Journal of Cultural Heritage 49 (2021) 48–58

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Original article

The equipment of a Germanic warrior from the 2nd–4th century AD:

Digital reconstructions as a research tool for the behaviour of
archaeological costumes
Aleksei Moskvin b , Martijn A. Wijnhoven a,∗ , Mariia Moskvina b
a
Department of Art and Culture, History, Antiquity, VU University Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1105, 1081HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
b
Department of Clothes Design and Technology, Saint Petersburg State University of Industrial Technologies and Design, 18 Bolshaya Morskaya Str., Saint
Petersburg, 191186, Russian Federation

i n f o a r t i c l e A b s t r a c t

Historique de l’article : Virtual reality opens new ways for reconstructing, preserving and exhibiting clothing and textiles. This
Reçu le 19 juillet 2020 applies particularly to those from an archaeological context, which can be incomplete, damaged or fragile.
Accepté le 3 mars 2021 Despite the possibilities of computer technology, such as computer graphics (CG) and computer-aided
Disponible sur Internet le 31 March 2021
design (CAD), its potential has only been superficially explored. This article showcases its possibilities by
focussing upon the equipment of a Germanic warrior from the 2nd–4th century AD. His panoply consists
Keywords : of trousers, a tunic, shoes, a mail coat, an under-armour garment and a belt. CG and CAD tools, such as
War booty sacrifices
stress analysis and strain analysis, were applied to visualize and examine the behaviour of his equip-
Germanic warrior
Roman iron age
ment. The military clothing of the Germanic warrior proves very functional in terms of physics, materials
Computer-aided design science, anatomy and biomechanics. In other words, his clothing and armour result very suitable for war-
Finite element analysis fare. This case study demonstrates that digital reconstructions can be more than scientific visualisation,
but also a new and powerful research tool, generating new insights into archaeological artefacts.
© 2021 The Author(s). Publi? par Elsevier Masson SAS. Cet article est publi? en Open Access sous
licence CC BY (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1. Introduction [12]. Modern software is able to enrich the possibilities of experi-

Digital technologies are commonly used to reconstruct histori-
cal and archaeological clothing and textiles. For example, Cybulska
[1–3] developed a new methodology for 3D reconstruction of tex-
tiles and recreated a number of items using computer graphics.
Kuzmichev, Moskvin and Moskvina [4–7] presented algorithms for
digital replication of historical clothes in terms of parameters of its
pattern blocks and digital visualisation of lost historical costumes.
Kang [8] provided new approaches for 3D modelling and simula-
tion of historical garments. Advanced technologies of exhibiting
historical clothes in virtual and augmented reality are described by
Capacete-Caballero, Caulfield-Sriklad and McKay [9], Kirkland et al.
[10] and Loscialpo [11].
These works show recent advances in the development of new
methods for reconstructing and exhibiting garments in a digital
way. However, reconstructions are more than visualisation alone
and can be used as a versatile research tool to acquire new insights
mental archaeology by moving the process of studying the artefacts
to virtual reality. Computer analysis that employs 3D models of
clothes, instead of the actual garments, is widely used in contem-
porary clothing design. Air gaps and contact areas between the
body and clothes are measured to ensure that garments will fit
the consumer [13,14]. Computer programs can visualize the strain
of textile materials and the pressure that the materials put on the
body [15,16]. Special software can model heat transfer to predict
how clothes will protect the wearer from extreme temperatures
[17,18]. The same approaches can also be used within the context
of archaeological garments to increase our understanding. A new
methodology is thus required to bring together archaeological arte-
facts, contemporary software, digital reconstruction methods and
computer analysis tools.
2. Research aim

The aim of this study is to showcase the possibilities of compu-

ter analysis tools for examining archaeological clothing by digitally
∗ Corresponding author. recreating a Germanic warrior from the Roman Iron Age. His cos-
Adresses e-mail : lelikn2@mail.ru (A. Moskvin), m.a.wijnhoven@vu.nl tume constitutes six items: trousers, a tunic, shoes, a mail coat,
(M.A. Wijnhoven), petrushenkoma@yandex.ru (M. Moskvina). an under-armour garment, and a belt. The analysis will focus on

