ASSESMENT OF THE EFFECTS OF AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES ON WATER

QUALITY IN LAKE KANYABOLI, SIAYA COUNTY, KENYA

BY:

ADONIJAH OTIENO WERE

NS/00059/017

ARESEARCH REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENT FOR AWARD OF DEGREE IN BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE WITH I.T

DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE,

FOOD SECURITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES MASENO UNIVERSITY

© 2024
DECLARATION
DECLARATION BY CANDIDATE

I declare that this research report is my original work and has not been presented in any other
institution of higher learning.

ADONIJAH OTIENO WERE

NS/00059/017

Sign Date: __________________________

DECLARATION BY THE SUPERVISOR

This report has been submitted for examination with my approval as University Supervisor.

Dr. Johnson Apuko

Department of Environmental Science

Maseno University

Sign Date: __________________________

i
 DEDICATION
I dedicate this research report to my parents Mr. Nehemiah Were and Mrs. Mary Were who
taught me the strategy of simplicity and action.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my gratitude to all who worked tirelessly to make this work possible.
The assistance and guidance from my supervisor, Dr. Johnson Apuko and Prof. B. Oindo is
highly acknowledged. Special thanks go to the technical staff in the laboratories where I
conducted the research for their assistance in the laboratory. I am deeply indebted to my father
and mother for their selfless sacrifices and efforts to see me through my education. The best gift
they could ever grant me. To the entire Were’s family for their moral, spiritual and financial
support that they have given to me so far. I appreciate the comfort they offered to me during
unbearable times. Above all, am grateful to God who has made everything possible.

iii
 ABSTRACT
Water quality degradation is a global challenge that has increased in developed and developing
countries, undermining economic growth as well as physical and environmental health of billions
of people. In most high-income countries and emerging economies, agricultural pollution has
overtaken contamination from settlements and industries as the major factor of degradation in
inland and coastal areas. Agricultural pressures on water quality come from intensified cropping,
livestock and aquaculture systems. The global growth in crop production has been achieved mainly
through intensive use of inputs such as chemical fertilizers and pesticides. The trend has been
amplified by the expansion of agricultural land, with irrigation playing a strategic role in improving
productivity and rural livelihoods while also transferring agricultural pollution of water bodies.
The parameters investigated included physico-chemical parameters: pH, Total Dissolved Solids
(TDS), Total Suspended Solids (TSS), and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), nutrient
(phosphate and nitrate).The appearance of water was also assessed for turbidity. The levels of pH
values ranged from 6.4 to 8.3 while TDS from 60mg/l to 115 mg/l.TSS ranged from 56mg/l to 95
mg/l while turbidity ranged from76.50 NTU to 230 NTU mean 135.16 NTU. The nitrate values
ranged 6.23mg/l to 14.50 mg/l and the mean was 10.91 mg/l. The phosphate values ranged
from0.38 mg/l to 0.65 mg/l while the mean was 0.5100 mg/l. The level of BOD ranged from15
mg/L to 45 mg/l while values varied across the sampling sites with a mean of 28.333 mg/l. Data
analysis was done using Statistical Programme for Social Scientists (SPSS).Some physico-
chemical parameters were analyzed by colorimetric, volumetric analysis. At each site pH, TDS,
TSS values were within acceptable WHO and KEBS limits for natural water except BOD and
turbidity levels. The origin of nutrients and organic matter as well as other materials that cause the
pollution can be directly attributed to agricultural activities. It is recommended that no form of
farming should be allowed within 30 meters of the lake vicinity, further funding for training and
establishing a monitoring programme to continually monitor levels of pollutants in Lake Kanyaboli
so that they do not reach critical levels should be established.

iv
Table of Contents
DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. i

DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. iii

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. iv

LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... vii

LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... viii

WORKING DEFINITION OF TERMS ........................................................................................ ix

LIST OF ACRONYMS .................................................................................................................. x

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 1

1.1 Background to the study. .................................................................................................................. 1

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM. ........................................................................................................ 3
1.3 Objectives of the study ..................................................................................................................... 4
1.4 Research Hypothesis. ........................................................................................................................ 4
1.5 Justification of the study. .................................................................................................................. 4
1.6 Scope and Limitation ...................................................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW. ............................................................................... 6

2.1 Introduction. ..................................................................................................................................... 6

2.2 Agriculture and nutrient loading....................................................................................................... 6
2.3 Livestock production, crop farming and Total Suspended Solids ...................................................... 8
2.4 Crop farming and Total Dissolved Solids ........................................................................................... 9
2.5 Organic matter and BOD ................................................................................................................... 9
2.6 Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS ............................................................... 12

3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 12

3.2 Study Area ...................................................................................................................................... 12
3.2.1 Location ................................................................................................................................... 12
3.2.3 Economic activities ................................................................................................................... 12

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 3.2.4 Population and land use ........................................................................................................... 13
3.3 Research design .............................................................................................................................. 15
3.4 Study population and sampling size ............................................................................................... 15
3.4 Data collection methods and sampling ........................................................................................... 16
3.4.1 Sampling Design ....................................................................................................................... 17
3.5 Data analysis and presentation ....................................................................................................... 19
3.6 Reliability and Validity .................................................................................................................... 20
3.7 Research Ethics ............................................................................................................................... 20
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................... 21

4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 21

4.2 Agricultural activities and nutrient loading ..................................................................................... 21
4.2.1 Nitrates .................................................................................................................................... 22
4.2.2 Phosphorus .............................................................................................................................. 24
4.3 Agricultural waste and TDS, TSS, pH and Turbidity ......................................................................... 25
4.3.1 PH ............................................................................................................................................. 26
4.3.2 Total Dissolved Solids ............................................................................................................... 27
4.3.3Total Suspended Solids ............................................................................................................. 28
4.3.4 Turbidity ................................................................................................................................... 29
4.4 Agricultural Organic matter and BOD ........................................................................................... 30
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................. 32

5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 32

5.2 Summary of findings ....................................................................................................................... 32
5.3 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 32
5.3 Recommendations .......................................................................................................................... 33
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 34

vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Conceptual framework…………….………………………………………9

Figure 2: Map of Kenya showing Siaya County…………………………………...11

Figure 3: Map of Alego Usonga Constituency……………………………………..12

Figure 4: Map showing Sample………………………………………………….... 14

Figure 5: Mean Nitrate levels bar graph…………………………………………….17

Figure 6: Mean Phosphate levels bar graph…………………………………………19

Figure 7: Mean pH levels bar graph…………………………………………………20

Figure 8: Mean TDS level bar graph……………………………..………………….21
Figure 9: Mean TSS levels bar graph………………………………………………..22
Figure 10: Mean Turbidity levels bar graph…………………………..…………….22

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Methods/book references used to measure parameters……15

Table 4.1 Lake Kanyaboli water samples (nutrients) measurements...17

Table 4.2 Nitrates One Sample T test………………………… ….. 18

Table 4.3 Phosphate One Sample T test………………………….….19

Table 4.4 Physical parameters (pH, TDS, TSS, and Turbidity) ……20

Table 4.5 Turbidity One sample T test…………………….……..….23

Table 4.6 BOD one Sample T test…………………………………. 23

viii
WORKING DEFINITION OF TERMS
Crop production-growing of plants e.g. maize, millet, beans.

