GREAT ZIMBABWE UNIVERSITY

gg
GARY MAGADZIRE SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL

SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

INTERGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT THE CASE STUDY OF

KUTE RIVER BASIN, NYANGA.

BY

KAFIKIRA WISEMAN T

M193770

DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE UNIVERSITY IN

PARTIAL FULLFIMENT OF A BACHELOR OF SCIENCE HONORS DEGREE IN

GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

FEBRUARY 2022

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 APPROVAL FORM

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

The undersigned certify that they have read and recommend to the Great Zimbabwe State
University for acceptance of a research project entitled: INTERGRATED WATER
RESOURCES MANAGEMENT THE CASE STUDY OF KUTE RIVER BASIN,
NYANGA. The project was submitted by Wiseman T Kafikira in partial fulfilment of the
requirements of a Bachelor of Science Honours Degree in Geography and Environmental
Science.

SUPERVISOR ………………………………………
DATE ………/……../……….

CHAIRPERSON ………………………………………

DATE ……/………/…………

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 RELEASE FORM

NAME OF AUTHOR: KAFIKIRA WISEMAN T

TITLE OF THE PROJECT: INTERGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMNT

THE CASE STUDY OF KUTE RIVER BASIN, NYANGA.

DEGREE PROGRAMME: BACHELOR OF SCIENCE HONOURS DEGREE

IN GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

YEAR THIS DEGREE WAS GRANTED: 2022

Permission is hereby granted to the Great Zimbabwe State University to produce single copies of
this dissertation and to lend or sell such copies for private, scholarly or scientific research
purpose only. The author reserve other publication rights and the dissertation nor may extensive
extracts from it be published or otherwise reproduced without the author’s written permission.

SIGNED: ……………………………………………………………..

PERMANENT ADDRESS: 3102 250th CLOSE KUWADZANA 3, HRE

EMAIL: kafikirawiseman85@gmail.com

DATE: FEBRUARY 2022

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 DECLARATION

I, Kafikira Wiseman T, hereby declare that this work is my own original work, that it has not
been plagiarized nor submitted for similar degree in any other University.

Signed …………………………………

Date ……………………………………..

DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my wife Doreen Charera ,children, parents, my siblings and the
rest of the family, not leaving the Almighty God who assisted, guided and supported me all the
way up to this end.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many people deserve a word of gratitude for the assistance they rendered me during my years as
a student at Great Zimbabwe State University and during the compilation of this research study. I
will limit myself to mention a few of them.

Special thanks go to the Almighty God for granting me this blessed opportunity to be a student
and to compile this research at Great Zimbabwe State University. I would also like to thank Dr
B.K Mudzengi my supervisor who tirelessly worked with and guided me from the beginning to
the attainment of this research project.

I would also like to thank Nyanga Rural District Council and the community respectively for
granting me the permission to carry out my research, and their willingness to assist and
participate in this research.

And also with special regards to Great Zimbabwe State University and all the Geography and
Environmental studies Lecturers whose undistinguishable service and commitment throughout
my studies was unquestionably of great value and they proffered me a great chance to implement
some of the information that I gained over the past four years at Great Zimbabwe State
University onto my research.

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Lastly I would like to thank my wife and children, family and friends for their unwavering
support during the course of this programme and project; they have been a pillar to lean on and
kept me going. Their love and support brought me to the end of this academic level. God bless
them all for making the mission of the project attainable.

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

NRDC Nyanga Rural District Council

IWRM Integrated Water Resource Management

JMP Joint Monitoring Programme

MDG Millennium Development Goals

NGO Non Governmental Organaisation

SDGs Sustainable Development Goals

ZINWA Zimbabwe National Water Authority

Abstract
The purpose of this study was to assess water management problems in rural river basins in
Zimbabwe through giving reference to Kute River drainage basin. The gradual decline in the
proper management of water in the river basins in Zimbabwe has prompted the need to undertake
this study. The findings of the research can therefore be useful in finding ways to improve the
management and planning process of river basins dotted around the country. The study
employed mixed approach in gathering data. In dealing with the main objective of the study the
research used descriptive research designs. A sample of 75 respondents that comprises of
villagers, council officials, councillor, NGOs, representative of ward 14 development association
and chairperson of Village development committee were chosen to participate in this study.
Systematic random sampling, purposive, convenient and snowballing sampling techniques were
used in selecting participants during data collection. Primary data was collected through

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administration of questionnaires to the villagers, site observations of water withdrawal
mechanism from Kute River and then interviews with key informant from council officials and
other stakeholders. The study area was Kute communal area and this research was only confined
to ward 14 in Ngawagare ,Murengami and Udinge villages.

The research established that water management issues in Kute communal area are below
optimum level. The study findings revealed that a number of challenges are being faced by the
local Council in the management of water. These include population growth, illegal settlements,
water source, vandalism, resource constrains and among others. These challenges were proven to
be a stumbling block in the efficient management of water .As a result, this situation negatively
affects the lives of villagers in Kute Communal Lands as they are left exposed to water borne
diseases, unstable livelihoods and interruption of economic activities. In response to the same a
number of coping strategies has been adopted by members of this community to increase
quantity of water, improve quality and accommodate shortages. The study concludes that the
performance of the local authority in relation to the management of water and sanitation services
is not being up to the required standard. In the last chapter, the study concludes by giving
recommendation based on the research findings. The recommendations include engaging the
private sector to source resources, investment in more temporary water infrastructure, central
government support in terms of capital projects, increased stakeholder participation in the
development process and engagement of NGOs in management of water in the river basin.

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 Table of Contents
RELEASE FORM ..................................................................................................................... iii
DECLARATION ...................................................................................................................... iv
DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................ v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS....................................................................................................... vi
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ................................................................................. vii
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................... viii
LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………….…...xv

LIST OF TABLES ……………………………………………………………………………xv

LIST OF PLATES……………………………………………………………………………..xvi
CHAPTER I ...........................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................1
1.2Background to the study ..................................................................................................1
1.3Statement of the problem .................................................................................................3
1.4Research objectives .........................................................................................................4
1.5Research questions ..........................................................................................................4
1.6 Justification of the study .................................................................................................4
1.7 Delimitations ..................................................................................................................5
1.8Limitations of the study ..................................................................................................5
1.9 Definition of terms .........................................................................................................6
1.10 Chapter Summary .........................................................................................................7
CHAPTER 2. .......................................................................................................................... 8
LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................................... 8
2.1 Introduction…… ....................................................................................................................8
2.2 Objectives of water reforms and management…….................................. 8
2.3 Water Resources in Zimbabwe: Hydrological and Historical Context .................... 8

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 2.4.1Water legislation: The early years: 1890-1927 ………
…..10 2.4.2 Agriculture-based water law: 1927-1980
……………………………………………11

2.4.3Redressing past water injustices................................................................. 11

2.4.4The Water Act of 1998.......................................................................................... 12
2.2.4 The Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA) Act. ................... 12
2.4.5Water resources management: Participation, issues and challenges ........... 13
. 2.2.7.1 Donor withdrawal …………………………………………………………………13

2.2.7.2 Other national programmes…………………………………………………………14

2.2.7.3 Financial stability ………………………………………………………………..... 15

2.2.7.4 Weak institutional linkages ……………………………………………………… 16

2.2.7.5Lack of capacity within key institution.......... …………………………………… 19

2.2.7.6 Lack of enforcement of legislation...........................................................................

19
2.2.7.7 Chapter Summary ..................................................................................................... 20

3. RESEARCH METHODS AND MATERIALS …………………………………..27

3.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................27

3.2 Research Methodology ......................................................

………………………............ …27

3.3Research design ...............................................................................................

……………...27

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 3.3 (1) Case study research design .................................................................... ………..………
28

3.3 (2)Descriptive research designs

..... ......................................................................................28

3.4 Research approach................................................... ……………………...

…………………………… 29.... 3.4.1 Qualitative
Research........................................................................................................... 29

3.4.2Quantitative Research ........................................................................................................ 29

3.5 Research population ...........................................................................................................

29

3.5 .1 Target population ............................................................................................................ 30

3.5.2Sampling ............................................................................................................................ 30

3.5.3Sample size ........................................................................................................................ 31

3.6 Sampling technique ..............................................................................................................31

3.6. 1 Systematic Random Sampling ................................................................................. 31
3. 6. 2 Purposive sampling .................................................................................................32
3. 6. 3 Convenience sampling ............................................................................................32
3. 6. 4 Snowball sampling ..................................................................................................33
3. 7 Data collection ............................................................................................................ 33
3.7.1 Sources of data ........................................................................................................ 34

3. 7 .2 Primary data sources.................................................................................................34

3. 7 .3 Secondary data sources ............................................................................................ 34
3. 7 .4 Data collection Methods / Instruments ..................................................................... 34
3. 7 .4 (i) Questionnaire ...................................................................................................... 34
Advantages of questionnaires ............................................................................................. 34
Disadvantages of questionnaires ......................................................................................... 34

3.7. 4 (ii) Interviews ........................................................................................................... 34

Advantages of interviews ................................................................................................... 35

3.7. 4 (iii) Site Observation ................................................................................................ 35

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 Advantages of observations ...........................................................................................35
Disadvantages ..................................................................................................................... 35

3. 8 Validity and reliability ................................................................................................. 35

3.9 Ethical
considerations...................................................................................................35

3.10Data presentation and analysis….. .................................................................................... 36

3.11Chapter summary ............................................................................................................... 37
CHAPTER 4 ......................................................................................................................... …38
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ............................................................................................ 38
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ …….38
4.1 State of water harvesting techniques in Kute River Ward 14 Nyanga District....................39

4.3.1 Sources of water ............................................................................................................. 39

4.3.2 Distance travelled to water sources by Kute Ward 14 Villagers......................... ……….40

4.4 State of downstream water supply in Kute River from the Source in Murengami Village.
………………………………………………………………………………………………. 41

4.5 Villagers views on the impacts of inadequate water supply in Kute communal area…… 43

4.5.1 Exposure to diseases ……………………………………………………………………43

4.6.2 Unstable lives …………………………………………………………………………...45

4.6.3 Interruption of economic activities …………………………………………………..46

4.8 Challenges faced by NRDC in the integrated management of water resources

harvesting……………………………………………………………………………………...47

4.8 .1 Resource constraints …………………………………………………………………….48

4.8 .2Poor governance …………………………………………………………………………49

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4.9.1 Coping strategies to address the problem of water shortages in Ward 14, Kute communal
area…………………………………………………………………………………49

4.10 The involvement of the community in relation to water and sanitation provision services

4.10.1 Testing of water sources………………………………………………………………53

4.10.2 Educational campaigns ……………………………………………………………54

4.11 Summary ………………………………………………………………………..….....54

CHAPTER 5 ........................................................................................................................... .55

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................... ...55
5.0Introduction .........................................................................................................................55
5.1Summary .............................................................................................................................56
5.2Conclusions .................................................................................................................... …57
5.3Recommendations ........................................................................................................... ...58
Reference list ....................................................................................................................... ….60
Appendices ...................................................................................................................... ..........61
Interview guide for council officials ........................................................................................ 66
Interview guide for Councillors… ........................................................................................... 66

Interview Guide for Non-Governmental organization…… ....................................................67

Interview Guide for Ward 14 Development Committee. …................................... 67

Page |
Observation Check List ...........................................................................................................68
Approval Letter ......................................................................................................................110
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure1: 1 Designated Catchment Areas of Zimbabwe ................................................... 26
Figure 1.2 Map showing Kute Drainage basin and Kute Communal lands
Fig 2.1 Designated Catchment Areas of Zimbabwe.......................................................... 54
Fig 4:1 Figure 4.1 Main sources of water used in Kute communal area, ward 14 ,Nyanga District

Figure: 4.2 Effects of inadequate water supply in Kute River basin ................................. 57

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 Figure: 4.3 Challenges of water management of water in Kute communal area

Figure 4.8 Coping strategies employed by villagers to cope with poor water provision in Ward
14, in Kute communal area……………………………………………………………..………..51

Figure 4.9 shows Organizations involved in redressing water management problems in Kute
communal area ward 14………………………………………………………………………53

Figure 4.10 shows Organizations involved in redressing water management problems in Kute
communal area ward 14. ……………………………………………………………………….53

LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1 shows water harvesting techniques used by Ngawagare, Murengami and Udinge
villages in Ward 14 Nyanga District…………………………………………………………… 38
Table 4.2 Villagers perceptions on the current Kute River water withdrawal situation……….39

Table 4.3 Villagers perceptions on the performance of council in the management of water
resources in ward 14 Kute communal area……………………………………………………..44

Table: 4.4 shows Household coping strategies to increase water quantity in Ward 14, Kute
communal area…………………………………………………………………………………..50

Page |

LIST OF PLATES
Plate 4:1 protected water source ............................................................................................. 42
Plate 4:2 unprotected water sources ....................................................................................... 43