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2021.03.003
1296-2074/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Masson SAS. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
A. Moskvin et al.
how these items work together and if they are in line with contem-
porary understanding of physics, materials science, anatomy and
biomechanics. This offers further insights into the decisions and
considerations made by the Germanic warrior in his assembly of
military clothing.
3. Material and methods
3.1. Overview
3.1.1. Hypotheses
To examine how the items of clothing would work together, we
formulated three hypotheses. These can aid in understanding the
warrior’s outfit and at the same time demonstrate the potential of
CAD and CG tools within this context.
Hypothesis 1. The use of a belt over a mail coat makes it more
comfortable to wear, since it will transfer some of its weight from
the shoulders to the hips. Throughout time, the mail coat is often
shown in iconography worn with a belt. The exact influence of the
belt on the physical forces of the mail coat in static and dynamic
conditions has not been studied so far. In this exploration we make
two assumptions. Firstly, the belt will transfer some of the weight
of the mail coat from the shoulders towards the waist. Secondly,
the use of the belt reduces the moment of inertia of the mail coat
making it easier for the warrior to move.
Hypothesis 2. The mail coat during the Roman Iron Age (i.e.
1st–4th century AD) is able to accommodate a padded garment
that is worn underneath the armour. The combination of mail and
padding is a well-accepted notion for the Late Middle Ages and
Early Modern period. For these periods there are surviving histo-
rical examples, but for the Roman Iron Age one must rely mainly
on the archaeological record. Since padded garments do not sur-
vive well, the use of such padded under-armour garment is more
debated.
Hypothesis 3. The military costume of the Germanic warrior is
suitable for different types of warfare (on foot and on horseback)
and can be used with different types of weapons. We will com-
bine his military costume with spears, swords, shields, javelins and
bows, and expect the equipment to prove versatile.
3.1.2. Approach
This exploration both reconstructs and tests the military cos-
tume of the Germanic warrior. It therefore entails two main stages.
During the first the costume is reconstructed in virtual reality.
During the second stage computer-aided design (CAD) and com-
puter graphics (CG) tools are applied to analyse the 3D models and
obtain the data that argue in favour or against the three formulated
hypotheses. Fig. 1 shows the flowchart of the key steps of the study
and its relation to the hypotheses and the software used.
The key steps of the study are:
1 Selection of archaeological artefacts that make up the costume of
the 2nd–4th century AD Germanic warrior. These involve trou-
sers, a tunic, shoes, a coat of mail and a belt.
2 Using 3D morphing technology to model an avatar of the
Germanic warrior, based upon archaeological information and
contemporary sizing tables.
3 Reconstruction of the objects in virtual reality using two types
of computer simulation: cloth simulation for the tunic, trousers
and shoes; and a multi-species textile- and rigid body simulation
for the mail coat.
4 Modelling of an additional object. This is a simplified represen-
tation of the mail coat to perform a stress analysis.
49
Journal of Cultural Heritage 49 (2021) 48–58
5 Stress analysis of the mail coat to understand the influence of
belt on the coat. To this purpose we used shell 1 instead of the
3D model of the coat.
6 Calculation of the inertia of the mail coat with and without the
belt in order to determine the influence of the belt on the ease of
movement of the warrior.
7 Calculation of the room provided by the armour for movement
and clothing by measuring the air gap between the avatar and
coat of mail.
8 Digital construction of a hypothetical padded under-armour. Its
construction is based upon the scarce available information, com-
plemented by the data obtained in steps 5–8.
9 Analysis of the reconstructed costume in a virtual fitting software
program to see how they behave on the body of the warrior while
fighting with different weapons.
3.1.3. Software
Five software programs were used to reconstruct and study the
costume, namely Clo3D, Unreal Engine, Blender, Range and PicPick.
To model the avatar and reconstruct the garments using cloth
simulation, we applied Clo3D software [19]. This software was also
employed to analyse the interaction between the costume and the
body in dynamics. The main reason for using Clo3D in this study is
that the software combines a number of tools for avatar modelling,
virtual fitting and analysis of clothes. Alternatively, specialised ava-
tar modelling software (MakeHuman, iClone and Adobe Fuse) can
be used as a substitute for Clo3D in step 2, while virtual try-on soft-
ware (Marvelous Designer, Optitex and VStitcher) can be applied
for steps 3, 8 and 9.
Unreal Engine was used to put the mail coat over the tunic
and trousers [20]. Many software packages (Blender, 3dsMax and
Cinema4D) can be employed to fulfil a multi-species simulation of
textiles and rigid bodies. However, game engines, such as Unreal
Engine, Unity and CryEngine, use graphics processing unit to speed
up the simulation and reduce the time required to calculate inter-
actions between the objects.
Blender was used to model the shell object and to obtain
the cross-sections of the 3D models [21]. As an alternative, 3D
modelling software (e.g. 3dsMax, Maya and Cinema4D) or more
sophisticated CAD software packages, such as Autodesk Inventor,
SolidWorks and 3-Matic, can be employed.
To simulate and analyse the influence of gravity on the mail
coat, we used Range software [22]. Many other software packages
for finite element analysis exist. Such programs as Abaqus, CalculiX,
FEBio, FreeCAD, FreeFem, Fusion 360, Inventor, MATLAB, SimScale
and SolidWorks has virtually the same functions and tools for stress
analysis and could have been used instead of the chosen software.
At step 9, PicPick software was used to measure parameters of
the posed avatars [23].
To move the 3D models between the five software programs we
used common import/export file formats, namely STL, OBJ and FBX.
3.2. Reconstructing the Germanic warrior‘s costume