Livestock- Domesticated animals e.g. cattle, sheep and goats.

Aquaculture- Rearing of fish in ponds and cages.

Water quality-Is a term used to express the suitability of water to sustain various uses or
processes.

Agricultural activities-refer to all the practices undertaken in crop production, livestock

production, aquaculture and irrigation.

ix
LIST OF ACRONYMS
UNEP- United Nations Environmental Programme

FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization

OECD-Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

US EPA- United States Environmental Protection Agency

IWMI – International Water Management Institute

WWAP- World Water Assessment Programme

SACEP- South Asian Co-Operative Environmental Programme

WHO- World Health Organization

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 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the study.

Fresh water is a finite and precious resource that is essential for sustaining life. Water is needed in
all aspects of life. The quality of any surface or ground water body is a function of either or both
natural influences and human activities. Water pollution is a global challenge that has increased
both in developing and developed countries, undermining economic growth as well as the physical
and environmental health of billions of people. Although global attention has focused primarily on
water quantity, water- use efficiency and allocation issues, poor waste water management has
created serious water-quality problems in many parts of the world, worsening the water crisis
(Biswas et al., 2012).Global water scarcity is caused not only by the physical scarcity of the
resource but also by the progressive deterioration of water quality in many countries, reducing the
quantity that is safe for use(FAO, 2017).Human settlements, industries and agriculture are the
major sources of water pollution.Globally,80 percent of municipal wastewater is discharged into
water bodies untreated, and industry is responsible for duping millions of tons of heavy
metals,solvents,toxic sludge and other wastes into water bodies each year( Sato et al., 2013;
WWAP, 2017).Agriculture, which accounts for 70 percent of water abstraction worldwide, plays
a major role in water pollution. Farms discharge large quantities of agrochemicals, organic matter,
drug residues, sediments and saline drainage into water bodies. The resultant water pollution poses
demonstrated risks to aquatic ecosystems, human health and productive activities(UNEP,2016).In
most high income countries and emerging economies, agricultural pollution has already overtaken
contamination from settlements and industries as the major causes of degradation of inland and
coastal waters (WWAP, 2013).In the European Union,38 percent of water bodies are significantly
under pressure from agricultural pollution(WWAP,2015).In the United States of America,
agriculture is the main source of pollution in rivers and streams, the second main source in wetlands
and third main source in lakes(US EPA, 2016).In China, agriculture is responsible for a large share
of surface water pollution and is responsible almost exclusively for groundwater pollution by
nitrogen (FAO, 2013).These studies have helped to give us the overview of how agricultural
activities affect water quality. From these studies we have understood the extent at which
agricultural activities critically impact water quality and contribute significantly to water crisis at
a global scale. However, these studies have not addressed the real agricultural activities that

1
influence water quality at a local scale. Hence there is need to examine the agricultural activities
that affect water quality at a local scale.

Reports by Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) revealed that in African countries, the
common sources of water that are available to local communities in Sub-Saharan Africa are fast
being severed by a number of anthropogenic factors, of which pollution remain the most dominant
problem (FAO, 2007).Nevertheless, agricultural pollution, aggravated by increased sediment
runoff and ground water salinization are fast becoming issues of major concern. Studies conducted
by UNEP (2006) show that water abstraction for domestic use, agricultural production, mining,
industrial production, power generation, and forestry practices can lead to deterioration in water
quality and quantity that impact not only the aquatic ecosystem, but also the availability of safe
water for human consumption. Abd-Alla Gad (2011) in his study observes that the degradation of
physical and chemical water quality due to agricultural influences is often gradual, and subtle
adaptations of aquatic ecosystems to these changes may not always be readily detected until a
dramatic shift in ecosystem condition occurs. He observes that in many shallow African lakes, the
gradual enrichment of the surface water with plant nutrients has resulted in shifts from systems
that once were dominated by rooted aquatic plants to systems that are now dominated by algae and
water hyacinth suspended in the water column. Other studies indicate that agricultural activities
are the major causes of pollution in Sub Saharan Africa. There is considerable agreement in recent
studies that amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus in surface waters are significantly influenced by
agricultural inputs associated with land cover, land use and point sources (Castillo et al. 2000;
Ferrier et al. 2001; Valiela and Bowen 2002). These studies have helped to highlight major
agricultural factors that influence water quality in Africa. Although a number of studies have
investigated water supply and quality in sub-Saharan Africa (Shier et al,1966), very limited
information is available from the remote and rural areas. There is the need therefore to assess the
agricultural activities that impact water quality at a local scale.

In Kenya many researchers have undertaken numerous studies to understand the influence
agricultural activities on water quality (Ohle 1975; Wandiga 1977; Muslim 1982; Anyona 1997).
In Kenya some of the inland lakes have been identified to suffer from heavy pollution. There have
been cases of fish kills as in the case of lakes Nakuru and Victoria while some have been choked
by weeds as in the case of Lake Naivasha as documented by Wandiga (1977) and Muslim (1982).
2
There is evidence documented by Wandiga (1977) that pollution of these lakes is as a result of
agricultural activities in the catchment areas of these lakes. Kipkemboi (2011) in his study
concludes that water from most sources particularly surface water in rural areas is contaminated
as by agricultural activities. Generally, these studies have helped us to understand how agricultural
activities impact on water quality in Kenya. However, the above studies have not elaborated at
what extent and scale do these activities affect water quality.

