water sources in Gasanze Cell, fountain and
6
Rufigiza river shows algae growth around their surfaces. Also presents mass of children
concentrated around the fountain in the morning.

7
Figure 1.1:Illustrating the children fetching untreated ground water

Figure 1.2:Illustrating the people fetching untreated ground water

8
Figure 1.3:Illustrating the people washing in surface water of Rufigiza River

1.3. Research Objectives

1.3.1. Main objectives

The main objective of this research is to make assessment of water availability and
potential in GASANZE Cell that will be able to meet the required water demands and
that can be used for human purposes without significant harm to ecosystems or other
users.

1.3.2. Specific objectives

1. To determine Domestic water demand in study in Gasanze cell

2. To identify sources of water supply in Gasanze cell

3. Assessing the Impact of Existing Sources of Water Supply to The

Community and Environment.

9
1.4. Project Scope and Limitation of the Research

Water is very important to the human body, it travels throughout the body and
distributes nutrients, oxygen, and wastes into cells and organs. water regulates the
temperature of the body and protects joints, organs, and tissues from damage.it is also
helpful in the sanitation system by cleansing activities such as flushing in toilets,
bathing and washing of materials with additional to great contribution in Agricultural
industry.
Our project is located in Kigali city, Gasabo district, Nduba sector Gasanze cell,
Gasanze cell lived by 14285 people with an altitude of 1479 meters and annual
precipitation of 1200mm.
This research is limited to all water sources ground, surface, and rainwater found in
the Gasanze cell, Sources are exploited, by concentrating surface and groundwater
sources found in Nyarubande and Nyakariba village both located in marshland.
The Domestic demand for water required to satisfy people is determined, therefore
Impact on the Environment is identified by visiting sites and observing different
scenarios with interviewing both young and adult people and end up with possible
solutions to overcome such problems.
1.5. Research Questions
In order to be specific on the problem statement certain questions should be asked:
 What effect do water sources have on health status in Gasanze cell?
 How far did you fetch clean water?
 What are policies and strategies shall be used to satisfies water demands in Gasanze
cell.

The hypothesis of this research project will be technically used to solve shortage of
clean water resources in Gasanze cell by including all habitats in order to minimize
water related Diseases and improving social-economic development.

10
1.6. Contribution of The Research
1.6.1. Academic contribution

This research will beared locally to help other researchers who will do the research in
different areas, which have the same issue as current in GASAZANZE Cell. It will
lead other scholar in their courses and memoirs. Also, it will help lecturers to prepare
their courses, which will be taught.

1.6.2. Technical contribution

Results from this research will recommend Water and Sanitation Corporation
(WASAC) to identify Quantity of water needed in satisfying peoples of Gasanze cell.

This research project should recommend stakeholders to invest in social-

economic activities. It will improve awareness of people on water related

Diseases in Gasanze cell.

Outcome of the research will help in agricultural harvesting control by

recommending people to implements rain water harvesting system.

1.7. Benefits of The Research

The outcome of this project will recommend all department in charge to take care on
assessment of water quality available especially in fountain located near the people
so, to achieve good health to the residents. Researcher ensure that the implementation
of this project will help other area with problem like that in Gasanze to reduce the
problem of water related diseases and children dropping out in order to comply with
sustainable development goals.

11
 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Water Demand Estimation

Water Demand refers to the quantity of water required for different purposes such as
domestic, industrial, livestock, commercial, firefighting, municipal, public, etc.
(Parker & Wilby, 2013).
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Per capita
𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 Water Demand=
𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦∗365 (LPCD)
Water Demand= 𝑙𝐶𝑃 ∗ 𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

2.1.1. Domestic Water Demands

Domestic water demands refer to the quantity of water required for domestic
purposes such as cooking, Drinking, Washing, bathing and so on(Butler & Memon,
2015).
In order to estimate volume of water required for domestic usage several determinants
should be considered:
 Number and size of households  Cost and availability of
 Family income and water using devices
income distribution  Availability of
 Costs of water presently used alternative water sources
 Cost of future water used  Present water consumption
 Connection charges  Legal requirements
 Availability and quality of service  Population density
 Cultural influences

Domestic water demands for urban area with full pumped system is estimated to be
113litres per capital per day, and 65 liters per capital per day in semi-urban area with
partial full pumped system and 45litres per capital per day in rural areas(Rural &
Water, 2012). In the rural context, the assessment of effective demand will have to be
carried out in close consultation with the local population, and attention needs to be
given to issues such as community participation and hygiene education.
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2.1.1.1. Population Growth in Rwanda

According to the Fourth Rwanda Population and Housing Census (RPHC4),

Rwanda has a population of 10,515,973 people, with 52 percent of women and 48
percent of men. The population has grown by 2.4 million since the 2002 Census, with
an annual growth rate of 2.6 percent. Thus, after a fall in the 1990s highlighted by
conflict and genocide against the Tutsi, population growth has restored to its long-term
trend. Annual growth during the previous era (i.e. 1991–2002) was only 1.2 percent.
(NISR, 2012)

Rwanda's population is still predominantly rural, with 83 percent of the people residing
in rural areas. There are some notable distinctions between the provinces. With
2,595,703 residents, the Eastern Province is the most populous, followed by the
Southern Province with 2,589,975 residents. The Northern Province has 1,726,370
inhabitants, while the Western Province has 2,471,239, with Kigali City having the
smallest population of 1,132,686. Gasabo district is the most densely populated, with
over 500,000 residents, while Nyarugenge district is the least densely populated, with
less than 300,000.
Figure 1.4 show rate of population grown within 10 years from 2010 to 2020 where
average grown per year is 2.55%.

13
 Figure 1.4: Rwanda Population growth from 2010 to 2020

2.1.1.2. Overview of Water Supply Systems in City of Kigali

The major water supply source for CoK is from rivers and lakes constituting the four
water treatment systems (WTPs) namely Nzove, Karenge and Kimisagara.

Table 1.1:Illustration major water sources in Kigali city

Water source Raw water source Production(m3/d) Pipe length(km)

Nzove and Nzove II Nyabarongo river 41,265 105.4
WTP
Karenge WTP Lake Mugesera 12,826 69.5
Kimisagara WTP Yanze river 22,347 23.7
Others (Spring 5; 5,317
Well 2

Total 81,755
Compiled by CSE, 2019
In addition to this, there are seven well maintained small-scale water sources using
spring water, lake Mugesera and the Yanze river, as well as groundwater see in table
above. Some are delivered to city piping networks, while others are delivered to private
water distribution companies. In CoK, three water treatment plants are currently
operational (Nzove, Karenge, and Kimisagara).
The Nzove II water treatment plant was finished in March 2016, increasing CoK's
water production capacity from 63,600 to 82,000 m3/d. Additionally, the Kigali Bulk
Water Project, Nzove II Project, and New Nzove I Project are all underway in CoK to
expand water treatment capacity.
As a result, the city will be able to produce 167,000 m3/d of water by 2020.

2.1.1.3. National Water Supply Policies

Water supply and sanitation is done with the purpose of providing services to ensure
that water is safe, reliable and affordable for all users in way that should promote
health and wealth. Policies are established to strengthen accessibility of people on
clean water and promoting sanitation program around the country.

14
Agenda was designed in way that 100% in 2024 from 87.4% in 2020 will have access
to improved source of drinking water,100% in 2024 from 86.2 by 2020 will have
access on improved toilets and 57.71% in 2024 from 41.89 by 2020 will be water
production capacity.
Water resource is managed guided by existing water and sanitation policy developed in
2004 .in 2008, the law number 62/2008 on the use, conservation, protection and
management of water resource was adopted. Water law work for reaching sustainable
water resource management in the future date.
The key objectives of policies are targeted:
1. To provide an institutional framework for the coordination of water resources
management, a key ingredient of integrated water resource management.
2. Develops functions of districts and water users in water resource management
as required by stake holders.
3. To establish charges for the use of water in order to manage water resources
and considering an economic value.
4. Improving availability, reliability and quality of fresh water resources to meet
critical municipal, agricultural, energy and environmental needs.
5. Increasing system efficiency to develop urban water by reducing non-revenue
water through inadequate investment, hence to promote drinking water quality
and waste water disposal systems.
6. Reduce wastage of water sources by harvesting all sources and promoting
awareness through media platforms and establishing lesson on water resources
in basic education system.
7. Enhancing sewage treatment and reuse in domestic activities to combat with
shortage and water related diseases.
8. Teaching peoples to adopt rain water harvested
9. Improving management catchments by conserving soil and improving land
cover in catchment area in order to increase evapotranspiration.
10. Flood management to mitigate and minimize their damage on infrastructure as
well as on water resources.

15
Also, in 2010 government introduced institution responsible for managing water
resource, these are Rwanda Natural Resource Authority (RNRA) for provision of water
supply services and infrastructures through low 53/2010 RNRA has obligation of
managing land, water, forest, mines and geology. The sector wide approach was
established to follow integrated and participatory monitoring and evaluation of EDPRS
core programs(MININFRA, 2010; MinoE, 2018).