3.2.1. Objects of reconstruction
We started out with a digital reconstruction of the mail coat. For
this the mail coat from Vimose in Denmark was chosen (National
Museum Copenhagen, inv. no. C 1078). This armour dates to AD
150–220 and is known for its excellent state of conservation [24].
The find was not retrieved during an archaeological excavation, but
found by laymen dragging a catcher net along the bottom of the
Vimose bog. The coat is nearly complete and still entirely flexible.
It does have some damage, which is the result of intentional des-
truction prior to deposition. The practice of deliberately destroying
is a common feature in so-called war booty sacrifices. This is a sou-
thern Scandinavian tradition during the Roman Iron and involves a
A. Moskvin et al.
Fig. 1. Flowchart of the steps taken in this study, including corresponding hypotheses and software.
large scale deposition of all type of military equipment in a single
event into wet areas [25]. This may have been done to thank the
gods for a victory by offering the spoils of war [26].
Despite the damage, the condition of the Vimose coat is still so
good that it is possible to reconstruct what it would have looked
like originally. The garment surpasses a meter in length, reaching
unto the knees, and has 35 cm long sleeves that cover the upper
arms. Given its length the coat must have had splits at the hem to
allow the wearer to walk with ease. The length of front and back of
the coat differ somewhat, which makes it likely that the splits were
located at the sides. In its original condition the coat had a total of
19,123 rings. The digital reconstruction of the Vimose mail coat is
covered in a previous publication of Wijnhoven and Moskvin [27]
and the reconstruction is shown in Fig. A1, Supplementary data. For
this reason we will not elaborate here on its construction.
The reconstructed tunic and trousers are both from the war
booty sacrifice at Thorsberg in northern Germany. Just as at Vimose,
the Thorsberg bog contained thousands of mainly military items
deposited into a lake [28–30]. The majority of artefacts from Thors-
berg dates to the 1st half of the 3rd century AD which represent
a single event, but the practice of depositing items spans a lon-
ger period. Since the tunic and trousers were excavated in the
19th century, without meticulous archaeological techniques and
registration, their exact date is uncertain. The two almost certainly
belong to the Roman Iron Age, and most likely relate to one of the
deposits during period B2, C1b or C2 [31]. This means that the tunic
and trousers probably date somewhere between 70 and 320 AD.
The tunic (Archäologisches Landesmuseum Schleswig, inv. no.
F.S. 3683) is made from high quality woollen diamond twill cloth
[32–35]. Four panels make up the garment: one for the back and one
for the front, and two for the sleeves. Just as in the Vimose coat, the
front and back are not of the same length, the back being 90 cm long
and the front only 86 cm. Another similarity is that it also has splits
at the bottom for easy movement of the legs. The manner in which
50
Journal of Cultural Heritage 49 (2021) 48–58
the front and back panel connect is now not entirely certain. Cords
are found along the edges of the two panels, suggesting that they
may be simply laced together (a solution suggested by Schlabow
[35], but questioned by Möller-Wiering [34]). The neck opening is a
cut-out oval-shape and measures approximately 25.5 cm in width.
The opening is lower at the front than back, mimicking the human
body. The sleeves are straight until more or less the elbow, from
whereon they taper towards the wrists. The ends of the sleeves
are left open, similar to a modern dress shirt. The hems have a
decorative tablet-woven band sewn onto the edges. The original
colour of these bands was purple, which gave a nice contrast with
the tunic itself, which was dyed red.
The Thorsberg bog rendered two pairs of trousers, of which the
best preserved is reconstructed here (Archäologisches Landesmu-
seum Schleswig, inv. no. F.S. 3684). The trousers [32–35] are made
from good quality woollen diamond twill cloth. The trousers have
integrated stockings that cover the entire foot. The cut of the trou-
sers is carefully executed and fits to the human body well. From
waist to toe the trousers measure approximately 125 cm and the
waist is about 46 cm wide. About 32 cm above the heel the seam at
the back of the leg stops and has been left open. Cords are found
adjacent to the open seam and are a means to close the trousers
tightly over the calves when worn [35]. The trousers have a waist-
band at the top, which contains six straps through which a simple
belt can be fitted to hold up the trousers. The original colour of the
trousers is uncertain, but it would not have had the brown-yellow
colour it has today. Since there is much evidence for the use of
dyes in textiles from the Roman Iron Age, the trousers have been
given a blue colour, which would have been achieved with woad
[36].
The belt with a relatively large buckle and backplate functio-
ned during the Roman Iron Age as an important social marker that
the owner was a military man. The belt is also a functional item
that allowed essential personal items to be close at hand, such as a
A. Moskvin et al.
comb, a money pouch and a fire striker [37]. Various scholars have
suggested that the belt provided an additional important function,
that of distributing the weight of the armour [38,39]. Our recons-
tructed belt comes from another war booty sacrifice site, Illerup
Ådal, in Denmark. Like the others it rendered many items of mili-
tary equipment. Since the excavation was done more recently, its
excavation is well recorded, making it possible to identify which
belt elements and personal items belong together. The belt chosen
for the reconstruction (inv. no. SAHR) dates to the beginning of the
3rd century AD [37]. It has a knife and a pouch with a firestone
and fire striker hanging from it. In order to counter the weight of
these objects an additional strap goes over the shoulder, just like a
baldric.
The reconstructed shoes were found on the feet of a male bog
body at Obenaltendorf in Germany, dating approximately to the
3rd century AD [40,41]. The shoes are of a carbatina type, meaning
that they are made from one piece of leather. This piece is sewn