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CHAPTER ONE

1. Introduction
The chapter presents the background to the study, statement of the problem, research aims,
objectives and research questions. It also presents a justification for the study, definition of terms
used in the study and a description of the study area Kute River drainage basin is in Manicaland
Province under Nyanga Rural District.
2. Background of the study
Water scarcity is one of the greatest challenges facing our society in the present era (Postel
2015;Seckler et al.2019).Over the course of the last century rapid population growth ,variations
in climate ,land use changes have created severe problems for managing our increasingly scarce
freshwater resources(Mekonmen and Hoekstra2016;Vorosmarty 2000:White and Nackoney
2003;World Economic Forum 2017).Water scarcity can create serious harm to many facets of a
community by negatively impacting the economy environment and those in poverty (UN-
Water2007) competing and growing demands between different sectors can exacerbate these
impacts (Florke et al .2018).In the face of rising scarcity opportunities exist to better plan and
manage water resources .An important stage in addressing water scarcity is to first categorizes
and quantify where its effects will be most pronounced. Several water management practices,
institutional settings, and policy changes can be incorporated to alleviate and better manage
water scarcity.
With increasing water scarcity it is essential to view water allocation and distribution in
communal areas from the basin perspective. Traditionally in the water sector much of the focus
on rural development has been aimed at individual systems or communities. This focus has to
change to cope with wider issues of competition for water of good quality. Looking at water
from an differing perspective means that we have to look not only at water supply and demand
for all users but also at institutional issues involved in the provision of services. The issue maybe
exemplified by the issue of scaling up whereby each separate water use, by itself, may not have a
noticeable impact , but as the number of such water uses, intensifies, the overall impact on
water resources and other water users becomes, significant. In light of these issues , safeguarding
and developing water resources for rural development like Kute Communal area require a
combination of inputs or interventions in three major dimensions the upstream – downstream
dimension , which reignites that each water use or water user potentially impacts on all the other
users. The institutional dimension that needs to consider the planning, policies, rights,

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regulations, monitoring and water user organizations that need to be designed and implemented
to enhance the effective functioning of organizations at basin and system levels as well as at the
level of individual uses or users. Lastly the provision of services to different water uses and users
so that water is delivered with a highly reliable level of service to encourage productive water
use.
The river basin perspective allows one to look with greater clarity at the importance of upstream
– downstream issues(Stewart and Tolbert,2009;Miller et al.,2010).The most common element is
that there is some form of equitable allocation policy maintained throughout the basin that
recognizes existing uses, and yet has the ability to reallocate water amongst users to meet
emerging needs .Besides the quantity of water supply , there are other issues that emerge with
increasing water scarcity which include deterioration of water quality , either from agricultural or
domestic complexes , that reduces the value and utility of water to downstream users , ensuring
water supplies of adequate quantity and quality for sensitive environmental areas ,including such
issues as wetland and wildlife protection , opportunities and threats posed by resume of
wastewater for irrigation or consumption , meeting the water needs of the rural poor who , at
present ,have insufficient access to water and the impacts of upstream water-harvesting
techniques on basin – level hydrology.
The institutional means that both suppliers and users of water need to be involved at the basin
level for effective planning ,implementation , regulation and for other water management
functions(Loucks,2003) .Previous moves towards more localized participatory involvement in
these tasks also need to be scaled up to the basin level to have groups dealing with basin scale
issues .A clear definition of property rights and mechanisms of enforcement of defined rights
becomes more important with increasing scarcity . Single purpose line agencies need to have
greater interaction or these need to be more comprehensive management organizations at the
basin level that can address the complexity of interactions between different uses and users
(Mulford and Rodgers ,2011).
Provision of services for water users needs to be viewed from a different
perspective .Traditionally ,service provision has been geared for a single or specific water use ,
dealing with such aspects as the reliability of irrigation deliveries , power and
infrastructure .While much needs to be done still to make such services more effective , they also
need to be addressed from the basin perspective to ensure that improvement of services at one
location or for one set of users does not impinge on the potential of other uses and users.

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Zimbabwe has had a forward looking Water Act and undertook significant reforms in the 1990s
to create the Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZNWA) to manage the national water
resources but the water resources sector has been badly hit by the economic downturn and the
lack of investment has nullified many of the reform gains. Rivers are now unregulated and
inadequate efforts has been given to the maintenance of the water resources infrastructure with
high risk of public safety from breach of dams , catchment plans are not implemented and
significant pollution has occurred in some water bodies.
3. Statement of the problem
Water use has increased in rural areas mainly due to the heavy dependence or reliance on
agriculture as a source of livelihood. Water resource management was a thing in urban areas but
it is no longer the case as presently water resources are being heavily exploited in communal
areas .Previous researchers have concentrated on water management in urban areas such as
Mutare ,Harare, Buluwayo ,Gweru and Masvingo and others , very little has been done in rural
areas .In a bid to address this knowledge gap ,a research study was carried in Kute river drainage
basin in Nyanga ,Manicaland Province found under Mazowe catchment area. The goal of this
study was to investigate the various ways that can be used to manage water in Kute river .It
meant to to look at the whole process from the river source ,the drainage basin going downstream
..As Bardwell (2012) observed information on water resources management is important in
determining the most suitable way of sustainably utilizing the resource. Improper use may result
in conflicts, water shortages downstream and pollution .The main purpose in implementing
IWRM is to prevent conflicts, water shortage downstream and pollution.
(Hooper, 2005) states that while much needs to be done to make such services more effective ,
they also need to be addressed from the basin perspective to ensure that improvement of services
at one location or for one set of users does not impinge on the potential of other uses and
users .To address these issues ,the study is going to focus on five key themes .The researcher
feels that these are the most critical water resource management for Kute communal area
development integrated water management for Agriculture ,smallholder water and land
management systems , environment and health and water resources institutions and policies.
It is time to put pieces together to carefully assess the benefits and cost of irrigating using water
from Kute River. This project aims to perform a comprehensive assessment of the benefits and
costs of water management for agriculture in Ward 14 Kute communal land of Nyanga Rural
District. It is useful to shift thinking from increasing the productivity of land to increasing the

16
productivity of water where water scarcity areas are concerned .According to Gray (2016) for
each drop of water we should aim at increasing the value added and welfare derived from its use
.In agriculture this means promoting practices that achieve more output per unit of water
consumed by agriculture .In the context of Kute River basin ,this means ensuring clean water for
drinking .It means wise allocation between sectors and uses of water. It means ensuring enough
water for the environment.
It is against this background that the researcher wants to carry out an in- depth investigation into
the various ways in which Kute River water can be sustainably utilized by the local people. The
research will focus on Kute River basin and the three villages Ngawagare, Murengami and
Udinge which directly benefit from the water in the river. Water supply issues in this river basin
have not been studied before.
4. Aim and objectives of the study
4.1Main Aim
The main aim of the research is to assess the effectiveness of integrated water resources
management in the Kute River basin in ward 14 of Nyanga District

4.2. Specific objective

To achieve the above aim, the study shall focus on the following specific objectives:
(i). To examine the level of water provision services in the Kute River basin Nyanga District.
(ii).To examine the challenges faced by the Nyanga Rural District Council in the integrated
management of water resources in the Kute River Basin.
(iii) To assess the impacts of inadequate water supply in the Kute Communal Lands Nyanga
District.
(iv). To assess the coping strategies to address the problem of water shortages in Ward 14,Kute
Communal Lands ,Nyanga District.

5. Research questions

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5.1. What is the level of water provision services in the Kute River basin Nyanga Distict?
5.2. What are the challenges faced by the Nyanga Rural District Council in the integrated
management of water resources in the Kute River Basin Nyanga District?
5.3. What are the impacts of inadequate water supply in the Kute Communal Lands Nyanga
District?
5.4. What coping strategies can be implemented to address the problem of water shortages in
Ward 14,Kute Communal Lands ,Nyanga District?

6. Justification/ significance of the study

Sectoral approaches to water resources management have dominated in the past and are still
prevailing, This leads to fragmented and uncoordinated development and management of the
resource Moreover , water management is usually in the hands of top-down institutions ,the
legitimacy and effectiveness of which have increasingly been questioned. Thus weak governance
aggravates increased competition for the finite resource. Thus the research aim to identify how
IWRM in Kute River basin can bring coordination and collaboration among the individual
sectors, plus a fostering of stakeholder participation,transparency and cost-effective local
management. .The causes of water supply challenges may not be well understood , and may
require detailed data collection through appropriate methods of inquiry that go beyond the day to
day today work of an individual .As such , by finding out the challenges , it will be possible for
the local council or Zimbabwe National Water Authority to be aware of the extent of water
supply challenges and be able to engage key stakeholders in the management of Kute River basin
.In addition , such an intensive study will be able to unearth information which the policy makers
of NRDC could rely upon to take important decisions in trying to improve water management in
Kute River basin .This implies that the study has practical policy making implications as the
findings will enable the council to identify and implement long- term solutions to the water
problems thereby leading to long term sustainable development (Gtt),2014Moreover the findings
will further serve as reference data and can open avenues for further investigation .

7. Definition of terms.
Integrated: management means that all the different uses of water resources are considered
together. Water allocations and management decisions the effects of each use on the others they
are able to take account of overall social and economic goals, including the achievement of
sustainable development.

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Management: is used in its broadest sense .it emphasizes that one must not only focus on
development of water resources but that we must consciously manage water development in a
way that ensures long term sustainable use for future generations.
Integrated water resources management: is a systematic process for the sustainable
development, allocation and monitoring of water resource use in the context of social, economic
and environmental objectives. (Asit K.B. 2004).

8. Study area
The research will be conducted in Kute Communal Lands Ward 14 of Nyanga Distirct in
Manicaland Province. Its location is approximately 80 kilometres by road east of Nyanga Town.
The Kute River basin is found under Mazowe Catchment area (Figure 1.1). Key economic
activity done is farming. Nyanga falls under natural region 1 rainfall ranges between 750-
1000mm/year. It is fairly reliable, falling from November to March /April. The soils are loamy
and partly sandy. The population of Kute communal area according to the 2012 census was
around 30 123, whereby 14 465 are males and 15 658 females. There were 7 211 households
and population density was 9 people per square kilometres (Makande and Gellas 2015 ). The
average family size was 5 people per household. The main economic activities are farming,
carpentry mainly furniture and coffin making, welding producing door frames, window frames,
wheelbarrows and scotch carts and other steel manufacture products. Kute Communal Lands is
also under threat from the problem of desertification mainly as a result of widespread erosion due
to deforestation, uncontrolled cultivation, sand mining and overgrazing of rangelands .Due to the
increase in population people were extracting pit sand and river sand leaving open pits in the area
and there was widespread deforestation because of the need for firewood as well as clearing land
for farming.

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Fig 1.1 Map of Kute Drainage Basin and Kute Communal Lands

20
Figure 1.2 Designated Catchment Areas of Zimbabwe

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9 Limitations of the study
The research was carried out in a constrained time frame as the researcher tried to balance time
attending to job requirements. .

10. Summary

In this chapter, the researcher began by giving the general overview of the assessment of global
view of Integrated Water Resource Management in the rural service centres narrowing it down to
the Zimbabwean scenario, background information on the Integrated water resources
management practices of Kute Communal Lands were of particular concern in the face of
environmental degradation. The research problem statement, objectives and research questions
were presented. Also the significance of the study was brought out with the general aim of the
study pointed out.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW.

2.1Chapter introduction

This chapter will look into the relevant literature and review concepts related to the research
area. This chapter provides theoretical structure of the research looking at the important and
relevant definitions, explanations and concepts on the research area as dealt with in books,
reports and journals. The researcher will focus on the integrated water resource management
focusing mainly on Kute river Basin in Nyanga, kute communal lands, the challenges to it and
will also examine the mandate of Local authorities in providing the same. Although water was
perhaps more inequitably distributed than land, there was little organised political agitation
around inequitable access by the various agricultural users. However, repeated droughts and a
realisation that having access to surface water can make a difference meant that the late 1990s
witnessed a dramatic transformation in water policy in Zimbabwe. Underlying this
transformation was the adoption of the concept of ‘integrated water resources management’
(IWRM) within national policy framework. At the core of the integrated water resources

22
management concept was an emphasis on the management of water on the basis of Hydrological
boundaries, namely the catchment and sub-catchment areas, Decentralization of water
management, Stakeholder participation and representation in water management processes, and
the treatment of water as an economic good. In combination, these four principles were viewed
as providing an effective framework for water management aimed not only at the participation
of water users in processes and decision making on water, but also at poverty reduction and
livelihood improvement, particularly among previously disadvantaged water users, namely
communal, resettlement and small-scale farmers.

2.2 Objectives of water reforms and management

The twin objectives of the water reform were tied to the four key IWRM principles discussed
above. First, starting from the premise that water must be managed on the basis of hydrological
boundaries since they constitute the ‘natural’ boundaries of a river system (Newson, 1997), the
case for decentralisation was advanced. Catchment and sub-catchment areas became the bedrock
upon which decentralized institutions of water management, catchment and sub-catchment
councils were constructed.

Secondly, stemming from this, the case for decentralised institutional framework for water
management was drawn from the theoretical appeal of decentralization which postulates that a
more decentralized framework is more exposed, and therefore more responsive to local needs
and aspirations (Crook & Sverisson, 2001). As such, decentralization was viewed as providing
systems of water governance that are accountable to local people (Crook & Manor, 1998; Manor,
1999). In addition to this, it was suggested that decentralization of water management provides
an institutional forum for promoting participation and representation of different water users in
decision making processes.