In the study area, a few studies have been undertaken to understand the influence of agricultural
activities on water quality (Okemwa 1981; Ochieng’ 1987). Anyona (1997), established that the
water quality of lake Kanyaboli must be viewed as being controlled by factors such as climate,
soils, geology as well as the anthropogenic activities in the catchment. These studies have outlined
the agricultural activities in the area, however they have not been able to enable us understand the
effects of agricultural activities on the water quality of the lake.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM.

Water quality degradation is a global challenge that has increased in developed and developing
countries, undermining economic growth as well as physical and environmental health of billions
of people. In most high-income countries and emerging economies, agricultural pollution has
overtaken contamination from settlements and industries as the major factor of degradation in
inland and coastal areas. Agricultural pressures on water quality come from intensified cropping,
livestock and aquaculture systems. The global growth in crop production has been achieved mainly
through intensive use of inputs such as chemical fertilizers and pesticides. The trend has been
amplified by the expansion of agricultural land, with irrigation playing a strategic role in improving
productivity and rural livelihoods while also transferring agricultural pollution to water bodies.
Most studies which have focused on agricultural activities affecting water quality have been
undertaken in developed countries, whereas those undertaken in developing countries have been
largely on regional or national scales. Even though these studies have helped to identify the
agricultural activities influencing water quality, they have not critically examined the effects of the
various activities at the local scale. In the study area, there are a number of agricultural activities
being undertaken from dairy farming, irrigation and canalization, crop farming to fish farming,
3
largely these practices tend to be unsustainable, their consequences at the study area have not been
examined and thus there is need to understand these activities in the context of the study area and
their possible implications. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to critically asses the effects of
the said agricultural activities on the quality of water in Lake Kanyaboli.

1.3 Objectives of the study

The general objective of this study is to assess the effects of agricultural activities on water
quality in Lake Kanyaboli, Siaya County.

Specific objectives

1. To examine the influence of agricultural activities on nutrient loading in Lake Kanyaboli.

2. To determine how agricultural waste influence total dissolved solids, total suspended solids,
pH and turbidity of Lake Kanyaboli.

3. To assess the effect of organic matter from agricultural activities on BOD of Lake Kanyaboli.

1.4 Research Hypothesis.

1. Ho Agricultural activities do not have influence on nutrient loading in Lake Kanyaboli.

2. Ho Agricultural waste does not influence total dissolved solids, total suspended solids, pH and
turbidity of Lake Kanyaboli.

3. Ho Organic matter from agricultural activities does not have effect on BOD in Lake
Kanyaboli.
1.5 Justification of the study.
This study has evaluated the effect of agricultural activities on water quality in the lake. The
documented information is important in policy formulation, management as well as water quality
monitoring and assessment of the lake. The lake being of great importance as a unique ecosystem
whose value is encompassed in fisheries, the findings of this study can inform the ecosystem
restoration interventions to restore the rapidly degrading and threatened ecosystem. The findings
of this research can benefit the local farmers as it enlighten them on best agricultural practices to
adopt, those that are likely not to have adverse effects on water quality. Furthermore, the result of

4
this study can inform future developments in the area, thus promoting sustainable use of the lake
as a critical natural resource.

1.6 Scope and Limitation

This study focused only on selected water quality parameters in Lake Kanyaboli in relation to
agricultural activities, however there are a number of issues that ought to be addressed in order to
have an elaborate scope of the levels of contamination, pollutant sources and pathways and their
cumulative impacts on the quality of water in the lake. Time was a limiting factor in this study
given that the data was collected over a short period of time and only during the dry season. There
was no adequate fund to undertake the research.

5
 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW.

2.1 Introduction.
This chapter focused on the relevant literature materials that are related to the objectives and is an
extensive description of the research topic. Existing literature has been reviewed to bring out a
comprehensive literature on the research tropic.

2.2 Agriculture and nutrient loading

Inadequate animal waste, soil and nutrient management results in nutrient loading to surface waters
and is the major source of agricultural non-point source pollution. Nutrients (nitrogen and
phosphorous) loading in waters due to no point and point sources in ecological concern and affects
water quality in surface water quality in surface water bodies (Smith et al.1999). Nutrients are
essential to the survival of aquatic organisms, but excess nutrient loading to water bodies can
impact the designated uses of water (Bricker et. al.2007; Freeman et. al.2009). Nitrates are strongly
associated with agricultural land and grasslands (Ferrier et. al.2001). On the other hand,
phosphorous is given special attention, because it is often the limiting nutrient for algal growth in
the freshwaters (Berge et al. 1997; Correll 1999).

Agricultural activities can have a huge impact on the water quality due to the vast array of
chemicals that are used to increase production. It is thought that the aquatic life in the Gulf of
Mexico is severely degraded by agricultural pollution brought down the Mississippi river from the
heavily mid-west of the USA. The USGS estimates that 70% of nitrogen and phosphorus that
enters the Gulf of Mexico comes from agricultural sources in USA. This compares to 9-12% from
urban sources. Nutrients are one of the most well studied agricultural pollutants and comprise
largely of nitrogen and phosphorus which are applied to land in manure and slurry as well as in
organic fertilizer. Moreover, dung is deposited on fields by grazing livestock. Nitrate is a major
form of nitrogen is found surface waters and is very mobile, unlike some other forms, such as
ammonium, which is more strongly retained by soils (Hatch et. al., 2002). Nitrate leaching is a
problem in most agricultural areas and peak concentrations in rivers usually exceed 10 mg per liter,
although the other nitrogen species will be found at much lower concentrations (Neat et. al, 2006).
Although not particularly toxic in the environment, nitrate must be removed from drinking waters
which is costly to water utilities and consumers (Pretty et. al., 2000). In contrast, phosphate tends
forms complexes with soil particles and concentrations in rivers are, thus, often associated with

6
levels of suspended solids. Nevertheless, orthophosphate is soluble and is therefore bioavailable
to aquatic organisms, which can lead to eutrophication (an unwelcome bloom of plants in water
which have detrimental effects on other organisms) as plants can quickly use the phosphate to
encourage rapid growth (Jarvie et. al., 2007).

In crop production, water pollution from nutrients occurs when fertilizers are applied at a greater
rate than they are fixed by soil particles or exported from the soil profile (e.g. by plant uptake or
when they are washed off the soil surface before plants can take them up).Excess nitrogen and
phosphates can leach into groundwater or move via surface run off into waterways. Phosphate is
not as soluble as nitrate and ammonia and tends to get adsorbed onto soil particles and enter water
bodies through soil erosion.