Gasabo district had planned to supply 1,319 household in Nduba sector, this project
was required to cover 17.5Km in Batsinda-Nyakagezi and Gasura sites, level of access
to clean water will be 66 percent this project was planned to be achieved by
WASAC(Development, 2023).

2.1.1.4. Storm water Management in Rwanda

The majority of Rwanda's storm water management system consists of drainage canals
that divert rainwater from urban areas to streams and rivers.
In Rwanda, however, there exist stormwater management legislation, regulations, and
ordinances. Water drainage system operations are discussed under Article 28 of
Rwanda's road laws. Apart from that, one of the policy vision's objectives in the newest
'Sanitation Policy and Sanitation Implementation Strategies' is storm water
management.' The paper lays out the sector's strategy for achieving Vision 2020 and
EDPRS goals, breaking them down into specific principles, targets, and statements.
(Matto & Jainer, 2019)

Table 1.2:Targets and Indicators given for stormwater management in urban Rwanda
Storm water Baseline Target
management 2015 16/2017 17/2018 18/2019 19/2020 29/2030
Percent of urban N/A 20 40 60 80 100
population in areas
covered by master
plans with storm
water
considerations

16
Storm water will be considered as a resource,' according to the policy. Traditional
techniques to storm water management, which typically prioritized costly network
installations, had a number of advantages, including financial ones. 'Water sensitive
urban design' or 'Low Impact Development' are urban planning and design concepts
that incorporate entire water cycle management into urban development.
2.1.1.5. Rainwater Harvesting Techniques

Recharge structures Storage tanks

Recharge pits polyethylene
Recharge pits with bore Polyproplyne and similar synthetic material
(PVC Tank)
Recharge well Brick masonry
Recharge trenches Reinforced concrete cement (RCC Tank)
Recharging through abandoned Ferro cement
bore wells or
tube wells
Recharging: using bore wells and Galvanized iron (GI tanks)
drug well
Source: CSE, 2016

Typical cross section of recharge structure Typical storage structure

Source: Kavarana, G. Sengupta, S. (2013). Catch water where it falls. New Delhi: CSE.

17
2.1.1.5. Components of Rain Water Harvesting systems

1. Catchments

The catchment region is the area that immediately receives rainfall and supplies water
to the system. It can be a paved area, such as a building's terrace or courtyard, or an
unpaved area, such as a lawn or open ground.

2. Coarse mesh

It stops debris from passing through the roof's openings.

3. Gutters

Rainwater is collected and transported to a storage tank by channels that surround the
edge of a sloping roof.

4. Conducts
Conduits are pipes or drains that transport rainwater from a catchment area or a roof to
a harvesting system. Conduits are commonly made of materials such as polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) or galvanized iron (GI).

5. First flushing

A first flush mechanism is a valve that ensures that the first spell of rain is flushed out
of the storage tank, which brings a higher number of contaminants from the air and
catchment surface.

6. Filters

The filter is used to filter suspended contaminants out of rainwater collected from the
roof. Charcoal water filters, sand filters, horizontal roughing filters, and slow sand
filters are some of the most commonly used commercial filters.

7. Storage facilities

There are several alternatives available for the building of these tanks in terms of
shape, size, construction material, and tank placement, including: -Cylindrical, square,
and rectangular shapes are available.

18
8. Recharge structures

Rainwater collected can also be utilized to recharge groundwater aquifers using

appropriate structures such as dug wells, bore wells, recharge trenches, and recharge
pits. There are a variety of recharging structures that can be used.

2.1.1.6. Runoff Coefficients of Catchment Surfaces

The runoff coefficient (C) is a dimensionless coefficient relating the amount of runoff
to the amount of precipitation received. It is a larger value for areas with low
infiltration and high runoff (pavement, steep gradient), and lower for permeable, well
vegetated areas (forest, flat land)
Tables below shows runoff coeficients of different roof surfaces including slopes
and flat roofs,with referring also to land use and soil texture

Table 1.3. Runoff coefficients based on soil texture

Source: R Berndtsson,2004

19
Runoff coefficient based on land use

Source: prof Alazba,2015

Table 1.5:Runoff coefficients based on a rooftop system

20
2.1.1.7. Benefits of Rainwater Harvesting

Rainwater harvesting is a system of collecting water, store in tanks for future use, or
draining water for the purpose of groundwater recharge. Some benefits of rainwater
harvesting.
1. Reduce Flooding and Erosion
Rainwater harvesting can help to minimize erosion around the downspout and
reduce flooding in hardens, rainwater harvesting controls stormwater runoff and
prevents corrosion of land surface during the rain period.
2. Reduce Water Bills
Most of the time people use municipal water for domestic purposes, due to high
Demand these rising water bills, use of rainwater sources reduce leakage in demand
and save money spent on production and distribution of municipal water to the
individual communities.
3. Reduce Demand on Ground
Groundwater sources are harvested to a great extent around the world. Digging
deeper wells is not only expensive but also disturb soil strata and result in damage
to the whole environment.it is very advisable to use rainwater during periods of
drought, and where groundwater supplies have been depleted.
4. Can Be Used for Non-Drinking Purposes
Non-drinking water is predominance around the world. Flushing in toilets, washing
dishes and clothes, bathing both require a large amount of water. Rainwater can be
used for all of these things. Rainwater is soft and can lessen the need for detergents
when washing clothes and dishes. Rainwater can also be used for washing vehicles,
bathing pets, and nearly all cleaning that uses water.
5. Can Improve Plant Growth
Rainwater harvesting can also be used to improve plants and gardens. Using
harvested water can flush the salt buildup from plants and soil. Harvested rainwater
is generally free from several types of pollutants and man-made contaminants. Rain
is also free from chlorination. Using clean and healthy rainwater for plants and
trees can save money on overall property maintenance and landscaping needs.

21
 Negative Impact of Rainwater Harvesting
1. Unpredictable rainfall: rainfall should occur due to relief of region, like climate
change, people would experience little or no rainfall. therefore, people should
not rely maximumly on rainfall.

2. Initial high cost: construction of house, drainage system and storage reservoir
cost much none.
3. Regular Maintenance: to keep rainwater harvested in favorable condition,
regular inspections and maintenance are required to minimize dirt, sediments,
and alga growths which may impose adverse impacts on human health.
4. Storage Limit: capacity of the reservoir, tanks to store water during heavy
rainfall are limited by the available fund, wherever excess rainfall is an
available deficit of water should not be collected for domestic purposes.
5. Certain Roof Types May Seep Chemicals or Other Substances: rooftop should
leach chemicals, insects, and dirt into harvested rainwater and these substances
may harm plants and humans.
2.1.2. Water Consumption Rate
It is very challenges to know assess on quantity of demands required by public in
different activities, water for domestic, livestock industries are consumed in different
rates as summarized here below(A et al., 2010).
Table 1.5:Illustrating the water consumption rate
No Types of consumption Normal Average Percentage
(%)
range(lit/capital/day)
1 Domestic consumption 65-300 160 35
2 Industrial & Commercial 45-450 135 30
Demand
3 Public uses including fire 20-90 45 10
Demand
4 Losses and waste 45-150 62 25

22
Fluctuation in water demands
Water demands rise and fall during certain periods such as seasonal, daily and hourly
variations.
Seasonal variations: Demand may rise up due to fire outbreak, summer times, etc.
Daily variations: demand peaks during rush hours, weekend and on festivals and this
result into use of huge amount of water during this period.
Hourly variations: are very important as they have a wide range. During active
household working hours i.e. from 6:00-10:00 in the morning and 16:00-20:00 in the
evening, the bulk of the daily requirement is taken. During other hours the requirement
is negligible. Moreover, if a fire breaks out, a huge quantity of water is required to be
supplied during short duration, necessitating the need for a maximum rate of hourly
supply.

2.2. Water Supply and Sanitation in Developing Countries

The globe is still on schedule to meet the Millennium Development Goals for drinking
water, but the trend appears to be deteriorating. On present trends, the global sanitation
objective will be missed by more than half a billion people. Every year, unclean water
combined with a lack of basic sanitation kills at least 1.6 million children under the age
of five - more than eight times the number of people killed in the 2004 Asian tsunami
(WHO, 2006).
1.1 billion people did not have access to improved drinking water at the start of the
Water for Life decade. - Rural areas account for 84 percent of the population without
access to improved drinking water. - More than 40% of the world's population, 2.6
billion people, do not use a toilet and defecate in the open or in unclean places (WHO,
2006).

In 2004, more than two billion rural people, or more than three out of every five,
lacked access to a basic sanitation facility. If current trends continue, approximately 1.7
billion people living in rural areas will still lack access to proper sanitation by 2015. -
In 2004, the coverage of urban sanitation was more than double that of rural sanitation.

