PLASTIC

MULCHING
Microplastics in
agricultural soils

Report By Toxics Link | January 2022

About Toxics Link
Toxics Link is an Indian environmental research and advocacy organization set up in 1996, engaged in disseminating
information to help strengthen the campaign against toxic pollution, provide cleaner alternatives and bring together
groups and people affected by this problem. Toxics Link’s mission statement is “Working together for environmental
justice and freedom from toxics”. We have taken it upon ourselves to collect and share both information about the
sources and the dangers of poisons in our environment and bodies, and information about clean and sustainable
alternatives for India and the rest of the world.” Toxics Link has unique expertise in the areas of hazardous, medical
and municipal wastes, international waste trade, and the emerging issues of pesticides, Persistent Organic Pollutants
(POPs), hazardous, heavy metal contamination etc. from the environment and public health point of view. We have
successfully implemented various best practices and have brought in policy changes in the aforementioned areas
apart from creating awareness among several stakeholders.

Acknowledgement
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to Mr. Satish Sinha, Associate Director, Toxics Link, who guided and
supported us through the entire research process and provided us with his invaluable comments and suggestions
in shaping the study. We are also grateful to Mr. Ravi Agarwal, Director, Toxics Link, for his continued guidance and
encouragement.

Our sincere thanks are also due to all team members of Toxics Link for their valuable inputs and suggestions.

Project Research team In Collaboration with Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE), India (R& D)

Priti Mahesh, Dr. Anish Kumar Warrier,

Chief Programme Coordiantor Associate Professor

Dr. Amit,
Programme Coordinator

Field Study- Sahil Gochhayat,

Programme Officer

Copyright @ Toxics Link, 2022

All rights reserved

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PLASTIC
MULCHING
Microplastics in
agricultural soils
IV
CONTENTS
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 4

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 5

1. INTRODUCTION 10
1.1 BACKGROUND 11
1.2 MULCHING 12
1.3 MULCH MATERIAL AND METHODS 12

2. PLASTIC MULCH 14
2.1 USAGE 15
2.2 MULCH - COLOURS 16
2.3 DISPOSAL OF PLASTIC FILM 19
2.4 MICROPLASTICS 21
2.5 SOURCE AND IMPACT OF MICROPLASTICS ON AGRICULTURAL SOILS 23
2.6 MICROPLASTICS IN AGRICULTURAL SOILS -AVAILABLE RESEARCH 24
2.7 The UN SDGs 26

3. OBJECTIVE, SAMPLING AND METHODOLOGY 28

3.1 OBJECTIVES OF THIS STUDY 29
3.2 METHODOLOGY FOR FARMER SURVEY 29
3.3 STUDY AREA 30
3.4 EXTRACTION OF MICROPLASTICS 32
3.5 VISUAL IDENTIFICATION OF MICROPLASTICS AND POLYMER COMPOSITION 34
3.6 PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS 34
3.7 QUALITY ANALYSIS AND QUALITY CONTROL 35
3.8 LIMITATIONS 35

4. FINDINGS 36
4.1 FARMER SURVEY 37
4.2 MICROPLASTICS IN AGRICULTURAL SOILS 42
4.3 POLYMER COMPOSITION BASED ON ATR-FTIR STUDIES 55
4.4 COLOUR OF MICROPLASTICS DETECTED 58
4.5 SURFACE MORPHOLOGY OF THE MICROPLASTICS IN THE AGRICULTURAL SOILS 59
4.6 HEAVY METALS 64

5. ALTERNATES TO PLASTIC MULCH 69

6. CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS 74

V
VI
ABBREVIATIONS
Agriculture plastic waste APW

Ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer EVA

Environmental Protection Agency EPA

Fourier transform infrared FTIR

High-density polyethylene HDPE

Low-density polyethylene LDPE

Linear low-density polyethylene LLDPE

Microplastics MPs

Polypropylene PP

Polyacrylamide PA

Poly-vinyl chloride PVC

Polyethylene PE

Polychlorinated biphenyls PCBs

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons PAHs

Persistent organic pollutants POPs

Polyethylene terephthalate PET

Total organic carbon TOC

Total Inorganic carbon TIC

Ultraviolet UV

VII
VIII
EXECUTIVE
SUMMARY

1
 Mulching is a term used etc. The use of plastic film
to describe a practice of in mulching is a recent
covering the soil. This development worldwide and,
technique is used to make in India, it has been around
conditions more favourable only for a couple of decades.
for growth, development, A wide range of plastics are
and efficient crop used in agriculture mulching,
production. Traditionally, including polyolefin (PE),
mulching has been in use polypropylene (PP), ethylene-
in our country as well as vinyl acetate copolymer
globally for centuries for (EVA) and poly-vinyl chloride
water conservation — using (PVC), etc.
dry leaves, straw, trash,