Livestock production accounts for 70 percent of all agricultural land and 30 percent of the land
surface of the planet. The livestock sector is one of the top three contributors to the most serious
environmental problems, including water quality degradation, at every scale from local to
global(FAO,2006).Demand for and the production of livestock products are increasing rapidly
globally, but the following take center stage: Central and Eastern USA, Southern Brazil, Uruguay
and Northern Argentina; Europe, China, and India(FAO,2016).Intensive livestock production
systems, which often involve large number of animals concentrated in small areas. Intensive
livestock systems increasingly depend on feed concentrates that are traded domestically and
internationally. These changes are exerting growing pressure on the environment and particularly
water quality. Most of the water used for livestock drinking and servicing returns to the
environment in the form of liquid manure, slurry and waste water, (FAO, 2016). Livestock excreta
contain considerable quantities of nutrients, oxygen depleting substances and pathogens and, in
intensive systems, also heavy metals, drug residues, hormones and antibiotics. When livestock is
concentrated, the associated production of wastes tends to go beyond the buffering capacity of
surrounding ecosystems, there by polluting surface water and groundwater. In livestock
production, feedlots are often located on the banks of watercourses so that (nutrient-rich) animal
waste (e.g. urine) can be released directly into those watercourses (WWAP, 2017). Manure is
usually collected for use as organic fertilizer, which if applied in areas and during significant
rainfall events; it can be washed into watercourses via surface runoff.

7
Aquaculture-Growing fish in cages is practiced in many parts of the world but has in the last 20
years became a popular fish farming practice in Africa specifically in Ghana, Kenya, Malawi,
Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe (Blow and Leonard, 2007).In comparison to traditional pond
culture systems, the advantage of cage fish culture technology is the possibility of growing a large
amount of fish in a relatively small volume or area of water. In the East African region, cage fish
farming has not been widely practiced despite a large market for fish in the region and known
potential of the practice (Blow and Leonard, 2007).Cage fish farming is currently practiced by few
commercial fish farmers and is a direct response to declining fish harvests from wild fish stocks
and increasing market demand from local, regional and international markets. Fish rearing in cages
in natural fresh water bodies raises concerns of water quality and disease impacts from the caged
fish( Pearson and Black,2001; Mangaliso et al.,2011) despite the promise for high fish production
over relatively short periods. Other concerns include impacts on biological communities especially
in cases of intensive cage culture( Dias et al.,2011).Water quality deterioration may result from
release of solids wastes(Dias et al.,2011) such as uneaten feeds, feces and mucus, soluble wastes
especially phosphorus and nitrogen compounds. Overtime, these may cause environmental impacts
such as eutrophication (Demir et al., 2001;
Santiago et al., 2001), algal blooms and changes in zoo plankton community structure (Dias et al.,
2011) that may affect natural fish production. Mangaliso et at. (2011) predicted that intensive
aquaculture is likely to be an important new source of nutrients on local lake-wide scale. These
studies have demonstrated how agricultural activities contribute to nutrient loading in water bodies
that affect water quality and their related effects at global, regional and national scales. However,
these studies have not been done on a local scale.

2.3 Livestock production, crop farming and Total Suspended Solids

Total Suspended Solids is the concentration of suspended sediments. Unsustainable land use,
improper tillage and soil management in agriculture are increasing erosion and sediment runoff
into rivers, lakes reservoirs, with massive quantities of soil lost and transported to water bodies
every year. The global rate of erosion in croplands is estimated at 10.5 mega grams (Mg) per ha
per year, which corresponds to 193 kilograms of soil organic carbon per ha per year. Estimates for
pastureland are lower, at 1.7Mg per ha per year, equivalent to 40.4 kilograms of soil organic carbon
per ha per year. It is estimated that 43 percent of the agricultural sediment flux is in Asia(Doetterl,
Van Oost and Six 2012).High rates of erosion occur in areas where precipitation is high ,slopes are

8
steep and vegetation cover is poor. Erosion is aggravated by overgrazing in pasturelands, by
inappropriate ploughing on steep slopes and, more broadly, by deforestation, land creating and the
degradation of riverine vegetation. Suspended solids are the main mechanisms by which pollutants
such as pesticides and heavy metals are transported. These pollutants can attach to bonding sites
on the sediment particles and are carried by them suspended in water. The pollutants can be
released at any stage if and when the chemical equilibrium changes such as acidity or temperature.
The solids may also cause pollution directly, depending on their nature, if they are deposited and
undergo decomposition.

2.4 Crop farming and Total Dissolved Solids

The production of brackish drainage and leaching water in agriculture has grown proportionally
with the increase in irrigation in recent decades. Irrigation can mobilize salts accumulated in soils
(leaching fractions), which are then transported by drainage water to receiving water bodies and
cause salinization. Excessive irrigation can raise water tables from saline aquifers and increase the
seepage of saline groundwater into watercourses( Mateo-Sagasta and Burke,2010).highly saline
waters alter the geochemical cycles of major elements-such as carbon, iron, nitrogen, phosphorus,
silicon and sulphur (Herbert et al.,2015) with overall impacts on ecosystem. Salinity is normally
taken as the total dissolved concentration of major inorganic ions in the water
(Rhoades,1992).These include for instance sodium, calcium, magnesium, potassium, bicarbonate,
sulphate and chloride ions. Although each type of ion can be considered separately, it is usual to
assess their combined effect by estimating their total presence on a mass basis, and thus deriving
the TDS concentration in mg/liter. However, EC is widely used as a practical index of salinity and
can be measured in the field. The relationship between TDS and EC is approximate but consistent.
This is because Electrical Conductivity is slightly affected by variation in the composition of ion
in the water. The relationship is also temperature dependent.

2.5 Organic matter and BOD

Animal excreta, uneaten animal feeds, animal processing industries and mismanaged crop residues
are all significant organic matter. Livestock –related wastes have among the highest biological

9
oxygen demand (BOD).For example, the BOD of pig slurry is in the range of 30 00080 000
milligrams per liter, compared with the typical BOD of domestic sewage of 200-500 milligrams
per liter( FAO,2006).Locally, aquaculture can be a major contributor to organic loads in water. In
Scotland, for example, the discharge of untreated organic waste from salmon production is
equivalent to &% percent of the pollution discharged by the human population. Shrimp aquaculture
in Bangladesh generates 600 tons of waste per day (SACEP, 2014).Organic matter consumes
dissolved oxygen in water as it degrades, contributing too strongly to hypoxia in water bodies.
Dissolved Oxygen is an important element in water quality control. Its presence is essential to
maintaining biological life within a system and the effect of a waste discharge on a water body is
largely determined by the oxygen balance of the system. Clean surface waters are normally
saturated with dissolved oxygen, but such DO can be rapidly removed by oxygen demand of
organic wastes. The discharge of organic matter also increases the risk of eutrophication and algal
blooms in lakes, reservoirs and coastal areas.