23
- Despite the fact that 73 percent of rural residents have access to a better source of
drinking water, only 30 percent have piped water in their homes (UNICEF, 2006).
According to JMP, achieving the MDG sanitation aim will need about a doubling of
previous efforts over the next 15 years, while achieving the MDG drinking water target
will require a one- third increase in efforts. While 1.2 billion people got access to better
drinking water sources and sanitation from 1990 to 2004, another 1.6 billion people
will need to obtain access from 2005 to 2015 to satisfy the MDG sanitation target, and
1.1 billion will need to meet the MDG drinking water target (Figures 2).
Nearly 80% of the world's unserved people live in three areas: Sub-Saharan Africa,
Eastern Asia, and Southern Asia. Except in Sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania, where
coverage is 56 percent and 50 percent, respectively, coverage is above 78 percent in all
regions (Figure 5). Latin America and the Caribbean are two of the most populous
regions in the world (UNICEF, WHO, 2006).

2.2.1. Sustainable Development Goals

Sustainable development goals are 17 Goals and 169 Targets designed by United
Nation General Assembly in 2015 by 193 nations to be achieved in 2030 for better
standard of living ill all nations(PR Team, 2019).
These goals are:
1. End of poverty
2. Zero hunger
3. Good health and wellbeing
4. Quality education
5. Gender equality
6. Clean water and sanitation
7. Affordable and clean Energy
8. Decent work and Economic Growth
9. Industry, Innovation and infrastructure
10. Reduced Inequalities
11. Sustainable Cities and Communities
12. Responsible consumption and production

24
 13. Climate Action
14. Life below water
15. Life on Land
16. Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
17. Partnerships for the Goals

18. Good health and wellbeing

19. Quality education
20. Gender equality
21. Clean water and sanitation
22. Affordable and clean Energy
23. Decent work and Economic Growth
24. Industry, Innovation and infrastructure
25. Reduced Inequalities
26. Sustainable Cities and Communities
27. Responsible consumption and production
28. Climate Action
29. Life below water
30. Life on Land
31. Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
32. Partnerships for the Goals

Countries around the world sat to gather and observe that most of the peoples are
suffering from famine, Drought, Poverty war and Plague. They agreed if there is
something happen food should be enough to feed the world, Medicine are available but
cost too much, Floods are not controlled well in case more deaths are still existing.
They also so that different countries have billionaires that can share with poor through
empathetic hearts to support different projects that should sustain life on this planet. In
that way United Nation Development Program get Initiatives to fulfill SDGs with
target to be achieved by 2030(UN RWANDA, n.d.).

For Access to clean water, most of times Diseases due to poor sanitation and Drinking

25
Contaminated water was rising. Through this assembly both nations agreed to have
access to safe and affordable Drinking water by 2030.
They sow that if there is no action shortage of water will affect 40 percent of people
around the world, and this will extremely increase due to climate change.by that day
countries agreed to have cooperation in protecting wetlands, rivers, Improving and
sharing technologies that will help reach this target(Guterres, 2020).

2.2.2. Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda

Rwanda has committed itself to reach very ambitious targets in water supply and
sanitation, with the vision to attain 100% service coverage by 2020 from 77 percent by
2015(UNPD, 2015). The importance of adequate water supply and sanitation services
drivers for poverty reduction as well as wellbeing to all citizens.
Water supply refers to the abstraction from a water resource, conveyance, treatment,
storage, and distribution of potable water, including all the organizational and
sensitization arrangements necessary to ensure sustainable services and benefits. This
includes domestic water supply (drinking water and other household uses) as well as
the provision of water for economic activities through public piped networks(Hayden,
2009).

Sanitation in Rwanda refers to the habits of people for washing hands before and after
preparation of foods, disposing of solid and liquid water in an adequate way also
peoples are educated to have eco-toilets and flushing toilets, through this habits
policies was established to protect human health by eradicating diseases and protecting
the environment(MININFRA, 2012).

Water supply and sanitation (WSS) affect broad areas of human life. The provision of
adequate WSS services plays a crucial role in preventive health care and is more
generally a prerequisite and indicator for socio-economic development. Access to
drinking water is also a basic amenity, ranked among the highest priority public
services by Rwanda’s population. It reduces time spent on fetching water and has a
positive impact on school attendance, particularly girls. Women’s life is strongly

26
affected by unsafe, distant water supply and poor sanitation as women are generally
responsible for water collection and handling, for household hygiene and caring of the
sick(Hutton et al., 2007).

On the other hand, the health impact of improved water supply alone is known to be
limited without adequate attention for sanitation and hygiene awareness. Safe
management of liquid and solid waste as well as storm water is an issue of both
environmental health and the protection of water resources.in water supply32% of
Rwandans use piped water, but only 3.4 % have access to it within their house or plot
(urban: 17%, rural: 0.9%)7. On average, households – women and children – spend 29
minutes per day on fetching water in rural areas (9 minutes in urban areas)(Nkurunziza
et al., 2013).

Water demand in Rwanda is proportional to tariffs according to categories of water, for

public tap meter cube cost 323rwf, residential water uses between 0-5m3 cost 340rwf,6-
20 m3 720 rwf,21-50 m3cost 845Rwf,above 50 m3 cost 895Rwf and water use by
Industries cost 736Rwf per meter cube(WASAC, 2022).
2.2.2.1. Rural sanitation and hygiene

Rwanda is Africa's most densely populated country (415 people per square kilometer),
with 80 percent of the population living in rural areas (Rwanda National Institute of
Statistics, 2014).

Rwanda has achieved outstanding progress in enhancing its health-care system and
reducing unnecessary fatalities. Maternal mortality has fallen by 60%, mortality in
children under the age of five has decreased by 63 percent, and deaths from HIV,
tuberculosis, and malaria have decreased by 80% since the 2000s (World Health
Organization et all, , 2012).

Health centers provide primary care in rural areas. In Rwanda, there are 465 health
clinics, each with a catchment population of around 20,000 people (Rwanda National

27
Institute of Statistics, 2014). Basic emergency treatment, antenatal care, normal
delivery, post-partum care, family planning, pediatric care and nutrition, and routine
clinics are among the services provided by these hospitals on a daily basis (BUCAGU
M et all, , 2000-2010).

According to national evaluations conducted by Rwanda's Ministry of Infrastructure in

2009, 37% of health centers in Rwanda had piped water and 29% had piped water
within the institution (NISR, 2012). Rwanda has a national strategic strategy for
managing healthcare waste and has shown that HCFS in Rwanda have greater access to
infection control products than other African countries (Hsia RY et all, 2012).

Selection of a location Researchers from the Rwanda Ministry of Health, Emory

University's Center for Global Safe Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, and the Access
Project Rwanda collaborated to choose the HCFs for this assessment.

Sites were chosen based on their ability to take part in a two-year feasibility study of
sophisticated onsite WTS provided to 10 HCFs. HCF location within two
predetermined districts in Rwanda where the partner organizations operated, access to
an improved on-site water source, a reliable source of power, and the HCF director's
willingness to accept the donated WTS and participate in the research study were the
minimum eligibility criteria.
2.2.2.2. Urban Sanitation and hygiene

The world is dangerously off pace to provide sanitation to everyone by 2030. Despite
advancements, 4.2 billion people utilize sanitation systems that leave human waste
untreated, endangering human and environmental health. An estimated 673 million
individuals do not have access to toilets and defecate in the open, while over 698
million school-aged children do not have access to basic sanitation facilities at their
schools. Poor sanitation has disastrous effects for public health as well as social and
economic growth (UNICEF, 2020).

Sanitation is a basic human need. Everyone has the right to sanitation services that are

28
private, dignified, and safe, as well as easily available and inexpensive. Sanitation is a
public good that benefits society in terms of increased health, economic development,
and social development.

Lack of safe sanitation causes illnesses and diseases that disproportionately affect
children, such as diarrhea, worm infections, and stunting, but poor sanitation affects
everyone, and a polluted environment affects the entire community, regardless of
whether or not an individual household has a sanitation facility (UNICEF, WHO,
2020).
2.3. Water Supply Source

Water is necessary for survival, yet for many people, the amount of water accessible is
insufficient, and the water is of low quality. This Technical Brief covers some of the
problems that must be considered when planning supply enhancements to ensure that
the best water sources are chosen. There are four common source water: Rain water,
surface water, ground water and water obtained from reclamation, (B.C. PUNMIA,
1995).
Rainwater is collected from (a) roofs of houses and dwellings; the water is stored
in a small underground water tank or citizen's water supply.
(b) prepared catchment: suitable lining materials are used to make the catchment
surface impervious, and a suitable slope is provided so that water can be stored in
reservoirs of moderate size. This water is used for communal purposes, mostly
drinking. (Jain, 1998).