Thirdly, by treating water as an economic good with a price attached to the resource, proponents
argued that this would lead not only to the efficient use of water but also generate revenue
necessary for financing decentralized institutions of water management, and water resources
development and management at a broader level.
However, despite that Zimbabwe’s water reforms reflected the embedment of the concept and
principles of integrated water resources management, this was at variance with local concerns

23
and aspirations for water sector reform. According to Matinenga (1999); Manzungu et al., (1999)
& Bolding et al. (1998), central to local concerns was the need to ‘redress colonial injustices in
the water sector’ as some government officials were pointing out that ‘continued privileged
access to water by commercial interests, mainly large scale commercial agriculture, was no
longer aligned to the political dispensation of an independent Zimbabwe.
In light of the above, it was therefore argued that there was an urgent need to reform the water
sector, and establish a legal framework that ensured equal access to water for all Zimbabweans.
Equitable access to water was viewed as providing a basis for rural people to gain access to
water for productive uses which would contribute to the improvement of their livelihoods
derived from the use of water.
The Water Act governs the use of water in Zimbabwe (Makurira & Mugumo, 2002). Two
different processes drove the water sector reforms of 1994 in Zimbabwe (Pazvakavambwa,
2002), ahead of other sub-Saharan countries in Africa. The first factor was the general global
concern pressing for a more efficient and sustainable approach to water management. The
second factor was water legislation that was perceived to be inconsistent with present trends in
Zimbabwe. More water users were applying for water rights, yet the existing legislation was not
sufficiently flexible to accommodate more players. This was evident in highly committed areas,
where almost all available water had already been allocated and therefore new users could not be
accommodated. For instance, the 1976 Water Act was intended to protect the interests of
commercial farmers, despite that they only constituted less than 1 percent of the country’s
population of 13 million (Manzungu, 2002).
2.3 Water Resources in Zimbabwe: Hydrological and Historical Context
There exists great variation in the spatial distribution of water resources in Zimbabwe based on
rainfall potential, and this has played a major role in determining how the country divides into
six agro-ecological zones. It is onto this landscape of diverse variation in water resources and
agricultural potential that deprivation of water to smallholder farmers not only created a skewed
distribution of land, but also an inequitable access to water (Weinrich, 1975). Based on this land
alienation and inequitable distribution of water, African irrigation schemes were developed with
the view to promoting productive uses of water in selected ‘native reserves’ ‘on small pockets of
irrigable land partly with the objective to allow the resettlement of a larger population of people
whose land had been ‘alienated’’ (Weinrich, 1975).

24
According to Kambudzi (1997); and Mtisi & Nicol (2003), the colonial state, based on the dual
division of land, established a legal and administrative framework that governed access to, and
control of, water in favour of certain sectional interests, namely urban areas, commercial
agriculture, mining and manufacturing industries. From the 1890s up to 1927, water was
governed by a set of loosely coordinated pieces of legislation which apportioned water to a
nascent urban, mining, railway and agricultural sectors. Water for agriculture was apportioned
and managed under the Water Ordinance of 1913, which was repealed by the 1927 Water Act,
which was, in turn, repealed by the 1976 Water Act. To this end, the 1976 Water Act became the
most comprehensive piece of water legislation that set the parameters of access, use and control
of water from 1976 to 1997. Central to the water legislation was the denial of access to water for
productive purposes to the majority of Africans.

2.4.1 Water legislation: The early years: 1890-1927

Long time ago, the preoccupation with mining resulted in a situation where water was committed
to mining, which later changed to agriculture. Varying concepts of water laws were tried. For
example in the allocation of water rights a frontier mentality was displayed with such claims as:
‘… being a new country, Southern Rhodesia is unhampered by the pernicious common law
relating to riparian ownership’. In this way the water rights of the indigenous population, which
predated the settler claims were disregarded (Manzungu & Senzanje, 1996).
Fights and disagreements over water did not take long to develop. The frequent and often costly
litigations between rival claimants to the use of water culminated in the Union Irrigation Act of
1912. This made provisions for the control, apportionment and use of water. The Act was based
on the common law as evolved and expounded by the Courts (McIlwain, 1936). In 1913, the
Water Ordinance was passed as a way of comprehensively dealing with problems of rights to
water (Mcllwain, 1936).

The South African connection had a strong influence on some aspects of water management. For
example the settlers, encouraged by the British South Africa Company (BSAC) used the Roman
Dutch Law that had been brought from Holland and then in use in South Africa. This was
regarded as unsuited to the water resources and production of the region (McIlwain, 1936).

25
There was, however, continued use of the riparian 2 rights doctrine in interpreting access rights
and differentiated water use types.
The 1920 Water Ordinance explained that:

Riparian water rights system is an arrangement where water is allocated among those who
possess land about its source.
General principle of the Riparian system

Under the riparian principle, all landowners whose property is adjoining to a body of water
have the right to make reasonable use of it. If there is not enough water to satisfy all users,
allotments are generally fixed in proportion to frontage on the water source. These rights cannot
be sold or transferred other than with the adjoining land, and water cannot be transferred out of
the watershed.
Riparian rights include such things as the right to access for swimming, boating and fishing; the
right to wharf out to a point of navigability; the right to erect structures such as docks, piers,
and boat lifts; the right to use the water for domestic purposes; the right to accretions caused by
water level fluctuations. Riparian rights also depend upon "reasonable use" as it relates to other
riparian owners to ensure that the rights of one riparian owner are weighed fairly and equitably
with the rights of adjacent riparian owners.
‘If a farmer has land well suited for irrigation and there is a stream that can
be economically utilised, he can acquire the right to use the whole of the
water for irrigation even though it may leave others without water except
for primary purposes’.
The granting of responsible government in 1923, however, did not result in complete
dissociation from the principles of the Roman Dutch Law Nhapi (2015). The riparian doctrine
remained on the statutes until 1998 albeit with some modifications. What needs to be pointed out
is that although there were disagreements between the settlers over which was the better legal
ideology to guide water allocation, the situation was worse for indigenous people. Land
appropriations disadvantaged them in that they were downstream of white settlers and were
generally no longer riparian to perennial rivers; the whole legal system was against them and this
was compounded by a shortage of the necessary finance for accessing water rights.
Another concept that was reflected in the water law was primary water use. (Mo and
Gangaros(2009) state that water for human and farm livestock use was set at 50 gallons

26
(228litres) per person per day. This was quite generous more-so because it could be used in and
around the homestead, which did not preclude gardening. Water for ‘secondary purposes’ was
for irrigation and watering of stock other than farm stock. ‘Tertiary purposes’ included the needs
of the mines and railways. The water resources legal environment in the colony (Rhodesia) was
marked by three major laws as discussed in the following sections.

2.4.2 Agriculture-based water law: 1927-1980

Table 2.1 below shows the main changes to the water legislation during the time agriculture
became a dominant water user.

27
Table 2.1: Main characteristics of water legislation between 1927 and 1980

Cited in Manzungu & Machiridza (2005)

28
By the Act of 1927, the priority right to water, granted to the mining industry within the Gold
Belt areas, was modified in favour of irrigation (National Archives of Zimbabwe,). Therein
were a number of clauses that disadvantaged the indigenous native population. First of all
water rights were attached to land, which disadvantaged the natives who had been
dispossessed and placed in the reserves where they did not enjoy full rights. Rights to land in
the reserves were registered with Communal Area bodies (formerly known as Tribal Trust
Lands) and not with individuals. Natives could therefore only apply for water rights as a
community, and through government officials. Even then the District Administrator or
Minister of Water Development held the water right on behalf of the natives.
However, there was provision for the appointment of representatives of ‘native interests’ in
the Irrigation Boards and in the Water Courts. Not much is known about whether or not they
were actually represented. Settlers on the other hand could individually apply for water rights
because they owned land in their own private capacity. Another problem was that water
rights were issued based on the priority date system; this meant that rights were granted on a
first-come first-served basis.
The Black indigenous people were disadvantaged because they had not applied for water
rights (Manzungu, 2001). When they later understood this, most of the water was committed
to rights held by the settlers. Water rights were also issued in perpetuity, which meant that a
water right once issued could not be revoked except in special circumstances such as the
declaration of a drought or when someone else applied for the same water and was willing to
pay compensation. By virtue of the fact that settlers applied for the rights way before the
indigenes, most of the water was committed. It should be noted that although racial water
allocation was provided for in the 1927 Water Act, it was only in the 1940s that massive
transfers of water to the whites actually occurred because of cheap finance. This emphasizes
the argument that it is not necessarily changes in water legislation that determines (lack of)
access to water.
The 1947 Water Amendment Act had loose allowances for primary water uses especially for
gardens and riparian users. The Act also defined vleis (dambos [seasonally flooded wetlands]
or wetlands in depressions), springs and streams that stayed outside public management
because they were defined as ‘private water’. This changed later with restrictions on dambo
cultivation mainly because of fear of degradation, which had been noticed in the white farms.
The Act also identified new water uses such as fish farms and conservation activities that
were a result of new commercial interests.

29
The Water Act of 1976 affirmed the Roman Dutch Law concept in water management and
upheld the principles of the 1927 Water Act, that is, rights to water were linked to land, the
priority date system of allocating water and granting a water right in perpetuity. The Act also
provided for catchment outline plans to be prepared for the development and use of surface
water. Three types of water were recognised, public water, private water and underground
water. The Act, under a 1984 amendment, also provided for some stakeholder participation in
such institutions as River Boards. The participation was, however, restricted to water right
holders. The Act also required applicants for water rights to put in place water measuring
devices for a water right to be confirmed as permanent. This explains why most water rights
in the native areas were temporary – the natives could not afford to put in the requisite
measuring devices.
In addition, the Act set differential access to water based on the type of water one wants to
gain access to, whether ‘private water’ or ‘public water’. Access to ‘private water’ was vested
in the owner of the land on which it was found and its sole and exclusive use belonged to
such an owner1. The Act allowed the owners, lessees or occupiers of any land to construct
wells and drill boreholes of which the amount of water abstracted was not controlled
(Matinenga, 1999). On the other hand, access to ‘public water’ was vested in the state and its
use, apart from primary purposes, required that a water right be granted to the user by the
Water Court. Right of access to ‘public water’ was based on prior appropriation doctrine,
which meant that access is based on the date on which an appropriation to the beneficial use
of water was made. Simply put, earlier applicants had the first appropriation right of access to
water.
Legal access to water and associated water rights were attached to land, and were granted in
perpetuity. Thus, only individuals with title deeds to land could apply for, and be granted,
water rights. This included groundwater, whereby rights to water were attached to the title
deed of the land on which it was found. The granting of water rights under the 1976 Water
Act took cognisance of the pre-existing rights to riparian owners, which meant that each
riparian owner was entitled to claim all the water which he could have claimed under the
previous water laws. This ensured continued privileged access and rights to water for earlier
applicants.

1Section 32 (1), Water Act No. 41 of 1976.

30
The main weaknesses of the Water Act of 1976 are that the issue of all water rights was
centralized at the Water Court in Harare .A water right was issued in perpetuity on a first-
come-first-served basis. This meant that when water resources were fully allocated, no
further water rights would be issued, regardless of the need, In the event of water shortage,
the process of reallocation was very long and complex. A water right would not be revised,
even if the right holder was not exercising his or her water rights. The water rights could only
be revised if the holder volunteered to do so. The process of acquiring a water right was very
long. Once granted, there was no requirement to pay for the possession of the water right or
to contribute towards general water service provision. The act was silent on water quality and
factors relating to the environment. There was little consideration given to groundwater
supplies. The Secretary of Water in the Ministry of Water Resources and Development had to
be informed if a deep borehole was drilled, but there was no control on the amounts of
groundwater pumped, or the number and spacing of such boreholes.

In general, the Water Act of 1976 was a good piece of legislation that brought any form of
water use under control and aimed at the systematic allocation of water among users.
According to the act, anyone was entitled to access to water, as long as the water was for
primary use (basic human sustenance) Mabika, (2015). Any use of water from which the user
would derive a benefit was deemed commercial use, and required a water right. All water
rights were issued in Harare by the Water Court, which was based at the Administrative
Court of Zimbabwe.
The Water Act (1976) was amended several times, and global modern trends pushed for a
review of existing approaches to water management in Zimbabwe. This led to the complete
overhaul of the Water Act (1976), which was replaced with the Water Act (1998),
conforming to global trends and addressing pressing national issues.

2.4.3 Redressing past water injustices

The lack of a clear ideology can also be traced to the water reforms. For close to two decades
into independence water resource management continued to be governed by the 1976 Water
Act. However, it has been established that the need for water reform emanated from two
distinct concerns. One strand was partly rooted in the need to ‘redress colonial injustices in
the water sector’ (Matinenga, 1999; Manzungu et al., 1999, Bolding et al., 1998). Continued
privileged access to water by commercial interests especially white large scale commercial
agriculture ensured that there was an urgent need to reform the water sector, and establish a
31
legal framework that ensured equal access to water for all Zimbabweans. Equitable access to
water was viewed as providing a basis for rural people to gain access to water for productive
uses which would contribute to the improvement of their livelihoods derived from the use of
water.
Secondly, the water reforms that culminated in the 1998 Water Act also began as a knee jerk
reaction to the 1991/92 drought, the worst in the country’s history (Makarau, 1999). Within
this context, the 1976 Water Act was repealed by two pieces of water legislation, namely the
Water Act and the Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA) Act, both promulgated in
1998. The Water Act of 1998 set the parameters of access and use of water as well as
providing for the establishment of Catchment and Sub-catchment areas based on hydrological
boundaries. Catchment and sub-catchment areas formed the basis for water management. In
this vein, seven catchment areas were established in Zimbabwe and are shown in Figure 2.1
below.