shut at the back to form a heel. The shoes are worn by inserting a
lace through the tabs that can be tightened and closed. The shoes
are decorated with a geometric pattern carved into the leather. The
choice to reconstruct the Obenaltendorf shoes was guided by the
fact that they are typical of the Germanic region during the 3rd
century AD. The majority of the shoes found at Thorsberg is for
example of this type [42].
3.2.2. Generation of an avatar
A complete set of 12 body measurements is required to create a
virtual twin of the human body in Clo3D. The height of the indi-
vidual could be determined from published information on the
average stature of males in Denmark during the Roman Iron Age,
which is 175.2 cm [43,44]. The other 11 body measurements are
unfortunately unknown.
To fill in the gaps, we had to resort to modern body sizing
charts [45]. In contemporary sizing systems, standard body measu-
rements are presented by labels, such as Small, Medium, and Large.
For the warrior’s body we chose a Medium size. The avatar was
given the following measurements (cm): 175.2 height; 100 chest
girth; 83 natural waist girth; 86 trouser waist girth; 102 hip girth;
41 neck girth; 44.8 waist length; 65 arm length; 81 inside leg length;
17.6 wrist girth; 40 back width; and 24,6 scye depth. These body
measurements were set up in Clo3D by using the “Avatar Editor”
tool [46]. Fig. 2a shows the generated avatar.
3.2.3. Digital reconstruction of the garments
We used the published data on the items of clothing to ensure
the accuracy of the reconstructions. The tunic was made using
information from Ilkjær ([32], pp. 50–51), Hald ([33], pp. 339–340),
Möller-Wiering ([34], pp. 42–48) and Schlabow ([35], pp. 69–71).
The reconstruction of the trousers was created using data from
Ilkjær ([32], pp. 50–51), Hald ([33], pp. 328–329), Möller-Wiering
([34], pp. 48–51) and Schlabow ([35], pp. 76–77). The reconstruc-
tion of the shoes was done using a detailed pattern by Martin Moser
based upon the specifications offered by Hahne ([40], pp. 36–38,
pl. 18–19). The Illerup Ådal belt set (SAHR) was reconstructed fol-
lowing the images and descriptions provided in Ilkjær ([37], pp.
23–27, 195).
The reconstruction of the full costume of the Germanic warrior
was done in the following steps:
1 We exported pattern blocks of the tunic, trousers and shoes to
Clo3D as PNG images by using the “Graphic” command. The pat-
tern blocks were scaled to real size. We used the “Polygon” and
“Edit curvature” commands to cut the pieces of the garments. The
“Sewing” command was used to sew the pieces together.
2 The properties of textile materials were chosen. Archaeologi-
cal textiles from weapon deposits in Denmark and Germany
51
Journal of Cultural Heritage 49 (2021) 48–58
have been studied in depth [33,34]. However, the physical and
mechanical properties of the fabrics, which are ideal to accura-
tely simulate the behaviour of textiles in virtual reality, remain
unknown. As a solution we used default parameters of woollen
fabrics and leather from the Clo3D library. Table 1 shows the
properties of the selected fabrics.
3 We put the trousers, tunic and shoes on the avatar using the
“Simulate” command (Fig. 2b). The parameters of the simulation
(gravitational acceleration of 9.8 m/s2 , time step of 0,03 s, particle
distance of 3 mm and additional thickness – collision of 0.1 mm)
were the same for all the garments.
4 The digital reconstruction of the mail coat [27], which we use
in this study, was initially modelled by using physically based
rigid body simulation. However, the behaviour of the coat of mail,
which is driven by rigid body simulation, cannot be reproduced
in Clo3D. Thus, we exported the avatar, tunic, trousers and shoes
to Unreal Engine. We performed a multi-species simulation of
textiles and rigid bodies to put the coat of mail and the belt over
the garments made of textiles. We used the “Clothing tool” [47]
to ensure that the outer layers of clothes will compress the inner
layers. Fig. 2c shows the reconstructed costume with the tunic
and belt.
Additional images showing the reconstructed garments in 3D
and laid out flat are included in Appendix A, Supplementary data.
3.2.4. Modelling of the shell
The 3D model of the coat of mail (Fig. 2c), consisting of thou-
sands of rings, is too complicated for the stress analysis. To mitigate
this problem an additional shell object was modelled using the
polygonal modelling functions of Blender [48].
The shell (Fig. 2d) is used in the stress analysis. It has a uni-
form thickness of 1.61 mm and the same volume as all the mail
rings in the Vimose coat taken together. The shell was created by
first modelling a mesh that runs through the centres of the rings.
Then we calculated the total volume of all the rings in the coat.
The Vimose coat has a total of 19,123 rings, half being riveted and
half being solid [24,27]. The volume of each solid and riveted rings
are 50 mm3 and 58 mm3 respectively, making a total volume for
all the rings 1,032,645 mm3 . Lastly, we used the “Solidify” modifier
to add thickness to the mesh. We increased the thickness of the
mesh in steps of 0.01 mm until the volume of the mesh reached
1,032,645 mm3 .
3.3. Analysing the costume in virtual reality
3.3.1. Stress analysis
We performed a stress analysis to examine how the belt affects
the weight distribution and changes the behaviour of mail. The
stress analysis was performed by using the finite element method
(FEM). This method divides a 3D model into small simple parts by
generating a special 3D mesh prior to finding a solution to a pro-
blem. Then, the software simulates the behaviour of the system
studied and approximates a result.
The following procedure, based on a common methodology for
stress analysis [49–51], was used:
1 The shell (Fig. 2d) was exported to Range software as an STL file.
2 A special 3D mesh for subsequent calculations was generated
with a maximum element volume of 0.000173 m3 (173 cm3 ).
3 The properties of iron, density – 7870 kg/m3 and modulus of elas-
ticity – 20*1010 Pa (200 GPa), were assigned to the 3D model [52].
The default values of gravitational acceleration (9.80665 m/s2 )
and temperature (293.15 K) were set up.
4 The analysis was performed twice, with and without the belt. In
the first case, two areas on the shoulders of the 3D model were
A. Moskvin et al. Journal of Cultural Heritage 49 (2021) 48–58