Surface water is the water that runs off from a catchment area during rainfall or
precipitation. This runoff ends up in a stream or in a lake that hasn't been drained.
Runoff water flowing into a stream can be channeled into a water delivery channel or
held in a reservoir by building a dam over it. As a result, depending on the collection
technique, we can obtain surface from the following sources.

1. Continuous draft from rivers: water can be gathered directly from the river without

29
the need for any diversion construction.
2. From a river diversion: a diversion structure is built across a perennial river, and
the water is diverted into a canal that leads to the water purification plant.
3. Water storage in the reservoir all year: if water supply is not guaranteed all year, a
dam may be built across the river and water stored in the reservoir.
4. Water taken directly from natural lakes.

Water obtained for reclamation

Water retrieved through reclamation

(a) Desalination: By establishing a desalination plant, saline water can be converted
to drinkable water.
(b) Reuse of treated waste water: effluent or waste water can be properly treated and reused.
2.3.1. Sources of water supply in the study area

Rwanda has a variety of water sources, including heavy rain, surface water, and ground
water. Rwanda is home to two main river basins, the Nile and Congo, as well as
numerous lakes and marshes (UNICEF, 2020).

Surface water

The Nile in the east and center, and the Congo in the west, divide Rwanda into two
major river basins. Nine 'Level 1' surface water catchments have been designated for
management purposes in Rwanda's Nile and Congo basins. (see the Rwanda Water
Resources Master Plan (MINIRENA/RNRA 2015)).
Surface water monitoring is generally well-established for major catchments, but less
so for smaller catchments (MINIRENA/RNRA 2015). As part of the Water
Management Information System, monitoring data is collected and maintained. The
Rwanda Water Portal has data from 73 surface water monitoring stations (as of 2021),
including real-time data for some river level gauges.

30
The Akagera River and its tributary, the Nyabarongo, are two of the primary rivers in
the upper Nile basin, both split into upper and lower reaches for Level 1 watershed
management purposes. The primary surface water in Gasanze cell was Rufigiza sub
catchment which is the tributary of Nyabugogo stream as inlet of Nyabarongo River.

Ground water

Rwanda's water resources are managed by the Ministry of the Environment and the
Rwanda Water and Forestry Authority (RWFA).
The Rwanda Water Resources Master Plan (2015) includes extensive proposals for
integrated water resource management, such as the establishment and operation of a
groundwater monitoring network.

In 2017, the Rwanda Water and Forestry Authority (RWFA) began inventorying
groundwater abstraction boreholes and conducting geophysical investigations of
groundwater resources for potential future development, but the country's overall
groundwater availability was still unknown (RWFA, 2017).
Rwanda's total groundwater storage is expected to be around 162,176 million cubic
meters, according to the Water Resources Master Plan. Although there are no credible
estimates of overall groundwater abstraction, groundwater was said to supply 86
percent of clean drinking water in rural regions in 2005. (Resources, 2011).

The majority of people in the Eastern and Southern Provinces rely on borehole water
for their drinking water. There were at least 400 boreholes and wells in different
sections of the country as of 2009. (Ministry of Natural Resources 2011) Groundwater
from springs is a valuable resource in upland locations, and many piped water supply
projects rely on it.
Twenty-four boreholes were part of the national groundwater level monitoring network
in 2021. At least eight of the monitoring boreholes have automatic water level monitors
installed (pressure transducers).

The Annual Water Status Report 2016/17 includes a summary of groundwater level

31
monitoring results.The potential ground water sources in Gasanze Cell are classified as
Fountains sited in Nyarubande and Nyakabungo village. Even though there are those
fountains they are not sufficient and well treated comparing with people available and
the water quality standard.

Rain water

Water is one of the most important natural resources for human survival, and it has a
significant impact on a country's socioeconomic development. Rwanda is Africa's most
densely populated country, with a population of nearly 12.6 million people spread
across 26,338 km2. Rwanda's urban population is quickly growing, and socioeconomic
conditions are improving. The need for water to meet the needs of the municipal sector
is growing. In terms of overall water management, increased water demand combined
with man-made activities is producing several water resource difficulties (Jain, 1998).

Rwanda is dedicated to ensuring that all Rwandans have access to safe drinking water
and sanitation by 2030. Goal 6 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
emphasizes that managing water resource constraints is critical to optimizing water
demand management operations (NISR, , 2012). However, the country's current water
supply system is hampered by a number of issues, including high distribution pumping
costs due to the country's hilly terrain, resulting in high electricity costs to maintain the
infrastructure, low water supply coverage, low water production, and high non-
revenue water. With a 2,080-kilometer water supply distribution network, access to
municipal water is a key issue in Kigali (CoK), Rwanda's capital city, where the bulk
of the country's urban people live. Water supply is unclear even for the proportion of
residences now connected to the piped network due to frequent outages. Residents who
are not connected to the piped network at all pay significantly higher average water
prices and are generally poorer than those who are.

32
 Despite the fact that Rwanda has a reasonably high yearly average rainfall of 1200
mm, the rainwater is not utilized to its full potential. Instead, due to high rainfall
intensity, the country is frequently considered as more vulnerable to increased erosion,
flooding, and drought.
Despite water scarcity issues in Gasanze cell, experiences suggest that it has a long
rainy season that lasts from mid-February to mid-May, followed by another rainy
season from mid-September to mid-December.
The rainy season may continue into the dry season for a few weeks, and vice versa,the
typical monthly precipitation ranges from 65 to 200 mm (Jain, 1998).

2.3.2. Conventional Water Treatment Plant

Throughout the United States, conventional surface water treatment plants are still in
use. They usually have a number of steps in the therapy process. (1) Collection; (2)
Screening and Straining;
(3) Chemical Addition; (4) Coagulation and Flocculation; (5) Sedimentation and
Clarification; (6) Filtration; (7) Disinfection; (8) Storage; and (9) Distribution are the
steps involved. (Combest, 2014).
The more details about these steps are examined below:

1. Collection

A local river, lake, or reservoir is usually the source of water for a municipal surface
water treatment plant. There has to be a way to transport this water to the treatment
plant. A system of pumps and pipelines transfer the water to the treatment plant in most
cases. Water from many sources is used in many water treatment plants. Groundwater
and surface water are frequently combined to increase the finished product's quality.

2. Screening and straining

When you consider surface water sources such as lakes, rivers, and reservoirs, you'll
notice that they contain a variety of suspended and dissolved elements. Turbidity,
color, taste, flavor, microbes, fish, plants, trees, rubbish, and other materials may be
present. Organic or inorganic, suspended or dissolved, inert or physiologically active,

33
and ranging in size from colloidal to a tree trunk, the material can be organic or
inorganic. Some of these larger things, such as a tree branch lodged in a water pump
impeller, can obstruct the treatment process. In traditional water treatment, the first step
is to screen or strain away the bigger particles.

3. Chemical addition

Chemicals are added to the pre-screened source water once it arrives at the treatment
facility to help the suspended particles float in the water cluster together to form a
heavier and larger gelatinous particle known as floc. A chemical is added to the
solution, which reacts with the natural alkalinity to generate an insoluble precipitate.
This procedure employs a variety of chemicals available on the market. Coagulants are
the chemical names for these substances. Aluminum sulfate, or alum, is one of the
most prevalent that has been used for many years.

4. Coagulation and flocculation

The coagulant is usually added to the water in a rapid mix machine to ensure a
thorough and quick mixing. The mixing of the water is then slowed to allow the water
to come into touch with the forming floc and grow in size. The mixing must be mild
enough to allow the floc to expand and gain weight, yet rapid enough to maintain it
suspended until the clarifiers are ready for it to settle. Flocculation or coagulation is the
process of applying a chemical to induce suspended material to "clump" into bigger
particles. The "flocculator" is the treatment unit that performs coagulation and
flocculation.
5. Sedimentation and clarification

The water then pours over the weir in the flocculator and into the center of the clarifier,
or sedimentation basin, once the flocculation process is complete. The water travels
from the middle of the clarifier to the saw tooth weir on the unit's periphery. The large
floc particles are permitted to settle to the bottom of the clarifier as the water

34
approaches the weir.
6. Filtration

From the top, purified water enters the filters. The water is drawn down by gravity
through the filters and collected in a drain system at the bottom of the unit. The
materials (media) utilized in filters come in a variety of shapes and sizes. Sand and
gravel are the most prevalent. Many traditional plants are now adopting granular
activated carbon as their preferred media since it not only provides good mechanical
filtering of particle debris, but it also eliminates organic compounds that might cause
taste and odor issues.
7. Disinfection

The water is as pure and clean as it can be after going through the filtration process.
However, bacteria and viruses may still be present. A disinfection technique must be
used to ensure that these are destroyed.
Chlorination is the most popular disinfection method in the United States.

8. Storage

The water is stored after the disinfecting process is completed. Storage is typically
done in an underground storage tank known as a "clear well," as well as high storage
tanks visible around town.