Source: Chimhowu et al., (2009)

32
Figure 2.1: Catchments in Zimbabwe

The formation of catchment and sub-catchment areas led to the introduction of Catchment
and Sub-catchment councils respectively. Broadly, Catchment Councils (CCs) are composed
of elected representatives, mainly chairpersons and vice-chairpersons, of sub catchment
councils. Catchment Councils also include the Catchment Manager, and any other identified
stakeholders.

The major duties of CCs include, preparing catchment outline plans for their respective area,
determining applications and granting water permits, regulating and supervising the use of
water, and supervising the performance of functions of sub-catchment councils (Water Act,
1998). Further, CCs serve as a forum for participation and decision making for water users
represented by elected sub-catchment council officials.
Below the CC, there are sub-catchment councils, which are constituted by elected
representatives from diverse water user groups, which include commercial, communal, small-
scale and resettlement farming sectors, local authorities, traditional leaders, and mining and
manufacturing sectors. The main functions of a sub-catchment council include regulating and
supervising the exercise of permits for the use of water within their area of jurisdiction.
Collecting sub-catchment rates, fees and levies. Reporting as required to the Catchment
Council on exercise of water permits in their area, and Participating in the planning on water.
Sub-catchment councils also serve as a platform for local level participation in water
management

2.2.5 The Water Act of 1998

The first step towards reviewing the 1976 Water Act was the setting up of an inter-ministerial
review committee headed by the Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Water Development in
mid-1993. The committee recommended that a new Water Act be put in place. In the short-
term, smallholder farmers were allocated 10% of all water in government dams. This was the
origin of the 1998 Water and Zimbabwe National Water Authority Acts.

The new Water Act had the following provisions; water permits, valid for a limited time
sufficient to earn back money invested to develop facilities, were to be issued instead of
33
water rights in perpetuity. Priority would be given to efficient irrigation systems. The
priority date system was replaced with proportional water allocation. The polluter pays
principle was evoked where people who cause pollution of water pay for expenses for
removing the pollution. The environment was regarded as a legitimate ‘user’ of water
competing with other users such as industrial, agricultural, mining and domestic users. The
state owned all surface and underground water. Except for primary purposes (mainly for
domestic uses such as drinking, cooking and washing) any use of water would need approval
by the state Water would be managed by catchment areas, as rivers do not match political or
administrative boundaries. All people with an interest in the use of water would be involved
in making decisions about its use and management (Kawulich, 2000). Identified groups
included representatives from communal, small-scale commercial and large farms and mines,
as well as urban representatives from industry, manufacturing and municipalities. These
would replace the River Boards (which used to supervise day to-day management) and the
Advisory Councils (which used to assist in water planning) and would have the responsibility
of granting water permits, a function previously carried out by the Administrative Court.
Water was recognized as an economic good. People who use water would pay for it national
water authority, ZINWA, would operate as a commercial enterprise. However, Government
would ensure that the poor and disadvantaged would continue to have fair access to water.

While the water reforms could have had a local trigger in the form of the 1991/92 drought it
was very much shaped by international donors (Manzungu, 2002; 2004). This is echoed by
Campbell (2003) who asserts that the independent government of Zimbabwe predicated its
policies on the colonial as well as neo-liberal concept of modern over subsistence farming.
Campbell (2003) concluded that the old settler-dominated River Boards were somewhat
reincarnated (with some black faces) as Catchment Councils that continued to wield power
over water issues to the disempowerment of smallholder farmers. It should be added that the
situation has changed since the fast track land reform programme. White commercial farmers
who were active in the early stages (Kujinga & Manzungu, 2004; Kujinga, 2002) have been
replaced by a black elite.

A research based critique of the current water reforms in relation to how they affect rural
livelihoods seems to converge on the consensus that the reforms did not facilitate the
development of irrigation in the smallholder sector in general (Manzungu, 2001; Mtisi,

34
2002). This is ironic given that the post-colonial state, led by people professing indigenous
roots, has failed to capitalize on indigenous water and irrigation management experiences.
This has rendered the water reforms somewhat cosmetic.
While water allocation was the responsibility of the Water Court before the 1998 Water Act,
this function has been delegated to the catchment councils. Catchment councils have had to
try and allocate water with no guidelines on how to balance what are sometimes
contradictory objectives. Research indicates that decentralisation to catchment and sub
catchment levels has in some cases resulted in a concentration of influence to a few already
powerful individuals (Kujinga & Manzungu, 2004). With regards to popular participation in
water management, the state allocated itself disproportionately huge powers somewhat in
contradiction to the democratic claims showing a lack of appetite for strong local institutions
with sufficient political clout to complement the positive aspects of the water reform
(Manzungu, 2001).

2.2.5 The Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA) Act

The ZINWA Act of 1998, created the Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA), a
‘parastatal’ tasked with the responsibility for providing a coordinated framework for
planning, development and management of water resources. Additionally, ZINWA took over
the commercial functions associated with water provision which were previously performed
by the Department of Water Development. The functions of ZINWA vary depending on the
level at which it is operating. At national level, ZINWA advises the Minister responsible for
water on formulation of national policies, water pricing, water resource development and
management. At catchment level, ZINWA’s role include, inter alia, ensuring the catchment
council discharge its functions in accordance with the Water Act, and assisting catchment
councils in planning and coordinating water development and management within a
catchment area. Also, ZINWA has exclusive responsibility for selling, supplying and
management of ‘agreement water2’.

Of most importance is that the institutional structure of ZINWA is not necessarily tied to
hydrological boundary of the catchment area, but extends from the sub-catchment area to the
national level. ZINWA functions include technical assistance, the selling of ‘agreement
2Agreement water refers to water behind dams which were previously owned by the government.

35
water’, maintenance and management of former government owned dams, and advising the
Minister responsible for water (Kawulich, 2005). Given this background, it is therefore
important to understand how the reform process affected how water is accessed by the
different stakeholders and this is discussed in the subsequent paragraphs, as well as some of
the emerging bottlenecks.
One of the key aspects of the water reform was to open up access to water for all water users,
particularly ‘new’ water users (i.e., communal and resettlement farmers). In the past, water
was accessible to commercial interests, namely agriculture, mining and manufacturing
industries, and was tied to land. The introduction of water permits for raw water, and
agreement water contracts for ‘agreement water’, which, are not legally tied to land, has
provided a basis for broad-based access to water. This represented a significant achievement
of the water reform as it untied land and water, and devolved the responsibility for water
application from the Water Court in Harare to local sub-offices.
However, despite the achievements as mentioned above, lack of coordination between the
water institutions has affected water reforms, and management. Recent work (Mtisi, 2008)
suggests that some water users were not aware of the institutions to consult over their water
needs. This, for some means, the classification of water into raw and agreement water, and
the establishment of two distinct institutions for water management has created a complex
institutional environment for water access. Consequently, water users were finding it
‘confusing’ to gain access to water as they were referred from one institution to another. This
is made worse in cases where there is lack of coordination between ZINWA and the
Catchment Councils in performing their respective functions. As often ZINWA officials fail
to attend Catchment Council Meetings. Underlying the lack of coordination between the two
decentralised institutions of water management is the parallel lines of institutional
responsibility and accountability in water management. Since ZINWA officials report to the
Irrigation Officer at catchment level, and are accountable to the Irrigation Office and not the
Catchment Council, there consequently exists little or no coordination in local level water
management as suggested by the water policy.

2.2.6 Water resources management: Participation, issues and challenges

Makin et al (2004) points out that the water reform introduced radical changes regarding the
participation and representation of water users in the management of and decision making on
water. By identifying a broad range of water users as stakeholders in water management, the
36
1998 Water Act provided a legal basis for the representation and participation of previously
excluded water users, namely communal, resettlement and small-scale commercial farmers.
The new politics of inclusiveness and participation, at least stated formally, has encouraged
local level participation in water management at the sub-catchment council level.

Hitherto, the participation and representation of new water users has been fraught with
problems. Participation at sub-catchment level is often stacked against new water users who
lack financial resources to travel to attend sub-catchment council meetings. Identification and
classification of water user groups from which representatives are elected to the sub-
catchment council is problematic, in spite of what the Water Act of 1998 provides for. For
example, the act provides for inclusion of ‘communal farmers’ as a disparate group of water
users, even the local level water committees in communal areas barely function and most are
formed around ground water resources that barely get mentioned at catchment council
meetings.

In cases where communal areas have irrigation schemes, representation at catchment level is
organized under the aegis of the Irrigation Management Committees (IMCs) (Cap-net 2008).
However, these do not extend beyond the irrigation schemes which they are established for.
Therefore, there is no sub-catchment wide organisation of, and for, communal irrigators to
provide a basis for electing a representative of communal irrigators to the sub catchment
council. In reality ‘representatives’ of the communal irrigation sector who sit on the sub-
catchment council are elected representatives of their particular schemes and not of the sector
as a whole. By extension, they represent the interests and concerns of the particular irrigation
scheme to which they belong.

Genuine participation in water management can only occur when water users and their
representatives are informed and knowledgeable about the water reform, and this can only be
achieved by integrating all the water users and use, (Rogers et al 2008). Yet, new water users
have little knowledge about the reforms and the legislation that set the parameters for their
participation. As such, a lack of knowledge about the water reform makes it difficult for new
water users to effectively participate and make informed decisions on water management
processes at sub-catchment level.

37
Moreover, as Dalal et al (2001) puts it, while the framework for a perfect water management
system exists, the situation on the ground does not reflect this common belief. The reform
process has not taken off as expected owing to a combination of factors ranging from
conflicting policies and weak institutional linkages, to insufficient funding. The reasons
given in the following subsections help to explain why a properly developed legal framework
can only function with the support of other critical pillars, such as technical and institutional
support and this will make integrated water resources uses an easier task.

2.2.7.1 Donor withdrawal

The water sector reforms in Zimbabwe were largely donor-driven. Several donors pledged to
support the reform process. This was very positive, considering that a particular donor would
be supporting at most two catchments. There was therefore an opportunity for maximum
interaction between the donor organizations and the beneficiary catchments. However, by the
time the CCs were to be fully launched, donors started withdrawing their support, leading to a
number of stakeholders losing confidence in the whole water reform process, and they too
began to pull out (Pazvakavambwa, 2002).CCs were not yet financially self-sufficient, and
this sudden withdrawal of donor support in both financial and technical areas was
unexpected.

Without a good financial base, CC activities were doomed to fail, with participation restricted
to voluntary work. Volunteers tended to be those who had already established themselves in
water management, and therefore had interests to protect. Representation therefore continued
to be skewed.

2.2.7.2 Other national programmes

The launching of the water reform process coincided with the land reform process in
Zimbabwe. The water sector reforms were aimed at promoting equitable and sustainable
utilization with more participation of stakeholders and the introduction of the user pays
principle. The land reform programme aimed to redistribute land and to encourage greater
utilization of the national land resource. On paper, these two policies complemented each
other. There was a great amount of movement, especially in the commercial sector, with
established farmers moving away and new farmers coming in.

38
However, this process happened so quickly that the water sector lost track of who was
utilizing water. The problems were more complex in cases where there were more settlers on
a property for which a permit had previously been issued to one user (Mtisi,2002).The
reallocation of such a permit to more users resulted in many conflicts. Moreover, new settlers
were more interested in consolidating their claim to the new properties than in attending
water management meetings. Water issues were therefore thrown aside as the land reform
exercise attracted greater attention.

2.2.7.3 Financial stability

The water sector reforms intended to implement the user pays and polluter pays principles. In
this respect, permit holders would pay a fee, which was to contribute to water services
provision. The Water Fund was created through the Water Act (1998) to facilitate the
collection of levies, fees, government contributions and any other support towards water
service provision. This was to be deposited into a common pool from where the minister
would identify areas of greatest need for the benefit of the water sector. The government
would also contribute to the Water Fund, using public funds allocated from the main
government budget.
The Water Fund had a potential to realize substantial revenue to be used to improve the
provision of water services, as directed by the minister responsible for the provision and
management of water, Hooper (2006). Inflows into the Water Fund have been minimal, with
a contributing factor being the cessation of donor contributions. Unease ensued, resulting in
many established farmers not paying for their permits, as they were uncertain as to their
continuing occupancy on their land with respect to the new land reforms. Increased
government responsibilities meant that less and less money was allocated to the Water Fund
from the national budget.
Similarly, new farmers were reluctant to pay for water use, as water rights had not been paid
for previously. Most of the new commercial water users believed that water is a God given
resource, and therefore there is no need to pay for access to it. The diminishing sources of
contributions into the Water Fund therefore meant that there was very little money available
to support water service provision and management.

39
2.2.7.4 Weak institutional linkages

The new Water Act provided a better framework for stronger institutional linkage. Walmsley
et al (2001) postulates that it is now a requirement that a number of institutions be consulted
before permits for water use can be issued. However, there is little evidence to prove that this
is bearing fruitful. Not all institutions give priority to water issues. Some continue with their
previous approach to water management where their support cannot be fully guaranteed
unless they are certain of deriving substantial and direct benefits from their participation.