These studies have demonstrated the agricultural activities that impact on water quality globally,
in Africa, regionally and at national scales, these studies therefore depict the unsustainable
trajectory followed by agro-food systems and identifies hotspots where crop production, livestock
production and aquaculture may be the key contributors to the degradation of water quality.
However, the studies have not been done on a local scale.

10
2.6 Conceptual Framework

Fig 1: conceptual framework.

SOURCE; Author’s own

11
 CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Introduction
This chapter is an in-depth coverage of the study area, research design, study population and
sample data collection procedures, data analyses and presentation techniques adopted in the study.

3.2 Study Area

Lake Kanyaboli is a small shallow fresh water lake with surface area of 10.5Km and an average
depth 2.5m;maximum depth 4.5m situated in central Alego and West Alego locations, Siaya
County.

3.2.1 Location
It is located at latitude 0.054167 degrees and longitude 34.162222 degrees.

.3.2.2 Vegetation

Lake Kanyaboli is surrounded by a thick papyrus swamp. The most common type has discrete
clump floating papyrus. The lake is almost divided into two sections (Northern and southern) by
papyrus which are firmly rooted in the mud. According to Okemwa (1981) the major
phytoplankton groups are blue green algae and a few green algae. However in the catchment
vegetation varies according to soil conditions, especially soil moisture. The natural vegetation
has been heavily affected by dense settlement, widespread cultivation and the cutting of trees for
fuel and construction. In addition erosion and overgrazing have depleted the grass cover in many
parts.

3.2.3 Economic activities

Residents of central and West Alego engage in fishing, farming and trading. Farming and fishing
forms background of livelihood to the people in this area. Farmers grow majorly soya, tomatoes,
rice, maize, sugarcane and to some extent beans for commercial purposes. Trading is characterized
by small scale enterprises. Fishing is on the other hand largely done by small boats and the cichlid
(fulu) is the major fish species caught from the lake largely for commercial purposes and
subsistence.

12
3.2.4 Population and land use
The population of five sub locations around Lake Kanyaboli according to the 2009 census was
44811 with 4744 households within an area of 86.2KM2.The sub locations are
Obambo,Kadenge,Gangu,Hawinga and Bar Olengo.The most densely populated sub location is
Hawinga with a population density of 313( area 12.6,population 3949).

The average farm size for small scale farmer is 1.5 ha and 7.0 ha for large scale farmer. The main
food crops include; maize, sorghum, millet, beans, cowpeas, cassava, sweet potatoes, groundnuts
and finger millets while the main cash crop include cotton, rice ,sugarcane and groundnuts. Other
crops include: irrigated rice, palm oil, chili, passion fruits and grain amaranth. Vegetables produced
in the area include: tomatoes, onions and kales while fruits grown in the regions are; mangoes,
pawpaw, bananas, oranges and watermelon. There are several livestock breeds in the study area.
These include zebu cattle, up-grade and pure dairy cows, dairy goats, poultry, local goats, sheep,
pigs, rabbits, donkeys and bees. Among these, zebu cattle forms the largest part of the cattle
population approximately 90%.Local sheep and goats are also widely kept by 70% of the farm
holds.

13
Figure 2: Map of Kenya showing Siaya County.

14
Figure 3.Satelite image showing Lake Kanyaboli.

Source; Google maps

3.3 Research design

Descriptive type of research was adopted since the main interest was to assess the prevailing
situation of the study area i.e. Condition oriented. Moreover, the study was cross-sectional given
the short duration allocated for data collection.

3.4 Study population and sampling size

The study population was infinite. Hence the sample sites were purposively selected depending
on dominant land use and access. The water samples were collected in triplicate from 15
sampling points. In each sample collected the major water quality parameters that were tested for
were PH, the turbidity, total dissolved solids, total suspended solids, alkalinity, nitrite, nitrate and
phosphorus. The data obtained was used to determine the significant deference of the parameters.

15
Some parameters were measured in-situ while others were undertaken in the laboratory.
3.4 Data collection methods and sampling
Both primary and secondary data were used in this study. Primary data was collected through
sampling, photography and observations while secondary data was obtained from Water Resources
Authority –Siaya, and NEMA Siaya-Office.

Observation was simple, non-participant and this facilitated getting first-hand information on the
agricultural activities and the state of water quality in the area. Field observation and laboratory
observation were key in this study. Photography helped to bring out the visual impression of the
current state of water quality.

Sample collection
A small row boat was used from which water samples were taken from the lake water. An
integrating sampler was used to sample. This is a bottle placed in a metal holder attached to a
string and immersed in water ensuring that it does not touch the bottom. This is then transferred
into 500 ml plastic bottles. To ensure that the collected samples were representative of the lake
water conditions the sampling bottles were rinsed two times with the water before sampling.

I. Laboratory Methods
The analyses of water samples for the studied parameters were performed at the KEFRI, Maseno.
Due to time constraints, all the analysis was performed by the laboratory staff. The determination
of the specific physical and chemical characteristics of water was done in accordance with
standard analytical methods and techniques. Techniques and methods used in this study for
laboratory analysis of water samples were determined according to APHA (1992).

The BOD was determined as the difference between the oxygen concentration before and after
incubation for 5 days at 20 °C in the dark. The initial O2 was read using HI9143 HANNA model
DO meter. The solution were closed tightly so that it could not trap in any air bubbles and then
incubated in the water bath in an inverted manner. The temperature was maintained at 20 °C.
After 5 days and the readings of the final oxygen were recorded in triplicates and the mean
calculated and recorded. The BOD was the difference between the initial and the final readings.