9. Distribution

So, how does the water in your kitchen faucet come out? In what is known as a
"distribution system," the stored water is transported through underground tubes all
across town.
Large water pumps at the treatment plant, overhead water storage tanks, large
pipelines, smaller pipelines, fire hydrants, valves, and water meters in your front yard
make up the distribution system.

2.4. Drinking Water Quality Parameters

The primary goal of the Drinking-Water Quality Guidelines is to protect public health.

35
Water is necessary for life to exist, and everyone should have access to a sufficient
(appropriate, safe, and accessible) supply. Improving access to safe drinking water can
have a direct impact on one's health. Every effort should be made to achieve the safest
possible drinking water quality. (WHO, 2008).
However, worsening water quality jeopardizes the advances gained in improving
access to drinking water over the last two decades. Global efforts helped 2.1 billion
people obtain access to better drinking water between 1990 and 2011, but not all of
these new sources are necessarily safe (CAWS, October 2013 ).

Examining water parameters will allow us to establish the outline or method of water
purification, as well as the presence or absence of an excess of any particular
constituent that may impact the quality of portable water and its general use (B.C.
Punnmia, 1998).
Water inspection is separated into three categories: (i) physical inspection, (ii)chemical
inspection, and (iii)microbiological examination.
Color, taste, and odor, as well as temperature and turbidity, are physical factors. A
chemical variable Drinking water contamination, both naturally occurring and due to
pollution, is a severe issue. Hundreds of millions of people worldwide are at risk from
arsenic and fluoride alone. Total solids, chlorides, hardness, pH value, metal and other
chemical components, nitrogen and its compounds, and dissolved gases are all
chemical parameters.
Microbiology parameter: Microbiological pollution, particularly from human
excrement, is significantly more dangerous. Diarrhea is caused in large part by feces
contamination of drinking water. Every day, an estimated 2,000 children under the age
of five die from diarrheal infections around the world. Almost 90% of diarrheal illness
deaths in children are caused by polluted water, a lack of sanitation, or poor hygiene
(UNICEF, 2013) Countless others, including older children and adults, suffer from ill
health and missed opportunities for job and education for every youngster who dies,
WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality are listed in Annex 2.

36
2.5. Water Related Disease in Rwanda

Un controlled water sources and poor sanitation are major sources of diseases such as
cholera, diarrhea, dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid, and polio.
Agricultural activities including irrigation and drainage projects create favorable
conditions for breeding of vectors that transmit diseases in the shortest possible period
especially in highly dense population like cities, village and avenues.

Water related diseases are classified into four Categories:

1. Water borne diseases
2. Water washed diseases
3. Water based diseases
4. Water related vector borne diseases
Drinking of contaminated water is major way of transmission of most of diseases, also
during preparation of food contaminants should attack food due to unproper hand
washing, flies are also transmitters of contaminants where carrying contaminants from
toilets to food.

2.5.1. Water Borne Diseases

Water borne diseases are infectious diseases which spread from drinking contaminated
water, infectious agents most of the time cause problems of diarrhea and typhoid fever.
This results in early death especially for young children under 5years in developing
countries, every year more than 3.4 million people die due to water related disease.
Improper solid waste disposal, poor sanitary latrines result into contact with vectors
including viruses, protozoa and bacteria that transmit faster in these conditions.

Table 1.6:Example of water borne diseases of major concern in Rwanda

37
 Category of Disease Infectious agent
infectious
agent
Bacterial  Cholera  Vibrio cholerae
 Bacterial dysentery  Shigella bacteria
 Typhoid  Salmonella typhi
 Gastroenteritis  Rota virus
Protozoal  Amoebic Dysentery  Entamoeba
 giardiasis histolytica
 Giardia lamblia
Helminths  Ascariasis (round worm)  Ascaris lumbricoides
 Dracunculiasis (Guinea  Dracunculus
worm) msedinensis
 Trichuriasis(whipworm)  Trichuris trichiura
Viral  ascaris lumbricoides
 Viral gastroenteritis  dracunculus
 Viral hepatitis medinensis
 poliomyelitis  trichuris trichiura

2.5.2. Water Washed Diseases

Water washed diseases are diseases due to insufficient quantity of water required for
personal hygiene such as washing hands with soap before preparing and eating food,
washing body most of the time, cleaning the teeth at least once a day and washing hair
with soap or shampoo are habits that combat with these diseases.
Water washed diseases spread up in region that has low level of water supply and
problem of local water treatment. Unless water is clean this may cause fungal skin
diseases such as ring worm, ophthalmic disease (eye disease) like trachoma and
conjunctivitis.

Table 1.7:Show example of water borne diseases in Rwanda

Disease Infectious agent

38
 Scabies Mites
Trachoma shigella
Louse born epidemic typhus Rickettsia

2.5.3. Water Based Diseases

These are diseases caused by parasite that live long in water bodies. Water based
diseases includes bilharzia (Schistosomiasis), Dracunculiasis (Guinea worm) are both
caused by helminths found in contained water. Drinking of water that contain larvae of
these vectors could result into water-based diseases where larvae enter into the water
from skin of infectious person when he/she is washing or bathing.
To prevent water-based diseases same treatment of water should be applied, cutting of
bushes around water bodies, cooking drinking water before use. A global campaign to
eradicate Guinea worm has made great progress in reducing the incidence of the
disease and it is now found in only a few countries in the world. Rwanda is one of
them, but the disease is now rare; only three cases were reported during 2014 (WHO,
2015).
Figure below show microscopic view of guinea worms

Figure 1.5:Illustration of Guinea worms that cause Dracunculiasis

Source: Pespirationcbb.weebly.com

39
2.5.4. Water Related Diseases

These are diseases that are transmitted by insects use to bread near water bodies. most
of the time Malaria is likely to happen due to transmitters that bread near water, it takes
place speaded by female anopheles’ mosquito, this does not happen due to lacky of
access on clean water it takes place when there is stagnant water for providing habitat
on insects and bids to breed.

Other examples of water related diseases are dengue fever and yellow fever both are
transmitted by mosquitos.

General measures to prevent water related diseases are summarized here below:

 washing hands with soap, or using an alternative such as ash, after using the latrine

 washing hands before preparing and/or eating food

 washing the body frequently

 cleaning the teeth at least once a day

 washing the hair with soap or shampoo at least once a week.

 Cutting of trees /bushes at home

 Filling open source for stagnant water

 Cooking drinking water

40
 source: https://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/

2.6. Wash in Rwanda

Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) refers to the access to the access on clean and
safe water at school, hospitals, industries, etc. Lucky of access to clean water result
into water related diseases such as typhoid, diarrhea, dysentery, Malaria.
Globally, limited access to clean water and low level of sanitation and hygiene are
responsible on lead, water borne disease gastro -enteropathy along with diarrhea and
dysentery, these likely to occur on young children.

Monitoring and provisional evaluation of water, sanitation and hygiene are required on
all water sources regularly for promoting healthcare and reducing tropical diseases. In
Rwanda, the water and sanitation authority has established policies and strategies in
2006 to provide a guideline for accessing clean water with ambitions to achieve 100%
by 2030.

41
In rural area people use to defecate and urinate in bushes, they luck knowledge about
washing hands with clean water and soaps before preparing food and washing hands,
this result into health complications.

Even though water and sanitation are required most priorities was kept on treating safe
water for drinking, people move distance for fetching water and this was barrier to
social economic development.
Rwanda is progressing steadily to improve access and use of water, deal with liquid
and solid waste management, storm water management and a large-scale hygiene
behavior change of individuals, companies and institutions. Water and sanitation
(WASH) include the components of water supply, and solid waste management.

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY

3.1. Introduction

This chapter is the main part of this project, it consists and explains in details the
methods used in this project which include; the research design, the target population,
the sample size and the sampling procedure and data collection techniques to collect
the required information concerning water demands and supply system. It describes
also the area of study, source of the required information on the project and the
limitations on data collection.

3.2.Description of The Study Area

Gasanze cell is one of sub-urban area in Kigali city, Gasabo district, Nduba sector
lived by 14285 peoples from six villages (Gatagara, Kagarama, Nyabitare,
Nyakabungo, Nyarubande and Uruhetse), it has annual temperature with 26.9oc with
909mm precipitation annually.

42
Access to safe clean water is still problem where some of people drink water from
fountain of Agasoko, Nyakariba and Nyarubande both located in Nyakariba and
Nyarubande village, this region is located downhill of Nduba landfill and fountain
located in Nyabugogo catchment which are mostly polluted by anthropomorphic
(OMARA et al,2020). remaining ones relies on rain water harvested during rainy
season and being stored in tanks, municipal water in this region is rare, Water and
sanitation Authority does not put in action supply and distribution program treatment
and supply in order to come up with result that can handle problem of contaminated
and inefficiency of water in Gasanze cell.