2.2.7.5Lack of capacity within key institutions

Key institutions, especially ZINWA, are not adequately staffed to cope with the sudden
demands for the provision of expert services. The staffing levels of ZINWA fall short of
expected levels, as does the level of expertise. The result is that ZINWA cannot provide
sufficient personnel to provide commercial services, nor can it provide statutory functions
with funding sourced from the Water Fund. With staffing levels inadequate and depth of
expertise questionable, it is uncertain if sufficient funds from the Water Fund would have
made much difference to this situation. Other key institutions, such as the Department of
Natural Resources, Agricultural Research and Extension Services (AREX), the Ministry of
Water and Rural Development and the Ministry of Lands and Resettlement, are also
experiencing inadequate staffing levels that have a negative impact on the whole process.

2.2.7.6 Lack of enforcement of legislation

The new Water Act has been described as technically sound with a solid base for sustainable
and efficient utilisation of water resources. However, some vital sections of the act have not
been fully enforced; hence, its founding principles cannot be supported. The Water Fund is
collecting insufficient revenue adequately to support statutory functions. ZINWA is not
financially viable, as the four main accounts that were created (raw water account, clear
water account, engineering services account and water levy account) are not self-sustaining;
hence the new institution has to rely on the government for financial support. In the process,
key and experienced staff has left the organization owing to the working environment.
Similarly, Catchment Outline Plans (COPs) have not been developed in accordance with
Section 12 of the Water Act (1998). COPs are to be developed by stakeholders, and should
40
serve as a guide on water management within their catchment areas, as well as on the
interventions to take in the event of scarcity, and therefore excess demand. Water quality
issues and environmental aspects are also covered in the COPs. The reasons for non-
development of the COPs range from a lack of capacity for their development, financial
constraints and general lack of coordination among stakeholders.

3. RESEARCH METHODS AND MATERIALS

3. Introduction
The focus of the study is to explore integrated water resource management of river basins in
Zimbabwe and Kute river basin was chosen as a case study for the research. It is therefore
the focus of this chapter to present how the study was carried out in order to meet the
objectives of the study. In this regard this chapter seeks to give insights on the methodology
guiding this research. In this case the chapter will give much detail on the research design,
target population, research instruments, data collection procedures and ethical
considerations.

3.2 Research Methodology

Wegner (2003), defines research methodology as an analysis of the ways to be applied in
getting data that will help the scholar in coming up with results. Research methodology
covers research philosophy, research approach, research design, and target population,
sample size, sampling methods, data collection methods and instruments used during a
research. Research methodology further looks at how the data was collected, analysed,
presented and interpreted. It also includes issues of data validity and reliability. Kothari
(1999) on the other hand gives insights on what research methodology entails. He regarded
research methodology as a way to systematically solve the research problem. His arguments
established that through research methodology one is able to study the various steps that are
generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic
behind them. In this regard, he resolved that the scope of research methodology is wider than
that of research methods in the sense that research methodology goes beyond just choosing
methods and techniques but also the ability to explain the logic behind choosing them.

41
3.3 Research design

Kothari (1999:31) states, that “a research design is the arrangement of conditions for
collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research
purpose with economy in procedure.” Kothari (1999) also added that, the research design is
the conceptual structure within which research is conducted and it constitutes the blueprint
for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. In this light Babbie & Mouton (2001)
concurs when they defined research design as a plan or a blueprint used when one intends to
conduct research. In addition research designs are categorized into three categories that are
descriptive design, case study design and experimental design Kothari (1999).This is in
harmony with Young (2000) who highlighted that there are different research designs in
particular exploratory, experimental, survey and case study. Therefore, in this regard this
research adopted a case study research design.

3.3 (1) Case study research design

As aforesaid this research has adopted a case study research design for the reason that it
enables the research to explore in-depth a programme, event and activity under study.
According to Yin (2003) a case study is an approach to research that focuses on gaining an
in-depth understanding of a particular entity or event at a specific time. This approach allows
for the use of an array of data collection techniques to capture the issues under research. It
also involves an empirical investigation of a particular phenomenon with its real life context
using sources of evidence. For the purposes of this research, Kute river basin was used as the
case study. The rationality behind this choice is that in general there are many river basins in
Zimbabwe which are facing challenges in managing river water and sanitation services so,
using Kute river basin as a case study will enable the researcher to conduct an in depth
investigation into water management issues and sanitation problems in a particular area
instead of assessing all river basins in Zimbabwe .In this regard the case study approach
will provide more information and an in-depth insight of the situation at hand .This will also
save time and resources as the research will only focus on a particular study area rather than
the whole country.

3.3 (2) Descriptive research designs

This research also took a descriptive approach. Kothari (1999) postulates that descriptive
research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing the characteristics of

42
a particular individual or of a group. Kothari (1999) further noted that the major purpose of
descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In this vein,
this approach is relevant to the study given the fact that, one of the objectives of the research
is to describe the current state of water management in Kute Communal Lands. By adopting
this design the research was able to describe the current state of affairs through using various
data collection methods that includes observation, questionnaires, interviews, and even
examination of records.

3.4 Research approach

Kothari (1999) identified that there are two types of approaches when one is conducting a
research and these are quantitative approach and the qualitative approach. Kothari (1999)
advanced that quantitative approach involves the generation of data in quantitative form
which can be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion
whereas qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of
attitudes, opinions and behaviour. In this regard the research used mixed research approach
in gathering data. The rationality behind taking both approaches is that for the objectives of
this research to be achieved, qualitative and quantitative data were equally important.
Quantitative data was useful in quantifying the number of respondents who provided
responses in relation to the objectives of the study. On the other hand, qualitative data was
very useful in regard to the perceptions of villagers, council official and other relevant
stakeholders in Kute Communal Lands regarding the problem of water in this community.

3.4.1 Qualitative Research

The qualitative approach is important for this research because it is concerned with the way
people interpret data through their experiences and patterns of behaviour. According to
Babbie and Mouton (2005), qualitative research seeks to gain first hand holistic
understanding of a phenomenon, using flexible methods such as interviews, open ended
questions and questionnaire.
They further added that qualitative approach aims at gaining the subject’s experience of a
certain phenomenon. The use of qualitative approach in this study is based on advantages
associated with it. Taking for instance it was useful in allowing the researcher to describe
and evaluate the performance of programmes in their natural settings, focusing on the
process of implementation rather than on quantifiable outcomes.

43
In addition, qualitative data collection methods result in descriptions of problems,
behaviours and events and can provide narrative descriptions of people’s thoughts and
opinions about their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. Therefore, qualitative data was
collected using interviews, closed and open ended questionnaires which allow the
respondents to express their opinions, attitudes and feelings in regard to the state of water
management in their community. Observations were made with regard to the quality of the
water. In this respect qualitative approach was very instrumental during the research as it
assisted the researcher in hearing the views of the targeted research participants regarding the
management of water in Kute Communal Lands.

3.4.2 Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is a systematic empirical investigation of variables via statistical,
mathematical or numerical data. Bell (1987) stated that quantitative approach entails
counting and measuring of events and performing statistical analysis of a body of numerical
data. The closed ended questionnaires were used to collect quantitative data for the simple
reason that the approach focuses on numbers rather than statement. Leedy (1980) stated that
quantitative methods provide specific statistical based facts to decision makers which can
easily be used to make accurate and informed decisions.

3.5 Research population

Hair et al (2003) defines research population as a complete group of objects or elements
relevant to the research project. On the other hand, Wegner (2009) defines a population as a
collection of all observations of random variable under study and about which one is trying
to draw conclusions. The study focused on Kute, a communal area settlement which is
located about 85 kilometres south east of Nyanga in Zimbabwe. Kute Communal Lands has
a total population around 9000 (Central Statistical Office 2012).
3.5 .1 Target population
The above population statistic was used as the target population for this research. Since this
research seeks to study integrated water resource management in river basins in Zimbabwe,
Nyanga Rural District Council employees became the primary respondents together with the
Kute community, representatives from NGOs and Village development committee members.
The reason behind choosing these respondents was that these parties are considered to be
knowledgeable enough to provide relevant information relating to the integrated water
resource management in Kute River basin.

44
3.5.2 Sampling
Trochim (2006) defined sampling as the process of selecting units from a population of
interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our results back to the
population from which they were chosen. Kumar (2009) states that sampling is the process
of selecting a few from a bigger group (the sampling population) to become the basis for
estimating or predicting a fact, situation or outcome regarding the bigger group. The
rationality of taking a sample of the target population is vital as it makes the research
manageable, economic and complete on time. In this vein the sample chosen in а research
should be representative of the entire population.

3.5.3 Sample size

In conducting research, it is always the case that researches uses samples. The reason being
that in conducting researches it is always difficult to study the entire population. In this
regard a sample size can be described as a subset of the total population being studied in
which the findings reflect a true representation of the characteristics of the studied
population Catherine, (2002). Therefore, for the purposes of this study, a sample size is
drawn from officials from Nyanga Rural District Council (NRDC), Kute villagers and
representatives from NGOs operating from the area, Village development committee
member and Ward 14 development committee. The sample size was 75 and this is presented
on the diagram below.
Table 3.1The distribution of target population chosen in the sample
Category Sample size Sampling technique

Households in Ngawagare 60 Systemic Random Sampling

Village, Murengami Village
and Udinge Village
Councillor in ward 14 3 Convenience sampling

Officials from Nyanga Rural 5 Purposive sampling

District Council
Ward 14 WDCO members 1 Purposive sampling

Representatives from NGOs 5 Snowball sampling

Ngawagare Village 1 Convenience sampling

45
Development committee
member(chairperson)
Total 75

Source: Research Data 2021

3.6 Sampling technique

The following are the sampling techniques which were used during the research.

3. 6. 1 Systematic Random Sampling

Systematic Random Sampling technique is used to select participants in such a way that
every participant has an equal chance of being selected. In systematic random sampling, each
individual is chosen randomly and entirely by chance. This sampling technique was used in
conjunction with other sampling techniques mentioned below. This sampling technique was
used in wards 14, Ngawagare ,Murengami and Udinge villages in identifying and selecting
households that were used in the research. In selecting the households, the researcher
adopted the strategy of selecting one household after every 10 in between. Therefore, the
sampling technique was useful in selecting 60 households in Ngawagare , Murengami and
Udinge Villages.
3. 6. 2 Purposive sampling
This study also employed purposive sampling in selecting participants for data collection.
Catherine, (2002) states that the purposive sampling technique is a type of non-probability
sampling that is most effective when one needs to study a certain domain with
knowledgeable experts within. The bias involved in selecting participants under purposive
sampling makes the selection criteria rich in terms of data quality and reliability. In this
respect Patton (1990) highlights that the logic and power of purposive sampling lies in
selecting information rich cases for the study. Information rich cases refer to those
respondents from which the study will gather informative data of central importance to the
research study thus the term purposive sampling. Purposive sampling was useful to the
researcher in selecting the Human Resources Officer who was the key informant from
NRDC and experts within Nyanga such as the Environment Management Agency officer
who provided well-informed information with regard to integrated water management issues.
These also included the Operations Officer Nyanga East wing from ZNWA. The rationality

46
of targeting these emanate from the nature of their job description that has direct bearing on
integrated water resource management in Nyanga Distict.

3. 6. 3 Convenience sampling
Convenience sampling is another qualitative non-probability sampling technique whereby
respondents that are selected by this technique are selected because of their close proximity
to the researcher. The sampling technique relies more on chance encounters with the targeted
respondents. The sampling technique was used to gather data from villagers in
Ngawagare ,Murengami and Udinge villages and council officials. This sampling technique
plays a pivotal role in the research as it enabled the researcher to reach out to those villagers
who were available at their households. In this regard convenience respondents were
interviewed and at the same time questionnaires were administered.
3. 6. 4 Snowball sampling
This research also employed this sampling technique to gather data from respondents.
Crossman (2017) is of the view that snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling
technique in which a researcher begins with a small population of known individuals and
expands the sample by asking those initial participants to identify others that should
participate in the study. Barnett (2002) on the other hand posits that, this sampling technique
focuses more exclusively on the rare members of the population and progresses one case to
another through successive stages of referral. In this vein, the researcher used this technique
to gather information from the Heads of Kute High and Kute primary schools as the key
informants through soliciting information regarding other stakeholders or players who are
operating in Kute Communal Lands in the management of water in Kute River.

3. 7 Data collection
Maxwell, (2012) defines data collection as a systematic approach to gathering information
from a variety of sources to get a complete and accurate picture of an area of interest. In this
research both primary and secondary sources of data were used in gathering information
relevant to the study.

3. 7 .1 Sources of data
Basically there are two sources of data namely primary and secondary data sources. Kothari
(1999) ascertain that primary data as those which is collected afresh and for the first time,
and thus happen to be original in character. In general term it is the type of information that
is obtained directly from first hand sources by means of surveys, observations or

47
experimentation. The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been
collected by someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process
(Kothari 1999).In this vein, secondary data is the data that has been gathered for different
purposes other than the immediate study at hand. These include data sources such as
publications and reports by different organisations.

3. 7 .2 Primary data sources

In a research, primary data source refers to the original research material on which the
research is founded. In this case, it refers to the data and experiences gathered in the field
under study. In other words, such information would not have been gathered and evaluated
before the study. Under this study, the primary data sources were gathered through
administering questionnaires, site observations, and interviews.
3. 7 .3 Secondary data sources
Secondary data involves analysis of existing data, the use and further analysis of data
collected for another purpose and found by means of desk research (Leedy, 1980). This
involved the use of journals, newspapers, textbooks and internet; this is cheap and easy to
assemble and as it provides a wide and global coverage of research. This research made use
of secondary data sources such as newspaper articles, municipal minutes, council records
and reports.