Fig. 2. Key steps in the digital reconstruction of the Germanic warrior: (a) creation of the avatar; (b) putting the tunic, trousers and shoes on the avatar; (c) adding the mail
coat and belt to the avatar; (d) creating of shell 1 for subsequent stress analysis. (Avatar textures by MINDFRONT are licensed under a CC BY 4.0 license. Original source:
https://www.makehumancommunity.org).

Table 1
Properties of digital textile materials used for the Germanic warrior‘s costume reconstruction.

Propertiesa

Fabric Content Density Thickness Stretch- Stretch- Bending- weft Bending- warp Buckling Buckling Buckling Buckling
(g/m2) (mm) weft warp stiffness stiffness ratio-weft ratio-warp stiffness- stiffness-
stiffness stiffness (g/mm2 /s2 /grad) (g/mm2 /s2 /grad) (0−1) (0−1) weft warp
(g/s2 ) (g/s2 ) (0−1) (0−1)

Tunic, trousers
Wool 345 0.84 368706 489034 1300 1300 0 0 0.20 1.0
Shoes
Leather 752 1.46 329852 553633 14882 15820 0 0 0.8 0.8
Belt
Leather 300 3.0 150000 150000 900000 900000 0.01 0.01 0.99 0.99
a
The properties of fabrics are shown with the names and units used in Clo3D and Marvelous Designer software.

locked from moving along the vertical axis by using the “boun-
dary conditions” function. In the second case the same function
was used to lock a horizontal stripe beneath the belt in addition
to the shoulders.
5 The “start solver” command was applied to generate two maps.
The first map represents the values of normal stress. The second
map represents the values of shear stress. According to Bauccio
([53], pp. 61, 78), normal stress and shear stress are the compo-
nents of stress that are respectively perpendicular and tangential
to the plane on which the force acts.
3.3.2. Dynamic behaviour of the mail coat
To examine how the mail fabric would behave with and without
a belt while the warrior is moving, we calculated the moment of
inertia of the Vimose coat. Fig. 3 shows the scheme used for the
calculations.
The moment of inertia was calculated for oscillatory motion and
rotational motion. In the case of oscillatory motion, we assume that
avatar was moving with linear velocity (V) and stopped. In the case
of rotational motion, we assume that avatar rotates around a ver-
tical axis (shown as the vertical dash-dotted lines in Fig. 3) with a