Figure 1.6 and 1.7 belows shows location of Gasanze cell in Nduba Sector with
location of water sources available at the site.

43
Figure1.6:Illustrating the Study Area of the research

44
GIS MAP FOR RESEARCH SITE SHOWINGS SAMPLING POINT

Figure 1.7:Illustrating the fountain site of our research

3.2.1. Population of Study Area

Gasanze cell is inhabited by 14285 People from six villages (Gatagara, Kagarama,
Nyabitare, Nyakabungo, Nyarubande and Uruhetse), all habitants will require
285700litres per day equivalent to 285.7 m3per day. The population of Gasanze
focuses on five main components of economic activities where they earn income
such as: agricultural income, wage income, business income, rent income, and
income from transfers.

45
3.2.2. WASAC Water Supply System

WASAC primary medium to long-term water and sanitation goals are taken from
Rwanda's Vision 2050 and the National Strategy for Transformation 1 of 2024, which
includes the following goals.

1. By 2024, increase the number of individuals who have access to safe drinking water
to 100 percent of the population.
2. Increase to 100% the number of individuals who use basic upgraded sanitation
facilities in urban areas.
3. Increase the proportion of rural residents living within 500 meters of an improved
water source to 100%, and the proportion of urban residents living within 200 meters
of an improved water source to 100%;
4. Significantly reduce non-revenue water to 25%.
5. In urban areas, collect at least 80% of rainwater.

WASAC delivers water to Kigali and all of Rwanda's metropolitan areas via natural
springs, while other government programs give water to rural areas. to respond to a
water supply shortfall in the service region, improve network efficiency, and be able to
support the anticipated growth in water output There is a project comprises
construction of forwarding infrastructure from Kanzenze WTP (Kigali Bulk Water
Project) towards Kigali and Bugesera respectively(Chalinder, 2020)

The project comprises construction of forwarding infrastructure from Kanzenze WTP

(Kigali Bulk Water Project) towards Kigali and Bugesera respectively. There will be a
direct pipeline connecting the 5000 m3 main reservoir of Bugesera (Bidudu) to the
New Bugesera International Airport. This project will be implemented for a period of
24 months and approximately 398 300 people will be served and will have access to
water in Nyarugenge, Gasabo, Kicukiro; Runda and Rugalika (Kamonyi), Ntarama
(Bugesera), Muyumbu and Nyakariro (Rwamagana), Shyorongi (Rulindo) areas.

46
3.3.Research Design

Research design chosen was descriptive survey, samples of populations where choose
randomly to represent whole region by preparing questionnaire, information gathered
from survey helps us to identifies impact in overall population of Gasanze by
determining both demands and impact to social economic development in Gasanze cell
as well as Nduba Sector.

3.4.Target Population

Targeted population in this research are people lived in Gasanze cell Especially those
in Nyarubande and Nyakariba village, we will involve both youth and adult to be
familiar with both past and current scenarios of water resources in Gasanze cell.

3.5.Sample Size and Sampling Procedure

Amid the people who are part of the survey's target audience as researcher’s we were
chosen three sites specifically Agasoko and Nyakariba in NyarubandeVillage,
Rufigiza in Nyakabungo Village both are located in Gasanze Cell.

Due to the succeeding descriptive survey technique guidelines, by way of addressing

the accurate information for the problem and estimates the sample based on the
assurance of intermission. The researcher has chosen to study on these sites because it
was the one of amongst region of clean water shortage in Kigali city

3.6.Data Collection Methods

The primary data and secondary data are the one-off methods used by researcher to
describe the way we can collect data.

3.6.1. Primary data

For this point of primary data collection, we use questionnaire and Field Observations.

47
3.6.1.1. Questionnaire

As indicated in the Appendices, the researcher devised a questionnaire that included

both multiple choice and easy answer items.
The multiple-choice question includes information such as the number of liters
required at home and water sources in the research area, among other things.
A hundred copies of this approach were supplied to Gasanze cell sampling
respondents in order to examine how individuals are affected by not having access to
clean water.

3.6.1.2. Field observation

The research used this strategy to collect data for the following purposes:
 The level of water scarcity in the study area: to determine whether it is at high, low or
moderate.
 Impact of water scarcity in the study area
 Water related diseases such cholera, worms, dysentery

3.6.2. Methods of data analysis

The information gathered was examined qualitatively and quantitatively. Following

the fieldwork, all of the data was edited, matched to the questions, and organized
based on the responses. These numbers will be compared to the standards discussed in
Chapters 4 and 5.

3.7.Research Instruments

Research instruments are data collection equipment used by researchers. We

employed a camera, a questionnaire, observation, a supplemental computer, and GIS
software in this investigation.
 Camera was used to capture fountains which was not maintained well
 Questionnaire were used by respondents to get information through formulated
questions

48
 Computer was used for writing report and sketching graph and map of the study area.
 Other materials such pen, and different books for making deep research about the
project
 UR College of science and Technology library’s books

3.8.Limitation of Data Collection

While collecting data about this study, researcher was limited for Gasanze Cell
potential water source and level of scarcity. The researcher was only focused on three
Fountain classified in Two villages. Other villages and fountains were concerned.

49
CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

4.1. Introduction

This chapter contains the study's findings from questionnaires and field observations,
as well as their analysis and discussion by considering with Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) regarding with clean water.

4.2. Data Collection and Analysis of Results

This section summarizes the findings from all of the data collection methods discussed
in Chapter 3.

4.3. Analysis for Results of Questionnaire

In conducting this research, we have issued 100 copies of Questionnaire (40copoies at

Agasoko fountain ,40 at Nyakariba fountain and 20 copies at Nyakagezi fountain.

Respondents were able to answer questions according to status and Impact of water
resources scarcity in this region, we have asked all according to their ages and
Economic Status. After asking respondents data was combined to end up with
reasonable results.

Table 1.8:Description of Respondents.

Respondents Male Female families Participant’s

household
Nyarubande 13 27 40 197
Fountain
Nyakariba Fountain 12 8 20 105
Agasoko 22 18 40 211
Total 47 53 100 513

50
4.3.1. Water Demands in Gasanze cell
4.3.1.1.Population Forecasting in The Study Area

In this research, we have predicted the future population by using the arithmetic
increase method.
table below shows actual and predicted increase rate in populations from 1990 to 2025

Years Population Increase

in
Population
1990 2054 -
1995 3934 1880
2000 5914 1980
2005 7594 1660
2010 9404 1810
2015 12524 3120
2020 13534 1010
2025 15224 1690
Total increase 13150
Average increase per decade 1878.57
Source: Gasanze Cell’s Social Affair

Population forecasting by arithmetic increase

Method Pn=po+nR
where R= average increase in Population P2022=
13534 + 13150*2/5
P2022= 14285.43 Populations

During asking questions through questionnaires we have seen that each respondent
need at least 20 liters of water in one day, hundred participants in this survey comes
from families of 513 households, that means during one day there is demand of
10260l/day or 10.26m3/day.
According to all household in Gasanze Cell that has 14285 households, all habitants
will require 285700 liters per day equivalent to 285.7 m3per day.

By considering IS1992:1993 for Domestic low-income group require 135 liters per
capital per day, hence water demand required to satisfy people would be;

51
Water Demand= 𝑙𝐶𝑃 ∗ 𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛=135*14285= 1,928,475litres/day

Table 1.9: Present Daily water use in Gasanze Cell

Daily water use
Average water Daily
Fountain households use(lpcd) Demand(l/day)
Nyarubande Fountain 197 20 3940
Nyakariba Fountain 105 20 2100
Agasoko Fountain 211 20 4220
Total 513 20 10260

4.3.1.2. Supply System and Water Deficit

4.3.1.2.1. Supply System

In Kigali People rely on municipal water produced in four different water treatment
plants, which are NzoveI&II, Kimisagara and Karenge. Not only municipal water but
also others depends rainwater harvested from the rooftops of their building and this
reduce cost of water and excess demand during fluctuation period.
In Gasanze Cell there exist 3 fountains drilled underground to supply Gasanze cell,
even if these sources exist water demand is high compared to local sources, there is no
municipal supply in this region which is major cause of shortage in water resources.

Table below shows water treatment plants and their law water sources.
Water source Law water source Production(m3/d) Pipe
length(km)
NzoveI and Nzove II WTP Nyabarongo river 41,265 105.4
Karenge WTP Lake Mugesera 12,826 69.5
Kimisagara WTP Yanze river 22,347 23.7
Others (Spring 5; Well 2 5,317

Total 81,755
Compiled by CSE, 2019

drinking water comes from natural sources that are either groundwater or surface water.
1. Groundwater comes from rain and snow that seeps into the ground. The
water is held in open gaps and pores, as well as in aquifers, which are sand and gravel
layers. To collect groundwater, we use water wells or springs.

52
2. Surface Water also comes from rain and snow. It is the water that fills the
rivers, lakes, and streams. The pipes eventually lead to our homes, schools, companies,
and any other location where you can drink water by turning on the tap.