16
 II. Colorimetric Analysis
Colorimetric analyses are particularly useful when dealing with dilute solutions and there are
many determinations in water quality control which can be carried out by this method. This
method is based on the formation of a compound or complex with definite color characteristics
and the density of the color is proportional to the concentration of the parameter being
determined. The colored solutions must follow two principles:
a) Light absorbed is proportional to the concentration of substance
b) Light intensity transmitted is inversely proportional to the length of light path in solution. The
color produced is measured by the process of color matching of liquid columns illuminated
from below. The procedure was used to analyze parameters such as calcium and magnesium
(by filtration with ammonium oxalate), iron (heated with dilute nitric acid and filtered),
manganese (add sulphuric acid and evaporate to dryness), fluoride (by filtration with mercuric
nitrate solution). Nitrates, nitrites and phosphorus were all determined according to APHA
(1992).

3.4.1 Sampling Design

The whole of Lake Kanyaboli (10.5 square km) formed an area of interest during the study. The
lake was First stratified into two (northern and southern section) and then the random sampling
procedure was used to establish sampling stations. This was based mainly on the shape of the
lake (the lake is almost divided into two by the papyrus swamp) and was related to the total lake
area made of up that section. The sampling sites were further considered on the basis of their
proximity to major sources of human activities and particularly agricultural activities which may
influence the water quality. Sampling sites were also established in the open waters away from
the intensive use areas and away from near-shore influence. This was based on the fact that the
inshore or littoral zones usually exhibit different biotic communities and therefore sustains
different level of production from that of deeper, open water areas. These differences are
therefore expected to be reflected in water quality characteristics. A total of 15 sampling points
were established from which water samples for physical and chemical analysis were collected.
This mainly depended on time available to collect and process the sample.

17
Figure 4. Map showing Sampling points

Source; Authors own(modified from Google maps) TABLE 1: The methods/instruments, book
references used to measure the parameters
Unit Method/Instrument Reference
Parameter
- Microprocessor pH meter(HANNA instruments, pH
pH 211)

18
 Electrical µs/cm TDS meter (H1-9635,portable water proof APHA,
Conductivity Multirange Conductivity/TDS meter, HANNA) 1992
TDS
Mg/l
Total Suspended TSS meter (H1-9635,portable water proof
Solids Multirange Conductivity/TDS meter, HANNA)

Mg/l UV/Visible Spectrophotometry APHA,

Nitrate
1992
Mg/l DO meter (HI9143 HANNA)
BOD(DO)
Mg/l UV/Visible Spectrophotometry
Phosphorus

Data Collection Limitations

The following are believed to be the most important data limitations in this study:
1. Most of the laboratory equipment used for physical and chemical analysis was accurate
up to only one decimal place. Consequently, some parameters could have passed undetected.
2. In the case of secondary data, it was not easy to obtain accurate and reliable information
from some sources due to poor record keeping sources and the absence of required information.

3.5 Data analysis and presentation

Analyzing data involves examining it in ways that reveal patterns, trends and relationships. The
qualitative data was categorized and consequently used to evaluate the effectiveness of the data
groups. The quantitative data was subjected to statistical procedures, means and averages, mode
and measurements of variability such, standard deviation and percentages. This will be done using
Statistical Package for Social Sciences, (SPSS). Inferential statistics was used to clearly show the
trends that helped to ascertain the future expectations if agricultural production continues in the
same trajectory. Presentation of the analyzed data was done by use of bar graphs and tables.

19
3.6 Reliability and Validity
Test retest method was used: where the same measurement procedure was applied to the same
group on two or more occasions to ensure reliability and validity. Additionally, this method was
employed to ensure that the data collected was accurate, consistent and reliable.

Content validity was also ensured in the research to measure the degree to which data collected
using a particular instrument represented specific indicators or content of particular concept.

3.7 Research Ethics

The purpose of the study was explained to eligible respondents and concerned parties.
Confidentiality was maintained especially on important information about the respondent. This
research relied on data legitimately collected by the researcher. The study also ensured no
plagiarism.

20
 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction
This chapter summarizes the water quality results of the study, discusses the implications of the
results on water quality and offers explanations for the presence and concentrations of the
selected parameters in relation to the agricultural activities.

4.2 Agricultural activities and nutrient loading

The relationship between agricultural activities and nutrient loading was analyzed and the results
are presented in the table

Table 4.1Sampling points and nutrient values

Sampling No of samples NO3 (mg/l) PO4(mg/l)
point (n)
1 3 6.23 0.50
2 3 6.25 0.45
3 3 12.71 0.38
4 3 11.72 0.46
5 3 13.48 0.58
6 3 12.83 0.50
7 3 8.26 0.65
8 3 10.24 0.38
9 3 14.50 0.56
10 3 8.28 0.61
11 3 12.12 0.58
12 3 8.51 0.65
13 3 11.80 0.40
14 3 13.99 0.53
15 3 12.83 0.56

21
4.2.1 Nitrates

Figure 5.Bar graph Showing mean nitrate levels across sampling points.
Nitrate mean concentration levels ranged from 6.23 in sampling point 1 to 14.50 mg/L in
sampling point 9 as shown in Table 4.1 and Figure 5. The values recorded for nitrate were all
below the WHO permissible limits of 50 mg/L, however there was significant difference
between the levels of nitrates across all the sampling points. Lower levels were obtained by
Magut &Terer (2012) during their study on the levels of nitrate ions in water from Kimondi
River, Nandi County, Kenya, which they found to range from 0.18 mg/L to 0.66mg/L. High
concentrations of nitrates may give rise to potential health risks such as methemoglobinemia or
‘blue-baby-syndrome’ particularly in pregnant women and bottle-fed infants (Nkansah et al.,
2010). The increasing use of artificial fertilizers, the disposal of wastes particularly from animal
farming, and changes in land use are the main factors responsible for the progressive increase in
nitrate levels in river water and supplies over the last 20 years (Akinsola, 2005). The nitrates
found in the water samples could have come from leaching and run-off from human activities
such as agriculture where nitro-phosphate fertilizers are used in the farmlands around the lake.
The origin of nutrients can be directly related to surface runoff from farms, homesteads including
cattle pens, grazing lands and forest lands. Other sources of nutrients include direct bathing and
washing in the lake. According to Nolan and Hitt (2006) raw waste effluents from factories and
sewage treatment usually have high levels of ammonia and nitrogenous wastes which can lead to
rapid multiplication of bacterial population. These can elevate the levels of nitrates in the
adjacent water bodies through aerobic and anaerobic bacterial activities. The presence of nitrates

22
in the water samples is suggestive of some bacterial action and bacterial growth (Nolan & Hitt,
2006).