With further intensification of agriculture, the demand for plastic will

continue to rise and so will the quantum of discarded or used plastic
film from agricultural fields. The majority of plastic mulch films are
made of low-density and linear low-density polyethylene, which are not
biodegradable. Hence, after usage, these plastic mulched sheets must be
retrieved but there are constrains as agricultural plastic mulch films are
often contaminated with soil, and are not accepted by many recycling
facilities. This limits disposal options for plastics mulch sheets, which are
often disposed of in unscientific manner.

Plastic used for mulching is relatively thin; removing and recycling these The main aim of
films from the agricultural field is labour intensive, expensive and difficult,
this research was
hence it is allowed to remain in the field and it eventually disintegrates into
micro-particles (microplastics or MPs), which then get accumulated in the
to investigate the
soil. The MPs accumulating in the soil can adversely affect the surrounding presence of MPs and
environment and human health. their impact in the
The main aim of this research was to investigate the presence of MPs mulched and un-
and their impact in the mulched and un-mulched agricultural soils. mulched agricultural
For this purpose, the states of Maharashtra and Karnataka, which
soils.
have been using plastic mulch for several years, were identified as soil
sampling sites. Prior to the soil sampling, a field survey was conducted by
Toxics Link teams in Belgaum district of Karnataka and Kolhapur district of
Maharashtra, to understand various aspects associated with use of plastic
mulch.

The farmer’s survey had the following key findings-

• A majority of farmers have been using plastic as mulch material.

• In the Khanapur taluka, Belgaum district of Karnataka, where the three
villages Hiremanoli, Godikop and Kodachwad were selected for survey
and sampling, majority of farmers have been using the mulching sheet

2
 78%
of farmer were using black-
coloured sheet.

65%
of farmers disposed of plastic sheets on
agricultural land or on the roadside.

from past 2-4 years. It is being used mainly for cultivation of chillies,
tomatoes and watermelons.
• In villages Bhadgaon and Aurnal in Maharashtra, most farmers have
been using plastic mulch sheet for much longer; a few of them have
been using it for more than 20 years. The crops grown here using
mulch sheets are brinjal, capsicum, tomato, bitter gourd and
cucumber.
• 78% of farmers, interviewed during the survey in both the states, were
using black-coloured sheet.
• Disposal of the used plastic mulch sheet poses a challenge. The
farmers interviewed mentioned employing different methods such as
burning and dumping used mulch on land or in water. In both states,
65% of farmers disposed of plastic sheets on agricultural land or on the
roadside.
• The team also interacted with the distributors available in Khanapur
and tried to ascertain facts on disposal of mulch sheets. It found out
that usually the distributors take back the mulch sheet (₹10/kg) for
recycling. However, it is not a common practice as few farmers return
the waste sheet to distributors.

A total of 30 samples were collected from mulched, un-mulched and

dumpsites from varying depth in the selected regions. For the purpose
of this study, mulched, un-mulched and dumpsites have been defined as
follows:

Dumpsites Mulched Sites Un-Mulched Site

Areas being used by farmers Fields where plastic sheets are Fields where mulching was
in the area to dump used being used as mulch sheets. not done.
plastic sheets, other plastic
waste and waste material.

3
 FTIR was performed on large-sized (1 to 5 mm) particles detected, but
due to the operational limitation of FTIR, small-sized particles could not
be analysed. This would require Micro-Raman spectroscope, which was
unavailable to the research team.

• MPs were found in all the soil samples.