The majority of residents in large cities and towns in the United States acquire their
water from a public water source. A local government agency or private enterprise
distributes water to your home if you have a public water supply. It comes from a vast
source of water that you share with your neighbors and community through a network
of subterranean pipes. Your public water supplier will send you a bill based on the
amount of water you consume.(Find, 1891)

4.3.1.2.2. Water Deficit

During one day people of Gasanze require 285700 liters per day, by considering
IS1992:1993 for Domestic low-income group need 135 liters per capital per day for
cooking, flushing, mopping, etc. with refers to the total population, people must need
1,928,475litres/day including all Sanitary requirements.
However, water available is at 1% with deficit of 1918215 liters per day.

4.3.2. Impact of Water resources in Gasanze cell

Water resources in the Gasanze cell have a different impact on both biological and
social- Economic development. This includes unemployment, shortage of Agricultural
harvest, and water-related diseases.
4.3.2.1. Biological Impacts of Water Resources in Gasanze Cell

Drinking and washing with contaminated water result in health problems such as
Malaria, diarrhea, Typhoid. it is recommended to cook water before drinking, before
and after preparing of foods.

4.3.2.2. Unemployment in Gasanze cell

In Gasanze cell due to shortage of water resources, Investors are very low and become
a burden to the working environment. Peoples are helpers, masons, and water fetchers,
due to long-distance They exist early late at work, insufficient working hours and this
end up with sacking of workers. In the questionnaire we have seen that about 20
percent are jobless,57percent have a contract for a full time while the rest depends on a
part-time job.

53
 LEVEL OF WATER SCARSITY IN
GASANZE CELL
150
120

100
57.143 50
50 40
23.810 19.048

0
Part-Time JobFull-Time Job Jobless

RespondentPercentage%

Level of Employment in Gasanze Cell

Status Respondent Percentage%

Part-Time
Job 120 57.143
Full-Time
Job 50 23.810
Jobless 40 19.048
Total 210 100

Here below are some result analyzed from

questionnaires.

Table 10:Status of Drinking water In Gasanze Cell

Status of drinking Water in Gasanze cell

Status respondent Percentage%
Cooked Water 35 30.43
potable water 15 13.04
Treated water with
chemicals 7 6.09
Rainy water 5 4.35
Don’t care any thing 53 46.09
115 100

54
 Status of Drinking water in Gasanze
Cell

30.43
46.09

13.04

4.356.09

Cooked Water potable water

Treated water with chemicals Rainy water

Don’t care any thing

Figure 1.9:Illustrating status of drinking water in Gasanze

This survey shows that about 46 percent drink water without caring treatment while 30
percent remember to cook and filter water for use.
By drinking contaminated water, and preparing food unless washing hand with soap
and clean water result into water related diseases.in this research we have seen that
Malaria is likely to occur due to insects such as mosquito breading in water bodies.
Gasanze in sub-urban areas where agriculture is dominant therefore during wet season
mosquito feed and bread near water bodies.

55
 Status of water related Diseases in Gasanze cell
100
80
60
60 60
40
Number of participants

50 50
20 40
0 20 30 30 30
10 20 20 20 20
10 101 10 10 810
0 0

LowModerate High Very high

Figure 1.10:Illustration of status of water related diseases

Table 11:results showing Status of water related diseases.

Diseases Low Moderate High Very high

Diarrhea 10 60 20 10
Dysentery 20 60 10 10
Cholera 80 10 10 0
Ascaris 10 30 10 50
Scabies 70 20 10 0
Trachoma 50 40 10 10
Malaria 2 8 10 80
Sleeping Sickness 60 30 0 0
Typhoid 20 50 20 10
Amoeba 20 20 50 30
Infuenza 10 30 20 40

56
Shortage of water sources in Gasanze cell also Impacts social economic development,
we have seen that young children’s dropout schools, assault and harassment on wells
During Fetching, we have seen that most of respondents work in fetching services by
delving water to rich peoples and others are helpers in construction companies while
other are part-time in cultivation of rice. This research also shows that many peoples
are unemployed, delay at works while fetching for drinking water and this hinder
stakeholder to invest in social economic activities. Table 1.2 and its charts belows
present social-economic Impact due to unsufficient water sources in Gasanze cell.

Table 12: Social Impact due to insufficient of water resources in Gasanze cell

Impacts Participants Percentage%

Domestic Violence 80 21.22
Hunger and Drought 40 10.61
Water related diseases 60 15.92
School Dropout 37 9.81
Unemployment 90 23.87
Delay at Work 70 18.57
Total 377 100.00

57
 Percentage

18.57 21.22

10.61
23.87
15.92
9.81

Domestic Violence Hunger and DroughtWater related diseases

School DropoutUnemploymentDelay at Work

Figure 1.11:Illustration the percentage of social impact due to insufficient of

water resources in Gasanze cell.

4.3.3. Levels of Water Scarcity in Rwanda

Kigali, Rwanda's capital, has been rising in population, with the population predicted to
double from 1.13 million in 2012 to two million by 2021. Both population growth and
city surface development have placed a strain on the existing basic infrastructures.
Sanitation and water supply are at the forefront of the challenging restraints that this
newly developing community is facing. In a city with an annual urbanization rate of
more than 9%, water needs in Kigali are only supplied at 50% or less, especially during
the dry season (Rubogora, 2017).

Three causes have been presumed to be at the origin of this problem. First, the new
expansion of the city does not have in parallel a clear viability plan of water supply,
and the topography itself makes those who live in valleys at least get the little water
compared to those living on the top of hills. Secondly, the existing water network is
decades old, if not damaged.
Thirdly, water flow in Nyabarongo and Nyabugogo rivers or other small rivers has
diminished due to degradation of environmental conditions including deforestation and
soil erosion.

58
Water scarcity has been a challenge for Gasanze Cell; however, the question is how
such a large burden is shared between those who are financially well off and those who
are impoverished. The problem can be looked at from two perspectives: The way water
bills are computed has highlighted a policy issue of not considering the wealth gap
between the rich and the poor (progressive billing). Second, the scarcity raises the cost
of water to the point that poorer families cannot afford it.

4.3.3.1. Level of Water scarcity in Gasanze cell

Water is one among five things to sustain life, these includes air, temperature, heat and
food .in case water is not available at reasonable quantity this may result into poverty,
hunger, low level of education, not only these but also this will become very
challenges to fulfill sustainable development goals as designed to be achieved by 2030.

Gasanze cell is inhabited by 14285 People, in assessment conducted we have seen that
three ground water sources provide Discharge of 1.3m3/s,this correspond to output of
112.320m3/day,5616 jerricans per day will be fetched and this will cover 2.5days for
each Pearson to fetch his own demand.ie water scarcity in Gasanze cell according to
data collected at source is at 60.1 percent.

Table 13:level of water scarcity in Gasanze cells by considering all sources available

Status Respondent
Respodent
Low 0
Moderate 1 1%
0% 39%
High 39 Low
60%
Very Moderate
High
High 60 Very High

Figure 2.0: Illustration the percentage of water scarcity in

the study area

59
The level of water scarcity ty in Gasanze cell is very high as responders specifies, it is
due high demands and shortage of resources

4.3.4. Design of Water Tank for Rainwater Harvesting

Requirements
 Family members
 Rooftop area
 Average annual rainfall
 Runoff coefficients
 Coefficients of evaporation, spillage, and first flush
 Daily Drinking and cooking requirements

In the questionnaire, we have seen that the Average number of members of the family
in Gasanze is 5, in Kigali standard size of the plot is assumed to be 15*20m where 60
percent of this plot is reserved for building(Wilson, 2006), by this rooftop area will be
180m2.
In Gasabo district average annual precipitation is 909mm with 20.9oc temperature
annually(Wilson, 2006).
In the questionnaire we have seen that amount of drinking water in the Gasanze cell is
20l/cd, with runoff coefficients assumed to be 1 and coefficients of evaporation,
spillage, and the first flush is assumed 0.8.
Annual rainwater harvested= rooftop Area*coefficient of runoff*coefficient of
evaporation, spillage, and first flush.
Annual rain Water harvesting= 180*0.8*1*0.909=130.896m3=130896 liters

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Tanks will be designed by considering two dry seasons that occupy 180 days from
December up to February and June to August(Wilson, 2006).
Therefore, water required for drinking and cooking is 180*40*5=36000litres, by
applying tanks safety factor to be increased to 20% water required to be stored in tanks
will be 36000*1.2=432000 liters
Size of water tank will be NB: assume that tanks will be circular with height of 1.8m.