Table 4.2 Nitrates One sample t-test One-Sample Test

Test Value = 10

95% Confidence
Interval of the

Std. Sig. Mean Difference

t df mean Deviation (2tailed) Difference Lower Upper

Nitrate 1.289 14 10.9167 2.7553 .218 .91667 -.6091 2.4424

From the table it is clear that there is deviation of the mean level of nitrates from the permissible
level of 10 ppm. Hence the level of nitrates in Lake Kanyaboli water was above the acceptable
limit by WHO. The p value as indicated in the table above was greater than 0.05 the set critical
alpha for the study.

23
4.2.2 Phosphorus

Figure 6.Bar graph showing mean phosphate levels across sample points.

Phosphates mean levels ranged from 0.38mg/l in sampling point 3 to 0.65 mg/l in sampling point
12 as shown in Table 4.1 and Figure 6. Comparably, these values were below the WHO
maximum allowed limits of phosphate in drinking water of 45mg/l, however there was
significant difference between the levels of phosphates across all the sampling points. Naturally,
phosphates are derived from decomposing organic matter and leaching of phosphorus rich
bedrock. Phosphate contamination comes from use of fertilizers and pesticides in farming
activities, (Goldman & Horne, 2009). The levels of phosphates in Lake Kanyaboli waters can be
attributed to increasing loading of human wastes, animal wastes, and agricultural activities into
the lake. Similar observations were made during a study on the physico-chemical properties of
water of Mouri River, Khulna, Bangladesh, (Goldman & Horne, 2009) and (Kamal et al., 2007).

24
Table 4.3 Phosphorus One sample t test

One-Sample Test

Test Value = 45 mg/l

Sig. 95% Confidence Interval

Std. (2tailed) Mean of the Difference

t df mean Deviation Difference Lower Upper

Phosphorus -
14 0.5100 0.07955 0.000 -44.49000 -44.5341 -44.4459
2165.984

The table above shows that there was no significant difference in quantity of phosphorus in the
samples (p value -2165.984). This finding indicates that it is possible that the lake was very
active biologically (as implied by high values of dissolved oxygen) most of the phosphorus of
the phosphorus was taken up by algae and other aquatic organisms. The above result therefore
supports Edzwald's (1976) argument that in a lake at any one time, most of the phosphorus is
either tied up in organisms or on solids-organic detritus and inorganic particles such as clays.
According to Odum (1971), the maximum amount of phosphorus that is likely to be in soluble
form at any one time is only 10 percent of the total phosphorus. There is an extensive movement
of phosphorus between solid and dissolved state in a lake.

4.3 Agricultural waste and TDS, TSS, pH and Turbidity

The relationship between agricultural wastes and physical parameters was analyzed and the
results are presented in the table 4.4
Table 4.4 Physical parameters of Lake Kanyaboli
Sample No of pH Total Dissolved Total Turbidity
point samples (n) Solids (TDS) Suspended NTU
Mg/l Solids (TSS)
1 3 7.30 104 65 180
2 3 7.70 100 57 230

25
3 3 8.00 110 85 90
4 3 6.00 112 56 94
5 3 6.80 98 78 100
6 3 7.00 90 70 150
7 3 7.10 115 82 144
8 3 6.70 110 88 81.50
9 3 6.80 96 88 76.50
10 3 7.20 90 93 120
11 3 7.28 112 90 130
12 3 7.00 106 95 200
13 3 6.60 100 86 140
14 3 6.50 78 72 112
15 3 7.20 60 69 110

4.3.1 PH
The pH is a measure of the effective concentration of hydrogen ions and is usually expressed on
a scale that ranges from 0-14 units. It is a scale of intensity of acidity and alkality of water and
measures (Hiremath et al., 2011).The pH values ranged from 6.00 in sampling point 4 to 8.00 in
sampling point 3 as shown in Table 4.4 and Figure 7. The pH levels were within the WHO
optimum limits for drinking and portable water, which is 6.5 and 8.5 (WHO, 2006). All the mean
values of pH obtained for all the samples fell within the WHO range but were slightly above the
natural background level of 7.0. There was significant difference between the levels of pH across
all the sampling points. This increase in pH of the water samples above the natural background
levels may be due to the presence of dissolved carbonates and bicarbonates present in the water,
which affects the pH of surface water (Araoye, 2009 & Mustapha, 2009). The increase in pH can
also be attributed to organic pollution and the domestic waste discharge draining into the river
system as it traverses the habited areas, Araoye (2009). Similar findings were also reported
during study on the seasonal variation of pH and dissolved oxygen concentration in Asa Lake
Ilorin, Nigeria (Araoye, 2009 & Mustapha, 2009). The pH also influences other parameters like

26
conductivity, bicarbonates, chlorides, salinity, phosphates, hardness and magnesium in water
(Araoye, 2009).

Figure 7.Bar graph showing Mean pH levels across sampling points.

4.3.2 Total Dissolved Solids

Figure 8.Bar graph showing Mean Total Dissolved Solids across sampling points.

The dissolved solids in a water body depend in part upon the geological character of a watershed,
on the rainfall, and partly on the amount of pollution taking place (Anyona, 2000).A sudden rise
in the content of TDS in a water body may be due to pollution and a fall may be caused by heavy
rainfall. Soluble salts (dissolved solids) commonly found in a water body include chlorides,
sulphate, nitrates, bicarbonates, and phosphates of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron,
and manganese. In Lake Kanyaboli this study reported generally low values of TDS ranging
from 60 mg/l in sampling point 15 to 115 mg/ l in sampling point 7 as shown Table 4.4and

27
Figure 8. Higher values of total solids could be due to the presence of silt and clay particles in
the lake water. The levels of TDS were within tolerable limits for drinking water they did not
exceed 1200 mg/l (KEBS, 2010). According to Oluyemi et al., (2014), the high values during the
dry season could be due to concentration of ions in water as a result of evaporation which lead to
decrease in the volume of water. Studies have revealed that high levels of total dissolved solids
in drinking water have contributed to the incidences of cancer and coronary heart disease
(Yashoda et al., 2014). Other water quality parameters like hardness are influenced by the TDS,
if for instance the high total dissolved solid content is due to the presence of carbonates
(Olumuyiwa et al., 2012)

4.3.3Total Suspended Solids

Figure 9. Bar graph showing Mean Total Suspended Solids levels across sampling points.