52
A. Moskvin et al.
Fig. 3. Schemes for calculating the moment of inertia of the Vimose coat: (a) without
the belt; (b) with the belt.
constant angular velocity (w). In both cases the coat (shown as a
thick solid line in Fig. 3) moves away from the body because of the
influence of inertia. The moment of inertia of one ring for oscilla-
tory motion, Io , and rotational motion, Ir , can be calculated with the
following equations [54–56].
Io = ml2
  g 2 
Ir = ml2 1−
lω2
Where m is the average mass of a ring in the Vimose coat
(0.00042 kg), l is the distance between the rings (sample rings are
marked as R1, R2 and R3) and the point of suspension (points x1, x2
and x3 in Fig. 3), g is the gravitational acceleration (9.80665 m/s2 )
and w is the angular velocity (we used a value of one full turn per
second which is equal to 6.26 radians). We used these equations to
calculate Io and Ir for 116 rings in a sample chain of rings that runs
from the shoulder to the bottom of the coat. The trunk of the Vimose
coat consist of 233 horizontal rows of rings, each having 146 rings
for the circumference. The coat thus consists of 146 sample chains.
To get the moment of inertia of the coat we summed up that of the
sample of 116 rings and multiplied this by 146.
To do the calculations for the mail coat without the belt (Fig. 3a),
we measured the distance between the rings and the shoulders (l1
in Fig. 3a). For the case with the belt we measured only this distance
for the part above the belt (l2 in Fig. 3b) and measured separately
the distance for the part below the belt (l3).
3.3.3. Air gap between the body and mail
A padded under-garment can take up a lot of space underneath
an armour. We therefore examined with an air gap analysis whe-
ther the Vimose coat offers enough room for such a garment. For
this we overlapped the horizontal cross-sections of the avatar, tunic
and the mail coat. A previous study of the Vimose coat already
demonstrated that it is highly stretchable [27]. We therefore made
two cross-sections of the mail coat: one draped on the avatar and
the other stretched to its limits. Fig. 4 shows the cross-sections of
the avatar, the tunic and the mail coat at three different heights.
Journal of Cultural Heritage 49 (2021) 48–58
The following steps were taken to obtain the cross-sections of
the 3D models and measure their parameters in Blender software.
1 The “Boolean” modifier and the “Intersect” command was used
to cut the 3D model and retrieve the cross-sections of the body,
the tunic and the coat. The 3D model was cut at the chest-, the
waist- and the hip level.
2 The cross-section of the mail coat was scaled up until its possible
stretch reached a maximum. The maximum length of the cross
section was calculated as the maximum distance between the
neighbouring rings in a row, which is 11.8 mm [27], multiplied
by the number of rings in the row.
3 The distances between the body and the mail coat, or air gaps,
were measured at chest level (a1–a4), waist level (a5–a8) and
hip level (a9–a12).
3.3.4. Reconstructing an under-armour garment
No clear-cut and well-preserved specimen of under-armour
garment has survived for the period under discussion. The presen-
ted construction is therefore hypothetical and based upon reverse
engineering, combined with some of the scant information on the
padded under-armour during the first centuries AD.
The following steps were taken to reconstruct an under-armour
garment:
1 To ensure that the garment is in line with the shapes of the avatar
and coat of mail, we unwrapped the surfaces of the 3D models
by using the “UV editing” functions of Blender [57]. The shell was
used instead of the coat of mail. Fig. 5a,b shows the seams we
marked to cut the surfaces of the avatar and coat.
2 We overlapped the unfolded flat shapes of the avatar (thin solid
lines in Fig. 5c) and coat (dashed lines in Fig. 5c) at points a, b, c
(1) and d as shown in Fig. 5c.
3 We drew a pattern block of the under-armour garment (shown as
(2) thick solid lines in Fig. 5c) over the contours of the avatar and coat.
First, we marked points 1 and 2 half way between the hemline of
the coat and the knees of the avatar. Then we marked points 3 and
4 on the contour of avatar at the chest level and drew lines 1-5, 2-
6 and 5-6. After this we marked points 7 and 8 half way between
the bottom of the sleeve of the tunic and the avatar’s wrist. Lines
7-3 and 8-4 were drawn. This was followed by dividing line 5-6 in
half, drew line 11-12 and the neckline through points 13, 14 and
15. Then line 15-16 was drawn halfway between the waist line
and hip line of the avatar. We drew line 17-18 in a way that lines
5-15 and 6-17 were equal in length. The vertical dash-dotted line
was used as the axis of symmetry to mirror the left part of the
pattern block to the right. The finalized pattern block is shown as
transparent fill areas in Fig. 5c.
4 We exported the pattern block to Clo3D and used the functions
of the software to reconstruct the pieces of the garment in 3D
(Fig. 5d), sew them together (Fig. 5e) and put them on the warrior
(Fig. 5f). The virtual try-on was conducted in the same way as
described in Section 3.2.3.
The reconstructed under-armour garment (Fig. 5e) was made
from felt of different thicknesses. This choice is informed by
archaeological insights. Felt was used as padding in Roman hel-
mets, as attested by finds from Vindonissa in Switzerland [58] and
Newstead in the United Kingdom [59]. The strongest archaeologi-
cal evidence for felt as an under-armour garment worn with a mail
coat comes from a countermine at Roman Dura-Europos in Syria,
dated to the mid-3rd century AD. In a unique incident, the mine col-
lapsed on a Sassanian soldier, burying him while wearing his full
kit. The inside of his coat has a light-brown fibrous material that is
not woven and is likely a felt under-armour garment [60].
53
A. Moskvin et al. Journal of Cultural Heritage 49 (2021) 48–58

Fig. 4. Transverse (horizontal) cross-sections of the avatar, tunic and coat of mail: (a) chest level; (b) waist level; (c) hip level.

Fig. 5. Digital reconstruction of an under-armour garment: (a) avatar with marked seams that were used to unwrap its surface; (b) shell: simplified copy of the Vimose coat,
with marked seams used to unwrap its surface; (c) reconstructed pattern block overlapped with the unfolded flat shapes of the avatar and coat; (d) pieces of the garment;
(e) the pieces put together; (f) digital reconstruction of the Germanic warrior with the under-armour garment worn underneath the coat of mail.

The thickness of the bodice of our hypothetical under-armour is

1.95 cm. This measurement was chosen based upon a 6th century
AD Byzantine military manual called Peri Strategias [61]. The anony-
mous author argues here for the need of an under-armour garment
which should be at least a finger thick: a Byzantine measurements
that equals 1.95 cm. The other parts of the under-armour are made
from thinner felt of 3 mm thickness. The thick bodice provides the
chest and shoulders with an appropriate level of protection. The
thinner parts, which are connected to the bodice by lacing, allow
the warrior to move freely. Lastly, the under-armour has been given
a red colour, which could have been achieved by dyeing with mad-
der roots. The use of madder as a dye is well-attested for the Roman
Iron Age [36].