3. 7 .4 Data collection Methods / Instruments

These actually refer to the tools used to gather information relevant to the research study. To
capture the much needed data of the study the researcher will make use of questionnaires,
interviews and site observations as tools for gathering primary data. The researcher
administered questionnaires to the selected sample and interviews were used to solicit
information from the Key Informants. Direct observations on the variables on the ground
were made to complement information given through the use of questionnaires and
interviews

3. 7 .4 .1 Questionnaire
Rowlin (2004) observed that a questionnaire is a document containing questions designed to
seek information that is appropriate for analysis. Questionnaires were distributed randomly
to members of the community in Kute communal area. The questionnaires prepared were
administered to the residents residing in ward 14 in the following villages
Murengami ,Udinge and Ngawagare The rationality of using villagers was that, they have

48
the first-hand experience and also they are in a strategic position to tell how water from Kute
River is managed at a local level . The researcher administered 60 questionnaires to
villagers to answer and from each village 20 were administered to balance the results of the
research.

Advantages of questionnaires

The use of questionnaires was vital to the researcher because of high turnout response rate
that was achieved .The questionnaires instrument allowed wider coverage in terms of
numbers at minimum effort and time. Questionnaires because of anonymity, allows
respondents to give truthful answers without fear of being victimized.

Disadvantages of questionnaires

Questionnaires proved to be difficult to use to those respondents that were illiterate and
physically handicapped .The researcher also faced costs in printing these questionnaires this
meant that with inadequate questionnaires research findings were to be compromised as only
a few respondents would be given questionnaires thus affecting the validity of the research.
To overcome this researcher however sought adequate funds for the whole research
3.7. 4.2 Interviews
Interviews are designed to elicit the subject’s thoughts, opinions and attitudes on the related
matter (Barbie and Mouton, 2000). Interviews help in gaining more information from the
related and relevant players in service delivery in resettlement areas. An interview both
formal and informal was instrumental in exploring related areas where questionnaires would
have failed to reach. The researcher hoped that interviews would provide useful information
in addition to that directly asked for, provide gains in terms of time, afford chances to clarify
data and offer the possibility of more data. The researcher conducted interviews with key
informants from the NRDC, councillor from ward 14, ZINWA, representatives from resident
associations, and a representative of development committee. Interviews helped the
researcher to obtain and triangulate data collected from these respective respondents.

Advantages of interviews

Interviews gave the researcher the opportunity to solicit more information in scenario
whereby questions asked were repeated to ensure that they are adequately understood.
Respondents were also given an opportunity to make a follow up or seek further clarification
to the questions asked. Data collection was immediate.

49
Disadvantages of Interviews

This approach proved very expensive as the researcher had to travel to the source of data and
more time was taken interviewing the individuals. To avoid time wastage in capturing data
the researcher used recordings in capturing data. The presence of the interviewer may hinder
free expression of the respondent. The researcher made sure that the interviewee feels free to
express themselves and assured them that there will be confidentiality and would not be
capturing any sensitive information and to avoid the use of names of respondents.

3.7. 4.3 Site Observation

Observations enabled the researcher to describe existing situation using the five senses, and
providing a written photograph of the situation understudy (Kawulich 2005). Field work
involves looking, improving memory, informal interviewing, writing detailed field notes.
Observations were used as a way to increase the validity of the study, as observation may
help the researcher to have a better understanding of the context and phenomenon
understudy (Kawulich 2005). The use of observations as primary research tool allowed the
researcher to directly translate findings to the situation on the ground. This is so because the
primary basis for observations is to verify whether what people say tally with reality (what is
physically present in the field). In this light the researcher was able to observe the current
situation in terms of water management in Kute River basin, small irrigations, and even the
coping strategies.

Advantages of observations

The researcher was able to directly observe the situation without relying on what the
respondents said. The researcher was able to collect data at the specific point where the event
or activity was occurring. The researcher was not forced to rely on the participant’s
willingness to provide information.

Disadvantages

There is the probability that the observations can be susceptible to the observer’s bias
The researcher made sure that real events were recorded.
3. 8 Validity and reliability
Credibility which refers to the extent to which information is valuable and reliable is of
utmost importance in research. Jackson (2011) states that reliability is the extent to which
research instrument gives the same results during its repeated use; it is the degree to which it
50
is consistent in producing the same results. In this regard, the process of determining the
suitability of the questions and their structure was cautious conducted so as to uphold data
reliability. According to Saunders et al (2009) research is valid only if it actually studies
what it is set to study and only if findings are verifiable. Therefore the researcher crafted
questions that only sought to give answers to the study’s research questions. In this way data
gathered and results was valuable.

3.9 Ethical considerations

Research ethics are critical in every research. The researcher did not fabricate data gathered
through questionnaires, interviews and observations as well as the results thereafter but
presented them as they are so as to give a true picture of the state of water management in
Kute Communal Lands. All the respondents were assured of privacy and confidentiality in
that information they gave was solely used for academic and professional purposes and not
otherwise. In line with privacy and confidentiality, no respondent was asked for his or her
name.

3.10 Data presentation and analysis

The presentation of findings was done using qualitative and quantitative content analysis that
is qualitatively data was presented using descriptive statements through the use of Microsoft
word and quantitative data was presented using visuals such as graphs, tables and charts,
Microsoft Excel was used to create graphical presentations.

3.11 Chapter summary

This chapter has provided a detailed approach that guides the study. It clearly highlights that
this study used both the qualitative and quantitate approach. The chapter also sets out how
data was collected using different research instruments.

51
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.0 Introduction

This chapter presented the results of data which was collected through interviews,
questionnaires and observations in Kute River drainage basin, in relation to integrated water
management in Zimbabwe. Presentation of data was done through tables, charts, graphs and
pictures.
4.1 State of water harvesting techniques in Kute River Ward 14 Nyanga District

Access to clean water is a basic right guaranteed by the international law and the
Zimbabwean constitution too also guarantees the right to water. It is against this background
that this section focuses on the current state of water harvesting from Kute River in Kute
Communal area.

Table 4.1 shows water harvesting techniques used by Ngawagare, Murengami and
Udinge villages in Ward 14 Nyanga District.

52
 State of water harvesting Villages
Ngawagare Murengami Udinge
Water harvesting pipes 10.50mm poly 10.50mm poly 5.50mm poly pipes
pipes pipes
5 40mm poly 10 40 mm poly
pipes pipes
Water drains from Kute River Not available 3 water drains Not Available

Source: Nyanga Ward14 Profile Report (2012)

The table above shows the water harvesting technique used by villagers to withdraw water
from Kute River by Ngawagare ,Murengami and Udinge villages in Ward 14 Kute
Communal area of Nyanga District. The information shows that households in Ngawagare
and Murengami had in total 20 x 50 mm poly pipes and 15 x 40mm withdrawing from Kute
River .Udinge village has 5x50 mm poly pipes harvesting water from Kute River. The table
also shows that Murengami Village has a maximum of 3 drains withdrawing water from Kute
River whilst Ngawagare and Udinge do not have any drains.

Table 4.2 Villagers perceptions on the current Kute River water withdrawal situation.

Perceptions frequency %

Excellent - -

good - -

Fair 11 18.3%

poor 49 81.7%

Total 60 100 %

Source: field survey (2021)

From the 60 questioners administered in Ngawagare ,Murengami and Udinge Villages the
study reveals that the majority of the respondents are dissatisfied by the way water issues are
being handled in the communal area with regard to the Kute river water withdrawal and
53
management of water in Kute River. Findings from the research indicate that about 81.7% of
the respondents noted that the performance of the VIDCO in the management of water
withdrawal from the river is very poor while the remaining 18.3% indicate that the provision
of water services is fair. Given this picturesque the majority of the villagers are displeased
with the services being offered by the NRDC. The rationality behind this perception is
attributed to the fact that despite the fact that most of the villagers in Ngawagare and
Murengami are connected to Zinwa water they barely receive water and in most cases taps
runs dry for weeks. This situation compromises access to safe water as many are forced to
look for other alternate sources of water.

4.3.1 Sources of water

sources of water
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
sources of water
20%
10%
0%

Source: field survey (2021)

54
Figure 4.1 Main sources of water used in Kute communal area, ward 14 ,Nyanga
District

The diagram shows the main sources of water used by Ngawagare, Murengami and Udinge
villages. Most of the respondents indicated that they rely on water from Kute River for both
irrigation and drinking .In Ngawagare and Udinge villagers revealed that they depend on
both tape water and wells as sources of drinking water. 15 % of the villager’s expressed that
they make use of water from tapes from ZNWA though they receive it erratically probably
once or twice a week and in most cases for few hours. This was reflected by one respondent
who indicated that, “we barely receive water from our tapes and when water from ZNWA is
available it is only for a few hours probably 1 to 2 hours’’. An interview with the chairperson
at WADCO revealed that the problem of continuity of water supply is affected by inadequate
supply. This situation has forced many of the villagers to rely only on Kute River water
which is not treated for both drinking and irrigation. In Ngawagare village most of the
respondents indicated that water last came out of their tapes in 2020 and currently they are
getting water from wells and Kute river .This explains why 63, 3% of respondents indicated
that they use water from Kute River .The researcher also observed that the most
compromised water sources are found in Udinge village which the majority of the villagers
get water from shallow wells and in most cases from unprotected wells. The table also shows
that 16, 7% get water from boreholes, 5% from wells.

The findings of the research clearly indicate that in terms of water supply, the performance of
the local authority is below the optimum level. This was confirmed by the key informants
from the NRDC who after being asked to describe the current water situation in Kute
Communal area admitted that the performance of the local authority in providing the water to
villagers has not being up to the required standard. Therefore, as indicated above the local
authority is finding it difficult to provide sufficient portable water to the villagers and as such
failure to ensure that villagers get access to adequate water supply is in direct contrast to the
Human rights perspective to development that entails that water supply for each person must
be sufficient and continuous for personal and domestic uses (Nhapi 2015).

This study shows that in Kute Communal area there is poor coverage in terms of safe water
supply as indicated by the majority of the villagers who painted that they rely on river water.
This is in agreement to the studies of Piers and Morel (2012) who posits that coverage of

55
water supply in Africa is relatively low than any region in the world in which one in three
Africans does not have access to improved water supply. In addition, as Favre et al (2008)
posits the availability of water is very vital for good personal hygiene but given the current
water supply situation in Kute Communal area, lack of reliable tape water endorses poor
sanitation practices which will in turn make residents vulnerable to water related illness.

Plate 4:1 protected water source in Ngawagare Village

Source: primary data (2021) protected well in used in Udinge Village

Plate 4.1 showed a typical protected water well in which most of villagers in Ngawagare and
Udinge derive their water for domestic chores. This was against the background were upon
council and ZINWA were failing to provide sufficient water for villagers and as a result most
villagers have been using this alternate source of water to meet the daily needs. The
researcher observed that in most areas toured during data collection the above well is most
found in each household serving at approximately 6 to 10 individuals.

56
Plate 4:2 Unprotected water source in Murengami Village

Source primary data: An unprotected water source in Murengami Village

Plate 4.2 showed the dire situation in Murengami village in which the researcher observed the
use of unprotected wells for domestic water use. As aforesaid the most compromised water
sources are found in Murengami Village in which the majority of the villagers get water from
shallow wells and in most cases from unprotected wells. The reason being that Murengami
villagers do not have access to water withdrawal from Kute River. This is entirely linked to
the terrain found in the area. The Environmental Health Technician indicated that villagers
around this area dug shallow wells for themselves and they use that water which is not safe to
drink.

4.3.2 Distance travelled to water sources by Kute Ward 14 Villagers

The findings of the research demonstrate that 80% of the respondent have individualised
water supply (wells) and time taken to fetch water from these wells is less than 30 minutes.
However, the remaining 20% reveals that they travel for more than an hour when fetching
water from community boreholes.
.

57
4.4 State of downstream water supply in Kute River from the Source in Murengami
Village.

In an effort to establish the state of water supply in Kute River downstream, the researcher
observed that most parts of the river downstream from the source of the river in Murengami
Village have dead water and this can create serious problem in terms of health of the people
downstream who rely on the water from Kute River. This also has led to reduction of
biodiversity .During data collection the response given by respondents in relation to
sanitation facilities they use in the in their house household is presented below:

Table 4.3 Villagers perceptions on the performance of council in the management of

water resources in ward 14 Kute communal area

Perception Frequency Percentage

Extremely poor 45 75%

Poor 10 16.7%

Good 5 8.3%

Very good - -

Total 60 100%

In an effort to determine the perception of villagers in relation to the management of Kute

River water withdrawal management and water services in Kute communal area , villagers
were asked to rate service provision being offered by the local board. A questionnaire survey
was conducted with 60 villagers in Ngawagare, Murengami and Udinge. Research findings
revealed that about 75 % of the respondent indicated that services being provided by the local
authority are extremely poor and they base this argument on the fact that the state of water
and sanitation in Kute communal area is characterised by unreliable water supply.

In addition 16.7% noted that service provision is poor and 8.3% highlighted that it is good.
The study revealed that those that indicate that the services being offered by council is good,
base their arguments on the fact that although council was failing to provide water on a

58
regular basis it had managed to least drill boreholes in the area to compensate for their short
comings.