Volume = 𝜋 ∗d2∗ ℎ
4

43.2 = ∗ 𝑑2*3, d2, hence Diameter of tank becomes 4 meters

𝜋
4

Each house needs to have tank which has capacity to store 43.2m3 within dry seasons
and this will have diameter of 4 meter and 3meters in height.
4.4. Results of Field Observation
We have collected data by visiting site and see with much emphasis on protection of
surface water source, avoiding contamination of ground water source and reduction of
cars spare parts washing and people who came to wash their bodies at source. The
different pictures below have been taken during site observation.

Figures 2.12, 2.13, 2.14, 2.15, 2.16below show unauthorized activities including
wheelwashing near water sources,also shows higher number of peoples fetching water
at the same time ,at the right side on the top shows excess turbidity in water which
cause algae bloom in water bodies and this may result into deaths of aquatic species.

Figure 2.12:Illustration of washed wheel in Rufigiza surface water

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 Figure 2.13:Illustration of Runoff river with high turdity

Figure 2.15: Illustration of Agasoko ground water source Figure 2.14:This picture shows Nyakariba

ground water source

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Figure 2.16:Shows large number of people accessing Nyarubande ground water source

From the data collected and its analysis concerning to water demand at Gasanze cell
with Agasoko, Nyakariba and Nyarubande water sources, the amount of water require
by population is much greater than sources available and the safety of population
during fetching water is low.

4.5. Current Water Supply-Demand Balance

The demand for water will be compared to the current supply to see if there are any
other options for satisfying the specified need. When determining whether or not a
place has a water deficit, there are numerous sources of data to evaluate. All accessible
data, including current levels of utilization and pricing, alternative supply sources, and
trading information, will be investigated.

The existing and future risks to supply, such as the effects of climate change on supply
variability, should be considered when assessing the water supply-demand balance

Checklist of factors to assess water supply-demand balance

S/N SCENARIO REMARKS

1 Availability and utilization of existing available

water supply in the region, considering all
water supply sources (i.e. supplemented
and unsupplemented surface water,
groundwater)

2 The extent to which any available water Insufficient Demand is available in

supplies meet the requirements of Gasanze Cell
different customer groups for volume,
reliability and quality

63
 3 Regional water market activity (i.e. Due to unavailable municipal
volumes and prices for water trades) water sources, water bills are too
much

4 Evidence of water supply acting as a One jerrican of water cost

constraint on economic activity 400rwfr and takes 1.5hours for
fetching
5 Alternative water supplies available in Municipal water, rainwater
neighboring regions that could support the harvesting and groundwater are
potential water uses available in neighboring region.

4.5.3. Access to infrastructure

Access to infrastructure is a major determinant of water demand. The purpose of the

demand assessment is to look at the region's overall infrastructure capacities in
relation to the water needs that have been established. There is a high risk that the area
(and subsequent water demand) will take a long time to develop and/or would require
more government investment if additional infrastructure is not built. A new irrigation
region, for example, requires not only water distribution infrastructure but also a road
network, electricity infrastructure, and processing or export facilities all of which must
be at a reasonable distance. Any other gaps in essential infrastructure should be
identified in the business case for water infrastructure, and what these gaps signify for
anticipated water demand should be considered (in cooperation with possible
consumers).(Queensland. Department of Natural Resources and Mines, 2020)

64
Checklist of infrastructure factors to be assessed

Checklist Scenario Remarks

Existence of established water supply and delivery WASAC Project is

progress
infrastructure for the supply of water to identified user
groups
Existence of complementary water infrastructure, e.g. WASAC Project is
pipelines, channels progress

Existence of transport infrastructure (road, rail, ports, Road is available but

airports) to connect water users with key markets street road is under
(domestic and export) and key production inputs considerations

Existence of established agricultural supply chains No supply chain, region

linking producers to key markets and, if not, the is located on hill
additional costs to establish supply chains mountain rely on
rainwater harvesting

Existence of energy infrastructure with capacity required Electricity is available

to support the identified water uses in sufficient quantity

Existence of digital telecommunications services, having Tower for

regard to network coverage, reliability and speed telecommunication is
required to support the proposed use available

Existence of sufficient processing capacity, particularly Meat works/fruit

for agricultural producers (e.g. cotton gins, fruit/berry parking are available in
processing/packing/cannery facilities, meat works) Gasanze cell

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 4.6. Discussion of The Results

This section of result is most sensitive and valuable elements in research, it covers all
aspects related to impacts and demand required to satisfies habitants of Gasanze cell.

From questionnaire we have obtain different results, with additional to our

observations we have seen that peoples use 26.5m3per day with is minimum demands
according to the requirements of water for domestic uses, this is result of sacristy in
water sources.

When there is no treatment of water, it is recommended to cook water for drinking in

order to minimize adverse health effect. In this research we have seen that 46.1 percent
drink un-cooked water,30 percent cook water before drinking while others use other
methods including chemicals. Diarrhea and dysentery appeared at moderate extent as
result of drinking some time contaminated water especially during rainy season.

Gasanze cell is bordered by Rufigiza marshland in southern region where people use to
cultivate rice, beans, maize hence this becomes habitats of mosquitoes which breed in
water bodies and spread malaria at great extent in Gasanze cell as well as Nduba
sector.
Responders of this survey shows that water is scarcely at very high extent, about 100 of
responders sixteen of them replies that water is still problem and this affect their
wellbeing in different ways such as domestic violence at 21.22 percent and
unemployment at 23.87 percent with delay at works this slows down social economic
development and hinder stakeholders to invest in this cell.

66
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1. Conclusion

Based on the results we have seen that there is a shortage of water in Gasanze cell,
there is a shortage of sources where peoples use groundwater drilled in fountains, and
also during the rainy season, they use to store rainwater in tanks and cisterns.
Shortage of demands results in social-economic difficulties such as domestic violence,
unemployment, school dropout, delay at works, and water-related diseases, People of
Gasanze cell use at least 1.5hour for fetching water from the fountain especially during
peak hours.

5.2. Recommendation

Basing on data collected and their analysis, it is clear that there is a huge gap in
achieving water demand that satisfy population so that researcher came up with the
following recommendations:
 Government of Rwanda through WASAC should supply portable water to
increase required demand
 There should be guidelines on the quality of water that should be supplied in
Gasanze cell in order to reduce water related diseases.
 The treatment plant should be proposed to treat unsafe water and make it
drinkable and more accessible to people.
 Avoiding surface water contamination by discouraging wheel washing and people
who came to clean their body at source.
 Rufigiza river should be bordered by green belt in order to protect banks from scouring.
 Peoples are encouraged to have tank with reasonable capacity to correct rain water
 Avoiding toxic substance and chemical use at source
Emphasizing population to drink cleaned water by
cooking it.

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APPENDINCES

ANNEX 1: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR RESEARCH SURVEY

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

ASSESSMENT OF WATER AVAILABILITY AND POTENTIAL SUPPLY IN GASANZE

CELL
Dear participants,
we are hereby names of BAMWEBOSE NIYONGABO Patience, NIYONSENGA Fabien, and
IYERAYACU Josine. Students in the University of Rwanda College of Science and Technology
in the Department of Civil Environmental, water, and Geomatic Engineering, Option of civil
Engineering-Environmental. We are conducting research on assessment of water availability and
potential supply in Gasanze cell which will end up with the invention of all necessary sources and
demands thereafter Impact of existing sources will be identified and solution to the problems will
be highlighted. We Would like to request your supports by filling information required in this
questionnaire that will help us in this research.
for more info contact us on:
Tel:0784656104
Email: bamwebosep@gmail.com

Read carefully and reply with your response in the space

provided Q1. Your names
Surnames
Dates
Q2. reply ticking right answer where necessary
Age Sex Status
Male Female Single Status Married

72
Q3. Your phone numbers
Q4. Province District Sector Cell Village

Q4. Profession (ex-teacher, nurse, Driver,

etc.) Q5. How many are you at home?
Q6. How far did you fetch water (kilometers from home to
source)? Q7. How many Liters of water did you need at home
every day?
Q8. what are sources of water did you have in the Gasanze cell (tick on correct Answers)
Surface Groundwater Rainwater Potable from
WASAC

Q9. How many dropped out of school at home

Q10.How do water-related diseases appear in this region (thick right Answers)
Number Diseases Low Moderate High Very high
1 Diarrhea
2 Dysentery
3 Chorela
4 Ascaris
5 Scabies (ubuheri)
6 Trachoma
7 Louse born fever
8 Malaria
9 Sleeping sickness
10 Typhoid

11 Amoeba
Q11.how many times did you make a bath with clean water and soap
Q12.Are giggers in Gasanze cell (thick right Answers)
Yes No
Q13.Which method did you use to prepare water for drinking
Q14. Did you wash your hands with water before and after the preparation of
food? Yes No

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Q15.did you have toilets complying with standards (covered, ventilated, aqua privies,
etc.) Yes No
Q16.level of water scarcity in Gasanze cell (thick right nswers)
Low medium high very high
Q17.If any, what causes scarcity of water in the Gasanze cell
Q18 Any additional comments for this survey

74