3.3.5. Strain analysis

Five poses were chosen for the warrior to examine how the
military costume behaves in different ways of fighting on the battle-
field. The poses were taken from the Mixamo 3D animation library
[62]. The avatar of the Germanic warrior underwent five steps. First,
the avatar was exported from Clo3D as an OBJ file. Then the file was
uploaded to the Mixamo website. After that we created a basic ske-
leton for the avatar by using the Mixamo automatic model rigging
service [63]. Next the five poses were applied to the avatar. And
lastly, the five posed avatars were downloaded as FBX files and
imported back into Clo3D. Fig. 6 shows the avatar of the Germanic
warrior in the chosen poses.
Fig. 6. Posed avatar of the Germanic warrior: (a) foot soldier with sword and shield;
(b) foot soldier wielding a spear; (c) foot soldier shooting a bow; (d) foot soldier with
javelin; (e) horseman.
In contrast to the actual human body, the joints of 3D models
can be moved without limitations. To ensure that the posed avatar
is anatomically correct, we used the principles of goniometry. We
measured a total of 32 angles on each of the five posed avatars in
accordance with a method of measuring described by Norkin and
White [64]. The angles were measured in eight joints and joint com-

54
A. Moskvin et al.
Fig. 7. Stress maps of the Vimose mail coat: (a) normal stress without the belt; (b) normal stress with the belt; (c) shear stress without the belt; (d) shear stress with the belt.
plexes. Instead of a universal goniometer, we used PicPick software
to measure the angles with an accuracy of 0.1 degree. The retrie-
ved data was compared with normative range of motion (ROM)
values presented by AAOS (American Academy of Orthopaedic Sur-
geons [65]). The measured and normative values are presented in
Appendix B, Supplementary data.
As Table B1 (Supplementary data) shows, all the measured para-
meters of the avatar are consistent with the normative ROM values,
with two exceptions. Dorsiflexion of the right ankle in the poses
with a sword and with a javelin reach 33.1 and 30.7 degrees res-
pectively. AAOS states that dorsiflexion of ankle cannot exceed 20
degrees. However, Norkin and White ([64], p. 395) mention that
during squatting dorsiflexion of ankle can overcome normal ROM
values and reach up to 40 degrees.
To analyse how the garments interact with the body, we used the
“Strain Map” function of Clo3D [66]. In this study we presume that
the greater the strain of the 3D garments, the more these garments
impede movement. We generated strain maps for the trousers,
tunic and under-armour. We did not generate a strain map for the
Vimose coat for two reasons. First, Clo3D software cannot generate
a strain map for a 3D model consisting of rigid rings. And second,
the Vimose coat is extremely stretchable. Wijnhoven and Moskvin
[27] demonstrated the horizontal elongation of the Vimose mail
fabric can even reach 227.7%. The circumference of the trunk of the
coat can even reach to 172,2 cm (see Fig. 4). Moreover, the coat has
splits at its sides for unobstructed movement. It is therefore unli-
kely that the mail coat limited the warrior in his range of motions
on a battlefield.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Hypothesis 1: the belt affects the behaviour of the mail coat
Fig. 7 shows stress maps generated in Range software. Normal
and shear stress reach 150,000 Pa in the coat without the belt.
The stress is minimal at the hemline and increases towards the
top reaching its maximum at the shoulders. The presence of the
belt (Fig. 7b,d) reduces both components of stress by one third to
100,000 Pa.
The location of the areas with low and high stress on the surface
of the mail coat leads to two conclusions. Firstly, the belt redis-
tributes normal stress (Fig. 7a,b), which represent the forces that
Table 2
Air gaps between the body and the Vimose coat of mail.
Condition of the Values of air gaps (mm)
coat of mail
Chest
ɑ1 ɑ2 ɑ3 ɑ4
Draped over the body 15 10 29 27
Stretched to its limits 133 127 214 212
Journal of Cultural Heritage 49 (2021) 48–58
stretch the coat of mail vertically. The reason for this is a change in
weight distribution. When worn without a belt, the entire weight
of the coat presses down on the shoulders. The use of the belt trans-
fers part of the weight to the waist. Secondly, the belt lowers the
shear stress (Fig. 7c,d), which displaces the neighbouring rings with
respect to each other and stretches the fabric diagonally. Thus, the
use of a belt also stabilizes mail fabric preventing the ring rows in
the upper part of the coat from shearing.
The calculated values of the moment of inertia, Io and Ir , are 2.31
and 2.01 kg*m2 respectively for the coat without the belt (Fig. 3a)
and 0.61 and 0.45 kg*m2 for the coat with the belt (Fig. 3b). The
moment of inertia of the mail coat is four times lower when the belt
is worn over it. Therefore, a warrior would spend much less effort
to overcome the inertia of the coat. This is in accordance with the
iconographical record, that shows warriors and military men from
different periods throughout history combining the mail coat with a
belt, even when the coat is relatively short. In shorter mail garments
the belt cannot transfer a significant weight from the shoulders to
the waist, but it still reduces effectively the moment of inertia of
the mail coat.
The results of this analysis corroborate the suggested function of
the belt in the literature [38,39] as a means of making the mail coat
more comfortable to wear. This applies to its weight distribution
and to the inertia of the armour when moving.
4.2. Hypotheses 2: the mail coat can accommodate an
under-armour garment
Table 2 shows the measured values of the air gaps between the
avatar and coat of mail.
Table 2 shows that there is enough room in the Vimose mail
coat to accommodate the reconstructed under-armour garment.
The data demonstrates that when the mail coat is draped over the
body it fits closely. The average air gap between the body and the
coat is around 16 mm. However the mail coat is able to stretch
a lot and the air gap can reach on average 135 mm. The Vimose
coat therefore has a lot of room. These values show that the coat
of mail allowed a thick under-armour garment to be worn under-
neath it. Furthermore, there is enough room for such a garment,
independently of the body size of the warrior, meaning that even a
substantially bigger man than the avatar would have enough room.
Waist Hip Average
ɑ5 ɑ6 ɑ7 ɑ8 ɑ9 ɑ10 ɑ11 ɑ12
34 15 18 17 4 0 9 10 16
124 107 145 150 84 78 120 126 135
55
A. Moskvin et al. Journal of Cultural Heritage 49 (2021) 48–58