4.5 Villagers views on the impacts of inadequate water supply in Kute communal area.

In as much as water and sanitation services are essential for human survival the study
revealed that villagers in Kute communal area had been denied this basic right. In an effort to
answer one of the objectives of the research which aims at establishing the impacts of
inadequate water in Kute River the study revealed that indeed inadequate water and sanitation
has negative effects to the lives of villagers in the community.

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%
exposure to diseases unstable livelihoods Interruption of economic
activities

Source author (2021) Figure: 4.2 Effects of inadequate water supply in Kute River basin

4.6.1 Exposure to diseases

59
Lack of access to adequate water supply and sanitation services put the lives of villages at
risk of contracting water borne diseases. Report by the Ministry of Health and Child Care
revealed that, in Zimbabwe since the beginning of 2017 about 854 cases of typhoid were
suspected, 59 confirmed whilst five death occurred ( Evans (2005). Therefore, in this vein,
the study revealed that the current water and sanitation challenges in Kute River expose the
villagers to diseases. In a bid to ascertain if such cases are also evident in Kute communal
area the response given by the villagers confirm that they live in constant fear of contracting
water borne disease owing this to poor sanitation and unreliable water sources. Out of 60
questionnaires distributed by the researcher 40 % of the respondents confirmed that
waterborne disease are prevalent in their community while others noted that, they last
experienced water related diseases some few years ago. Asked to identify the common
diseases outbreak in the area, residents highlighted that the main common disease identified
was diarrhoea. All respondents sampled stressed that there were no cases of cholera or
typhoid. However, the report from UNICEF Zimbabwe (2017) outlined that of all the
suspected cholera cases in Zimbabwe 50 % of those are found in Chipinge, Chiredzi and
Nyanga.

4.6.2 Unstable lives

Lack of adequate supply of portable water disrupts the social and economic wellbeing of any
society. Literature has shown that lack of sufficient water supply poses a great burden to both
the rural and urban areas. Studies conducted by behold (2004) pointed out that women and
girls are the most affected given the fact that at house hold level there are the ones
responsible for fetching water and as such during water shortages they bear the burden of
carrying water for up to five hours per day. This is the same with responses given by villagers
in Kute communal area who on being asked if there are any cases of scarcity of water 50% of
the respondent confirmed that shallow wells are not reliable as they turned to get dry during
the period of October and for more than a month there are forced to rely on community
boreholes until rain season resumes. The findings of the research showed that water scarcity
had negative effects on the lives of people in Kute communal area as this has resulted in
unstable livelihoods.

The study revealed that, villagers in this community are forced to wake up as early as
possible to queue for water at the community boreholes so that they would access clean water

60
for drinking. On being asked on how shortage of water have affected their lives one villager
in Ngawagare village highlighted that in their area although they make use of water from
wells, in most cases the wells were few and unreliable while at the same time despite the fact
that there are boreholes in their area others were not functional. In this vein they are forced to
walk long distances to other location in search for water. Another respondent in Udinge
village also share the same sentiments stressing that around their area there is only one
functional borehole which serve the entire community. Given this situation, the study
revealed that due to few functional boreholes villagers are forced to wakeup even around
midnight so as to acquire one bucket of water. In this vein the study has revealed that the
problem of water affect villagers in these three communities.

4.6.3 Interruption of economic activities

Closely related to the issue of unstable livelihoods it was established that shortage of water
has direct bearing on the economic activities of the people in this community. Literature has
shown that limited access to water reduces the time which is much needed for people to
engage into productive activities. Holmes (undated) is of the view that access to convenient
and affordable water can save people’s time and energy and enhances their livelihood
opportunities. In this vein the absence of water affects women economic activities and the
finding of this research also confirms the same. The majority of the villagers in Kute area are
engaged in the informal sector, women in Kute area are also engaged in small income
generating projects that include selling vegetables or firewood and as owners of small
canteens. It was established that shortage of water in Udinge village was affecting women
owning small gardens growing horticulture crops for sale. In this vein asked about how
shortage of water has affected their livelihoods a respond given by one villager who owns a
Horticulture garden highlighted that, she needs a lot of water for her garden but due to
shortages of water she is losing income as she is forced to fetch water from a local borehole
which in many cases she has to spend a lot of time queuing at the borehole to fetch water.
Another women who owns a canteen, however highlighted that in order to cope with water
shortages, she has resorted to employ services of water vendors who charge her 50c per 20
litre bucket. Given this situation it becomes clearer that, inadequate water supply affects
economic activities of women .WHO (2004) which posits that about 40 billion working hours
is lost carrying water each year in Africa.

61
 4.7 Challenges faced by NRDC in the integrated management of water resources
harvesting.

In an effort to establish the key challenges being faced by the local authority in the
management of water resources, the responses given by the Ward councillor, key informant
from council and representative from the WADCO are presented in Fig: 4.8.

% of water management challenges

35%

30%

25%

20%

15%

10%

5%

0%
vandalism resource population poor low revenue Shortage Political
constrains growth governance collection Of land interference
interference
Figure: 4.3 Challenges of water management of water in Kute communal
ge area

Source author (2021)

4.8 .1 Resource constraints

The general underperformance facing the country economy has impacted negatively the
operation of NRDC in the maintenance of and investment in water resources. The research
established that 15% of the respondents attributed the current water management situation in
Kute communal area to lack of adequate resources and staff which is much needed to manage
and monitor Kute River activities .Interviews carried out with council officials noted that the
NRDC had serious challenges in managing and monitoring the activities that are done in this
river by villagers especially regulating stream water harvesting .This was emphasized by key
informant who revealed that the council lack adequate resources for service delivery. The key
informant noted that,

62
“As council we are not operating in a different environment than other local authorities in
terms of economic challenges, as such if you look at our revenue base it is very low so much
that to do very significant projects it’s very difficult.”
This concurs with Cesar (2010) who highlighted that due to limited resources, it becomes
very difficult to invest in infrastructure development and in most cases resulting in
developing countries failing to keep up with the needs of the growing rural population. The
councillor for ward 14 also noted that,

“The situation at hand where villagers just put in their pipes to withdraw water from the
river without proper procedures is the failure by council to come up with a policy on how
best the situation can be monitored such that the river downstream continues to flow. At the
same time villagers along the river benefiting its water resources .Lack of resources on the
part of the NRDC has left the board with little to develop the infrastructure”.

4.8 .2Poor governance

Cross & Peal (2005) attributed the challenges to the provision of water and sanitation in
Africa to the issues of poor management .The study revealed that poor governance in Kute
communal area ward 14 was a contributing factor hindering the effective management of
water in the area. From the questionnaires distributed to the villagers, about 31% of the
respondent revealed that the NRDC was to blame for poor water management. One villager
in Murengami village accused the responsible authority of parcelling out of stands without
paying much attention to the need to protect watersheds. Observation made by the researcher
indeed revealed that in Murengami village people have been given stands at the source of
Kute River.

In an interview with representatives from the Village Development Committee, the

respondent accused the responsible authority of playing partisan politics in sub dividing and
selling land. However key informant from NRDC indicated that although there are formal
structures which are followed in giving out stands, such as consultations with village heads,
actions by some politicians has been a challenge perpetuating the water and sanitation crisis
in Ward 14. The respondent revealed that most of the illegal settlements have to do with
politics in which in a bid to retain popularity some action by politicians has been over the
years resulted in the allocation of stands in areas that are not serviced by council. This has put

63
a burden to the operation of council given the fact that the local authority is responsible for
managing and providing water resources.

The above picture confirmed that water resources in Kute River were not properly managed
as evidenced by plenty of poly pipes which villagers have resorted to get water from Kute
River hence causing the suffocation of the river downstream

4.9.1 Coping strategies to address the problem of water shortages in Ward 14, Kute
communal area.

The research found out that though in Murengami and Udinge Village there was water
network, the local authority has been finding it difficult to provide reliable water supply to
the villagers as a result that has forced villagers to respond to this situation through adopting
various coping strategies. During data collection it emerged that in Ngawagare
Village,villagers relied on ZINWA water but due to erratic supplies, they are forced to look
for other alternate sources of water such as digging wells at their premises, and the use of
communal boreholes. However, in Udinge Village it emerged that there is no water
infrastructure and villagers rely on Kute River. In cases where wells dries up as a coping
strategy villagers rely on boreholes and Kute River.

Table: 4.4 shows Household coping strategies to increase water quantity in Ward 14,
Kute communal area.

Coping strategy Frequency %

borehole 18 30%
digging wells 34 56.6%
rain water harvesting 5 8,4%

rivers 3 5%
total 60 100%

64
 Distribution of coping strategies to increase water
quantity

rivers

rain water harvesting

digging wells

borehole

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%

Figure 4.9 Coping strategies employed by villagers to cope with poor water provision in
Ward 14, in Kute communal area.

The above graph shows the distribution of household strategies employed by villagers in
Ngawagare, Udinge and Murengami in Kute communal area Ward 14 to cope with water
shortages. In an effort to increase the quantity of water, the graph shows that 56,7% of the
villagers in this community supplement water shortages through digging wells ,30 % resort to
the use of boreholes , 5% make use of rivers and while 8,4% use rain harvesting
technologies.

The research findings reveal that villagers in this community uses water derived from these
various sources for different purposes. In ward Ngawagare and Udinge it was established that
during water shortages water from the boreholes is mainly used for drinking and cooking
purposes whilst the one they get from digging wells is reserved for other domestic chores
such as bathing, laundry . It is the same with responses given by villagers in Murengami
Village who indicated that, water from shallow wells is not always reliable as they usually
dry towards rain season hence as a coping strategy they are forced to travel long distances to
fetch water from community boreholes. In all the villages there also make use of water from
65
kute River supplied by NGO named Sparron to supplement water shortages. The water from
Kute River is mainly used for washing clothes and in worst cases even for drinking.

Another coping strategy identified by the study is that residences in this community do treat
water for safety or to improve quality. On being asked about if they have treated water about
30 % of the respondents pointed out that they do not treat water. They based their argument
on the fact that they trust that the water they get from boreholes and their protected wells is
safe as compared to municipal water. One respondent said, “We trust that ground water is
safe and so far we haven’t suffered from any illness after consuming it.” However, the
remaining 70% of the respondents highlighted that they treat water for the reason that they do
not trust the safety of water they get from Kute River. Those that treat water stressed they
usually use aqua tablets or simple boiling method for purification.

4.10 The involvement of the community in relation to water and sanitation provision
services

IWRM calls for a participatory approach in the development and management of water
resources in which members of the local community are supposed to participate in decision
making especially with regard to the choice of water supply and management. In this vein,
the researcher in a bid to find out if villagers are involved into water and sanitation issues
information given by key informant revealed that villagers are involved into water related
projects particularly in the implementation stage. This was confirmed by NRDC development
secretary who said that when a borehole is constructed by NRDC it surrenders ownership to
the villagers who then form water committees at community level at each and every borehole.
The mandate of the water committee being to oversee the use of the borehole whereby
villagers served by a particular borehole are required to pay a fee for the maintenance of the
borehole. However although villagers are involved, the study shows that villagers are not
fully engaged in decision making process as they are only involved in the implementation
phrase.

The study revealed that the members of this community survive the below poverty datum line
and there is scarcity of evidence to support their involvement into the issues of water
management. The community participated in decision making regarding water management
is through the budget formulation processes were upon villager’s air their views in regard to
66
the issues of water and sanitation in the community. Through an interview with key
informant from NRDC it was established that villagers are also involved into development
issues through Ward Development Committees (lead by councillor) and it is from these
committees that development plans are forwarded to council for consideration. Asked if there
are any community measures taken as the community to address the problem of water 90% of
the respondents painted ignorance of such arrangements at community level. The remaining
10% of the sampled villagers demonstrated knowledge of such arrangement at community
level but raised concern that the structures were barely inactive and this explains why the
current water and sanitation have not changed. The responses given by villagers
demonstrated that although there are Ward Development Committees, in terms of water
supply and sanitation at community level there has been no major development process
taking place in the area. In this vein , this shows that villagers are not being fully involved in
decision making with regard to water and sanitation projects given the fact that 90% of the
sampled villagers were unaware of the existence of such structures

8%

34%

council
NGO,S
private

58%

Source field data (2021)

Figure 4.10 shows Organizations involved in redressing water management problems in
Kute communal area ward 14.

67
Fig 4.8 shows that about 34% of the respondent’s highlighted that council has made some
interventions with regard to the provision of water and sanitation in Kute communal area, 58
% of the respondents underlined the involvement of various NGO’s while 5% highlighted the
involvement of private players. The research highlighted that, in terms of intervention made
by council 34% of villagers pointed out that council have been making efforts to address this
crisis through sinking of boreholes and installation of communal tapes. The study established
that even though the local authority is responsible for the delivery of water and sanitation
services its performance with regard to the same is below the required standard. In response
to this various coping strategies has been employed by the responsible authority to redress
this situation and the following which are the major coping mechanisms which were
identified during data collection.

4.10.1 Testing of water sources

In addition the research establishes that the majority of villagers in Kute communal area rely
on ground water sources mainly for domestic use. As indicted earlier the response given
through the distribution of questioners in Ngawagare , Murengami and Udinge village
revealed that indeed 63, 3% rely on wells but the level of safety is questionable considering
the fact that these wells are few meters apart from pit latrines. In this vein, the Village Health
Technician admitted that this poses a great risk to the health of villagers as chances of
contamination are high given the current situation. In response to this it was established that
as a coping strategy after every three months the local board has been conducting random test
at water sources so as to determine the safety of these water sources.