The total suspended solids in the sampled water ranged from 56 mg/l in sampling point 4 to
95mg/l in sampling point 12 as shown in Table 4.4 and Figure 9.This was higher than the world
health organization permissible limit of 30 mg/L. Total suspended solid contents of water
depends on the amount of suspended particle, soil, silt and is directly related to turbidity of
water. Low level of total suspended solids were recorded for Kosi River at Uttrakhand, Iran, and
the average value of TSS varied from 3 to 174 mg/l, (Keramat, 2008),which are slightly higher
than Lake Kanyaboli. The higher amount of total suspended solids in the collected samples was
attributed to run off from farms and agricultural wastes which resulted in the presence of several
suspended particles. There was significant difference between the levels of TSS across all the
sampling points.

28
4.3.4 Turbidity

Figure10. Bar graph showing mean turbidity levels across sampling points. Turbidity
in water is caused by the presence of suspended matter such as clays, silt, finely divided
organic and inorganic matter, plankton, and other microscopic organisms. In Lake Kanyaboli,
turbidity values range between 76.50 NTU and 230 NTU with a mean value of 135.16. The
high turbidity values recorded in Lake Kanyaboli are as a result of silt and clays washed into
the lake by streams and runoff water. In addition, algal production within the lake may also be
responsible for the high turbidity values. According to Anyona (2000), wind action should
also be taken into account considering the fact that the lake is shallow and any small
disturbance caused by the wind is enough to disturb bottom materials hence causing turbidity.
As a result turbidity values are expected to vary greatly.

Table 4.5 Turbidity One sample t test One-Sample Test

Test Value = 5 NTU

95% Confidence Interval

of the Difference

Mean
T mean Std. Deviation Difference Lower Upper

Turbidity 9.444 135.600 53.37910 130.16000 100.5996 159.7204

29
The table above shows one sample t test to ascertain if there was a significant difference
deviation of the turbidity from the standard value of 5 NTU. According to Chirchir (2016), water
turbidity above 5 NTU is not fit for human consumption. From the table it is evident that samples
from Lake Kanyaboli (p=9.444) was statistically significantly different than the test value of 5
NTU. These findings suggest that the turbidity of the water samples are above the required
standard and is not safe for human consumption if turbidity alone was to be considered. A
concurring finding was demonstrated by Amankona (2013) who proved that there was a general
increase in all the physico-chemical parameters during wet season with turbidity, conductivity
and total dissolved solids recording high values.

4.4 Agricultural Organic matter and BOD

The study sought to determine the BOD levels of the water samples from Lake Kanyaboli.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic
biological organisms in a body of water to break down organic material present in a given water
sample at certain temperature over a specific time period (Penn, 2006). BOD is used as an
indication of the organic quality of water. The amount of organic matter present within water
sample and the relative biodegradability of the organics may be estimated by analyzing samples
for BOD.Results obtained after analysis are shown in Table 4.6

Table 4.6 BOD One sample t test

One-Sample Test

Test Value = 30 mg/l

95% Confidence Interval of the

Std. Sig. Mean Difference

t df mean Deviation (2tailed) Difference Lower Upper

BOD -.661 14 28.333 9.759 .519 -1.66667 -7.0710 3.7377

30
The BOD from the lake water differs significantly from the standard value of 30 mg/L with a p
value of -0.661. It was also less than 0.05 critical alpha set for this study. This means that the
higher BOD recorded during the study was above the standard limit hence water samples was
either contaminated with microbes or organic contaminants. Studies carried out by Ndubi et al.,
(2015) which was conducted in Narok North Sub County, Kenya to analyze physic-chemical
properties of water in various water sources in the dry and the wet season to determine water
quality for domestic use. Properties analyzed included pH, temperature, DO, BOD, TDS, TSS
and total hardness. The results indicated that most parameters fell within the accepted range
according to WHO except for the BOD which indicated the presence of microorganisms and
hence the water is not fit for human use unless treated prior to consumption.

31
 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction
This chapter gives the summary of the major findings from the study, the conclusion and
recommendations.

5.2 Summary of findings

The values recorded for nutrients (nitrates and phosphate) were all below the WHO permissible
limits, however there was significant difference between the levels of both nutrients across all
the sampling points. The origin of the nutrients can directly be related to surface runoff from
human activities particularly agriculture where nitro-phosphate fertilizers are used in the
farmlands around the lake, surface runoff from cattle pens, fish ponds and grazing lands.

Agricultural wastes affect the selected physical parameters (pH, TDS, TSS and turbidity).There
were significant differences between the levels of pH, TDS, TSS and turbidity across all the
sampling points. However the findings suggest that pH, TDS and TSS recorded values were
within the permissible WHO standards except turbidity which was above the standard.

BOD from the lake water differed significantly from the standard value of 30 mg/l. This meant
that the higher BOD recorded during the study was above the standard limit hence the water
samples either were contaminated with microbes or organic contaminants.

5.3 Conclusion
Water is a basic resource and its sustainable use demands that water should not be interfered
with. Yet, the limited available water has deteriorated due to infiltration of pollutants from
different human activities. The analysis showed that agricultural pollution sources of Lake
Kanyaboli can be divided into point sources and non-point sources. Results obtained from the
study reveal that Lake Kanyaboli is polluted. These waters showed a pH varying between 6.00
and 8.00 indicating that the water was acidic, neutral or basic. TDS varied from 60.00 mg/L and
115.00 mg/l, while TSS varied between 56mg/L to 95 mg/L, depending on the activity taking
place by the lake environs, agricultural activity and burning of the vegetation by the lakeside
increases turbidity and concentration of TSS. The Biochemical Oxygen Demand content induced
by organic waste disposal and microorganisms within the lake showed an increasing trend. This
32
is attributed to continuous output of organic wastes from agricultural activities and domestic
activities.

5.3 Recommendations
The value of water quality cannot be overestimated. Protecting water resources for future
sustainable use will require research, financial planning, communication, innovative solutions
and sound policy decisions by the Government.
From the discussions carried out, the following recommendations are made:-
1. Funding for training and establishing a monitoring programme to continually monitor levels
of pollutants in Lake Kanyaboli so that they do not reach critical levels.
2. No form of farming should be allowed within 30 meters of the lake vicinity.
3. There should be appropriate education on the proper handling, use and disposal of
agrochemicals such as fertilizers.

4. Necessary protective and conservation measures of the lake should be implemented.

33
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