Fig. 8. Strain maps of the trousers (left), the tunic (centre) and the under-armour garment (right) put on the avatar in different poses: (a) as a foot soldier with a sword and
shield; (b) as a foot soldier wielding a spear; (c) as a foot soldier shooting a bow; (d) as a foot soldier with a javelin; (e) as a horseman.

4.3. Hypothesis 3: the military costume is suitable for different
types of warfare
Fig. 8 shows the strain maps generated in Clo3D software. As can
be seen in the figure, the three garments behave differently when
the avatar moves. The strain values range from 100% in the areas
where the fabric is not stretched to 120% in the ones where the
fabric is highly stretched.
The trousers stretch significantly at hip, knee and calf. This is
in line with their construction. The Thorsberg trousers prove to be
relatively tight and the fabric even shows strain in the avatar of
the bowman pose (Fig. 8c) where the legs bend marginally. This
corresponds well with insights from previous textile reconstruc-
tions of these trousers, which also demonstrated that they were
tight-fitting, but allowed a full range of motions [67–69]. However,
the digital simulation done in this study indicates that there may
be more than this than just the fit of the trousers. Clo3D use non-
deformable avatars to conduct cloth simulations. Thus, the body
shape of the avatar in Fig. 8 did not change under the influence
of the garments he wears, while the actual human body deforms
under the pressure of clothing. A tight-fitting and non-stretchable
trousers such as that from Thorsberg will cause soft tissue defor-
mation when being worn by an actual person. The strain of 120%
seen in the 3D model would therefore result in the real world in a

56
A. Moskvin et al.
compression effect. Such an effect is common in sportswear used
by contemporary athletes. Compression garments comprehensi-
vely affects physiological processes and optimize recovery from
physical activities [70–72]. Compression garments are used, inter
alia, to enhance performance of muscles and avoid injures during
weightlifting [73]. These data suggest that the trousers were pro-
bably specifically designed for wear on the battlefield and carrying
the weight of armour and equipment.
In contrast to the trousers, the strain of the tunic and the under-
armour garment does not, for the most part, exceed 110%. These
garments have only several small areas around the neckline, arm-
hole and waistline that are stretched to 120%. The presence of small
highly stretched areas is the result of incorrect simulation of cloth
draping along the edges and seams. The low values of strain in 3D
models of these garments leads to the conclusion that they were
relatively comfortable to wear. The garments permit a full range of
motions befitting the use of all type of weaponry on the battlefield.
5. Conclusions
This study demonstrates that analysing archaeological arte-
facts in virtual reality with modern software is able to enrich our
understanding of these objects. In the recent past experimental
archaeology was the only means to examine how artefacts would
actually behaved when being used, virtual reality now offers an
additional method. This opens new and exciting possibilities to
understand the past.
In this work we used CG and CAD tools to reconstruct and study
a military costume of the Germanic warrior from the 2nd to 4th
century AD in virtual reality. We used computer technologies to
visualize and understand the behaviour of mail armour and under-
armour garments in terms of physical forces acting on them when
the warrior stands still and moves. The exploration has resulted into
three important conclusions that offer a better understanding of
the military equipment. Firstly, the use of a belt makes wearing the
mail coat much more comfortable. A substantial part of the weight
is transferred from the shoulders towards the hips. Moreover the
use of a belt assures that the mail coat stays in place and that its
wearer does not has to spend extra effort overcoming the inertia
while moving. Secondly, the mail coat has more than enough room
to comfortably accommodate a thick under-garment. And thirdly,
the military costume is highly versatile, meaning that it can be used
with different types of weapons and in different tactical roles on the
battlefield.
As with all scientific methods, there are limitations. The artefacts
need to be in a good enough condition to be informative enough to
do a virtual recreation. The advantage in our case study of the Ger-
manic warrior is that the objects were all very well-preserved and
well-documented. Despite this, the use of the recreated equipment
together by one single warrior is an educated guess. The objects
date back to the same time period and are products of the same
archaeological culture. However, this may be very different for an
actual Germanic warrior from a specific place and moment. To him,
certain items of the reconstructed equipment may be anachronis-
tic or from another social or cultural group. Hopefully with future
finds, combined with further development in scientific methods,
these limitations can be increasingly reduced.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Martin Moser for his important contribution
to the reconstruction of the Obenaltendorf shoes. The authors are
also grateful to Xenia Pauli Jensen and Poul Otto Nielsen from the
National Museum of Copenhagen for granting the opportunity to
examine the Vimose coat of mail in detail.
57
Journal of Cultural Heritage 49 (2021) 48–58
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary material related to this article can be found,
in the online version, at doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.
2021.03.003.
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