4.10.2 Educational campaigns

The study also revealed that having realised the negative implications of inadequate water
management services NRDC initiated some educational mechanisms that are meant to
educate villagers on importance of conserving water resources. In this vein, through
partnerships villagers are trained on how to use, store water safely and also how to construct
at least a safe water source (well). Therefore through these educational mechanisms, it was
established that the idea was to mitigate problems that arise due the inadequate water and
sanitation.

68
4.11 Summary

This chapter presented the findings of the research carried out by the researcher. Data
gathered through primary and secondary sources was analysed and presented in graphs, tables
and pictures .The first pages of this chapter show that the total response rate is 89.3%, out of
a sample size of 75 respondents only 67 managed to respond. Both men and women
participated in this research, 40% women participated while 60% men as shown in fig 4.1.
The research findings shows that although SDG goal number 6 calls for the universal and
equitable access to safe water and sanitation for all, the local board has been finding it
difficult to ensure that this basic right is attained and much of this problems is attributed to
continued growth of the population in Kute communal area against a background of limited
development of infrastructure to support the water, sanitation and hygiene needs of the
villagers. Findings that are presented in this chapter also reflected the underpinning
challenges being faced by NRDC in the management of water resources and the effects it had
on villagers. The next chapter dwells on the summary of the research, results and its findings
as well as its conclusions and its recommendations

69
CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.0 Introduction

The concern of this research was to assess the problems facing Kute communal area in the
management of water in Kute River drainage basin. While at the same time aiming to explore
on strategies that can be best implemented in order to improve access to water and sanitation
services so as to meet the key targets of SDG goal number 6 which seeks to ensure the
universal and equitable access to safe water and sanitation for all. The present chapter seeks
to give a summary of the findings of the preceding chapters and give recommendations and to
make concluding remarks on the research.

5.1 Summary
The findings shows that the management of Kute River drainage basin is very much
insufficient a situation that resulted in villagers having access to water from the river poly-
pipe siphoning and canals until it was suffocated downstream. The findings show that the
failure by the responsible authority to provide sufficient water management has a negative
effect on the villagers as this exposes them to diseases outbreak, unstable livelihoods and
disruption of economic activities. In this vein, the local authority has been encountering some

70
challenges such as resource constraints and low revenue collection, lack of political will
among others in the management of Kute River basin.
5.2 Conclusions

The research findings show that the current state of water and sanitation in Kute Communal
Lands is in direct contrast to the provision of Section 73 of the Constitution of Zimbabwe
Amendment (No. 20) that seeks to ensure that every citizen for Zimbabwe has a right to live
in a clean, safe and healthy environment. This is evidenced by villagers in Kute communal
area continued lack of access to clean water supply and sanitation services a situation which
forces them to rely on and unprotected sources of water. In this vein the majority of sampled
villagers indicated that they rely on raw Kute River water.

The research discovered that the state at which water in Kute River is withdrawn for domestic
and irrigation purposes is in a poor state. Therefore there is need for government and other
relevant stakeholders to be involved in the management of water and sanitation services so
that villagers in Kute communal area has access to sufficient portable water and sanitation
services. This will go a long way in meeting the key targets of SDG 6 which has the objective
of ensuring that all people have access to water and sanitation.

The research found out that the management of water in Kute River is insufficient and this
has negative effects in the lives of villagers as this poor state water management increases the
chances of contracting water borne diseases and this also result in death of water loving
creatures downstream

As a coping strategy the research findings showed that villagers in Kute communal area has
employed various coping strategies to increase water quantity that include digging wells, use
of community boreholes so that they at least find clean and safe water. The research finding
also showed that a number of NGOs has been very active in the provision of water in Kute
communal area. Though the NGOs have played their part to alleviate the, situation, the
current poor state of water management in Kute River is a clear demonstration that a lot still
need to be done to ensure that at least villagers have access to water supply at a controlled
and monitored rate .
5.3Recommendations

71
In light of the findings of the study and the conclusions made above, the researcher made the
following recommendations:

The research established that, there is inadequate water services provision in the Kute
Communal Lands. Therefore there is need for the responsible authority to secure resources
from the private sector through Private Public Partnership to fund projects that aid in the
provision of improved water management and supply services

The continued rise of illegal settlements at the source of Kute River was indicated as the key
challenge to the management of water and sanitation services in Kute Communal
Lands .Therefore as a recommendation there is need for NRDC to speedy the regularization
of these illegal structures and also ensure the enforcement of development control regulations
which are meant to bring in sanity in these unplanned settlements.

The study revealed that the due to resource constrains the local authority has been finding it
difficult to service land and regulate land use, a scenario which has seen villagers developing
and occupying houses in areas that are close to the river. Therefore as a recommendation the
NRDC should work towards ensuring that new houses that are built are planned and conform
to set standards. This will be advantageous when it comes to the implementation of water
supply strategies in the area.

Investments in more water infrastructure must be priority for the responsible authority. The
research findings shows that as an intervention the local authority drilled boreholes so as to
ease the water crisis but currently few are functional and this has put pressure on villagers
who are forced to queue at the boreholes . Therefore the local authority should drill at least
more boreholes, as this will help in providing safe drinking water and reduce river water
harvesting through poly pipes.

The research findings also showed that villagers in the study area are very poor as most of
them survive below poverty datum line and as such it becomes very difficult for them to find
other water sources like solar powered boreholes .In this vein NGOs should continue to
promote low cost water irrigation facilities like drip that would help reduce quick draining of
river water.

72
The study revealed that due to limited revenue base NRDC has been struggling to undertake
significant water management and provision projects Therefore, there is need for the central
government to financially support local authorities in terms of capital projects while also
capacitating these institutions in good governance so as to ensure that resources are not
abused and used for unintended purposes.

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Cross P, & Morel A. (2005) Pro-poor strategies for urban water supply and sanitation
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Mabika, H (2015) Liquidity Crisis and Service Delivery in Zimbabwe Local Authorities.
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and-sanitationin-modern-urban-a accessed on Monday 4 September 2017

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Appendices
76
Questionnaire for Kute communal area villagers

Good day Sir/ Madam

My name is Kafikira Wiseman. I am a student at Great Zimbabwe State University. I am

working on my dissertation in partial fulfilment of the programme. My research study is on
assessing the effectiveness of integrated water resources management in the Kute River
basin, Nyanga District. Successful completion of this research will therefore be mutually
beneficial to Local Authorities, Communities and Policy makers.
I am therefore kindly appealing to you to assist by objectively participating in this data
collection exercise. I would like to assure you that your valuable input will be treated with
utmost confidentiality and will be used for academic and professional purposes only.

Your co-operation would be highly appreciated.

Please tick where appropriate.

 Answer all the questions in the spaces provided.

 Please do not write any name on this questionnaire.

Ward Number ……………Village name………………

SECTION A: BIOGRAPHICAL DATA

 Please indicate your gender. Male [ ] female [ ]
 What is your age group? 18-30 [ ] 31-45 [ ] 46 -60 [ ] above 60 [ ]
 Highest Level of Education Attained? Primary [ ] secondary [ ] tertiary [ ]
 Family income per month 0-100 [ ] 101-200[ ] 201-300 [ ] others
(specify)
 Number of years residing in Epworth 0 -5 years[ ] 6-10 years[ ] 11-15years [ ]
16 -20 years 20+ [ ]

SECTION B: STATE OF WATER AND SANITATION SERVICES IN KUTE RIVER

BASIN
1. How do you describe the level of water provision in the Kute River basin ?
Excellent [ ] Good [ ] Fair [ ] Poor [ ]
2. a) What is your main water source ?
77
Tap water [ ] borehole water [ ] well water [ ] other ……………………..

b) If tapes, how often do you receive tap water?

Every day [ ] once per week [ ] twice per week [ ] other……………………

c) If borehole, well or other. How far is the water source from your house?

Less than 30 minutes [ ] between one hour [ ] more than one hour [ ]

3. How do you rate the level of water safety from your water sources?
Safe [ ] very safe [ ] unsafe [ ] very unsafe [ ]

Explain your answer

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……

4. How many litres of water do you require in a day?

Less than 20 litres [ ] between 20 – 60 litres [ ] above 60 litres [ ]
5. How do you view the performance of council in relation to the provision of water in
Kute River basin?

Extremely poor [ ] poor [ ] good [ ] very good [ ]

SECTION B: CHALLENGES FACED IN MANAGING KUTE RIVER DRAINAGE

BASIN
12. Does your household have a permit from council to withdraw water from the river?
[Yes or No]
13. If no, how many litres of water from the river are you using per month and how are
accounting for it?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
14. How often do you pay your water permit?
………………………………………………………………………………………….
15. If yes, how do you feel about those not having permits and do you think this can be
solved? Explain your answer

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…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……

16. What do you think is the reason why council is failing to provide adequate managing
services? Explain your answer

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……

SECTION C: EFFECTS OF INADEQUATE WATER SUPPLY DOWNSTREAM OF

KUTE RIVER ON THE LIVELIHOOD
6. Have you ever noticed a change in the water flowing in Kute River downstream?
[Yes or No]
7. If yes, what do you think could be the causes for water decline in the river?
Water drains [ ] Poly pipes syphoning water [ ] drought [ ]

8. How did shortage of water affect your livelihood?

b) Explain your answer

………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…
………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
………
17. Has there been any outbreak of diseases as a result of downstream water shortages
[Yes or No]
18. If yes, what type of infection
Cholera [ ] typhoid [ ] diarrhoea [ ] other
19. Which age group was the most affected?
0-5 [ ] 6-10 [ ] 11-20[ ] 21-above [ ]
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…
SECTION D: COPING STRATEGIES TO ADDRESS PROBLEMS OF WATER
20. Are you satisfied with water being offered by council? Satisfied [ ] Dissatisfied [ ]

21. What house-hold coping strategies have you adopted to improve water quantity?

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Boreholes [ ] digging wells [ ] rainwater harvesting [ ] buying water [ ] rivers & dams [ ]

b) For what purposes do you use water from these sources? Explain your answer

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
c) Do you treat water before use in order to improve quality? [Yes or No]

If yes, what do you use to treat water? If no why

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
22. Is there any community measures have you embraced to ensure there is adequate
water and sanitation? [Yes or No]

If yes explain your answer if no explain

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……

23. Which institution has made interventions with regard to water problems in this
community?

Council [ ] NGO‟s [ ] Private [ ] other

…………………………….

b) Did the interventions managed to address water shortages in this community?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……

24. What advice do you give Nyanga Rural District Council with regard to the current state of
wateranddelivery?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…

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 Thank
You

Interview guide for council officials

1. For how long have you been an employee of council?

2. What are your duties and responsibilities in relation to the provision of water?

3. How do you describe the current state of water being offered by council?

4. Are the water services offered by council adequate to cater for the needs of villagers?

5. What challenges are you facing as a local authority in providing these services?
6. What do you think are the root causes of all these challenges?
7. In what ways do you think erratic water supply has affected the livelihoods of
villagers?
8. Who do you think is the most affected group?
9. What coping strategies if any, have you put in place to deal with these challenges?
10. What level of success have you made so far in the provision of adequate water?

11. Are villagers being involved in issues to do with water? And if so, how?
12. What is the level of stakeholder participation and how do you ensure their
involvement in the implementation of council projects?

13. Are there any other stakeholders who are involved in the provision of water?

14. What kind of interventions have they made?

15. How effective are these interventions in improving the supply of water?

16. What do you think must be done to improve the water supply in Kute Communal
Lands?

Thank you for your cooperation

Interview guide for Councillors

1. For how long have you been a Councillor for Nyanga Rural District?
2. Are there any water provision challenges in your area?
3. For how long have you been experiencing water challenges in your ward?
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 4. How do you describe the current state of water?
5. Why is Nyanga Rural District failing to provide reliable water services?

6. As a Councillor how do you encourage villagers in your ward to permits to access

water from the river?
7. How are water shortages affecting villagers in your ward?
8. Were there any incidents of outbreak of diseases as a result of unreliable water
provision?

9. If yes who do you think are the most affected members of the society?
10. What coping strategies or mechanisms have been put in place by different
stakeholders to redress the problem of water in your area?

11. What do you think is the ultimate solution to the problem of water in your area?

Thank you for your cooperation

Interview Guide for Non-Governmental organization

1. For how long have your organization operated in this area?

2. What was the situation of water provision when your organization first comes in this
community?

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 3. What projects have you put in place to ensure adequate water supply and improved
service delivery?

4. To what success did these projects managed to redress the situation?

5. What mechanisms did your organization put in place to ensure these projects are
sustained?
6. What do you think must be done by Nyanga Rural District to improve access to
water?

Thank you

Interview Guide for Kute communal area Village Development Association

1. For how long has Kute village Development committee operated in this
community?

2. What is the mandate of Kute Development Association?

3. How do you describe the services delivery being offered council?
4. In your own view what is the current state of water in Kute community?
5. What efforts have you made so far as Kute Development committee with
regard to problems of water?

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 6. How successful were these efforts in redressing water problems in this
community?

7. What do you think must be done by to improve access to water?

Observation Check List

Date…………………………………… Time……………………………………….
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Village Name……………………………………………………………………………

Item to be observed Remarks

Water sources
Type of pipes used to
withdraw water from the
river.
Downstream water flow
drainage systems

85