• The abundance of MPs in the mulched soil samples was much
higher than the un-mulched soil samples. This clearly points towards
a possible contamination of soil due to the usage of plastic mulch
sheets.
• Among the 30 soil samples, the highest abundance of 87.57 pieces The abundance of
MPs per kg of soil was found at a dumpsites in Maharashtra. This is
almost double the abundance in mulched soil, indicating that plastic
MPs in the mulched
mulch sheets dumped around the agriculture area cause pollution. soil samples was
• In case of all mulched soil samples, the highest concentration of MPs much higher than
— 40.46 pieces/kg of soil — was found at 15-cm depth in Badgaon
the un-mulched
(Maharashtra), whereas the lowest concentration of 8.45 MP pieces/
kg of soil was found at 30-cm depth in Khanapur (Karnataka). soil samples. This
• Among all un-mulched sites, Aurnol (Maharashtra) showed the clearly points
20.54 pieces/kg highest concentration of MPs at 15 cm; Hukkeri towards a possible
(Karnataka) showed the 2.83 pieces/kg lowest concentration of
MPs at the same depth. Irrigation and heavy rainfall could be the
contamination of soil
main reasons for the transportation of MPs from one field to another. due to the usage of
The use of fertilisers can also a major contributor. plastic mulch sheets.
• In total, five different polymers were detected. Black MPs were
significantly higher in the mulched soils of Maharashtra and
transparent/translucent MPs were found in greater abundance in the
same type of soils in Karnataka. The difference in colour is attributed
to the varying colours of the mulching sheets used by the farming
community and also the discolouration of used sheets over time.
• The main polymers found in the soil samples were polyacrylamide
(PA; 69.8%) followed by polyethylene (PE; 11.63%). The other polymers
found in the samples were polypropylene (PP; 7.7%), cellulose (CL;
3.87%) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET; 3.87%). Many heavy
metal elements occur naturally in soil, but human activities such as
agricultural production, transportation and industrial production
may increase the concentration of metals and create heavy metal
pollution.

The study also assessed the heavy metals in these samples.

• It is clear that the examined agricultural soils from both Karnataka

and Maharashtra are polluted by high concentrations of arsenic, lead,
boron and cadmium.
• These elements show very high concentrations in the studied soils
as compared to their natural background values pointing towards
significant anthropogenic contribution.
• The heavy metal load is higher in the mulched soil samples,
indicating a possible role of plastic mulch sheets.

4
01
INTRODUCTION

5
 1.1. BACKGROUND
Plastic, one of the revolutionary inventions of mankind, has become
an inevitable part of human life. Durability, light weight and versatility
have made it more suitable for domestic and industrial purposes, in
comparison to any other materials. According to PlasticsEurope, from
near zero in 1950, worldwide plastic production reached about 367 million
According to a study,
tonnes, with Asia contributing more than half of it. The increasing trend
of plastic production worldwide can be attributed to the surging demand if proper waste
across several key sectors such as packaging, electronics, automobiles management systems
and agriculture. Considering the large-scale use of plastic in agriculture, are not employed,
a term ‘plasticulture’ has been coined. A wide range of plastic is used
in agriculture currently and many of those have enabled farmers to
the total amount of
significantly increase crop production. plastic waste material
projected to enter the
Despite its pivotal role in different sectors, the longevity of plastic and its
non-biodegradability leads to a variety of problems. In recent decades, the ocean will increase by
generation of plastic waste has increased at an alarming rate. Out of the an order of magnitude
275 million metric tons of plastic produced in 192 coastal countries in 2010,
by the end of 2025.
approximately 4.8 to 12.7 million metric tonnes have reached the ocean1.
According to a study, if proper waste management systems are not
employed, the total amount of plastic waste material projected to enter
the ocean will increase by an order of magnitude by the end of 2025.

The use of plastic in modern agriculture is also threatening the overall

sustainability of our ecosystem due to persistency of residual plastic in
both terrestrial and aquatic environments. But little work has been done
to understand the critical and long-term damages it may be causing,
especially in India.

1.2 MULCHING
The English word ‘mulch’ is derived from the German word ‘molsch’,
which means soft or beginning to decay. Mulching is a term used to
Use of plastic
describe a practice of covering the soil. This technique is important in modern
to make conditions more favourable for growth, development and
efficient crop production. Traditionally, mulching has been in use in agriculture is
threatening
our country as well as globally for centuries, using dry leaves, straw,
trash, etc. for water conservation. The use of plastic film in mulching
is a recent development worldwide, and in India, it has been around
only for a few decades.
the overall
The idea of using polyethylene film as mulch in plant production saw
sustainability
its beginnings in the mid-1950s and plastic mulch was first noted for
its ability to increase soil temperature.2
of our
ecosystem.

1 Jambeck, J.R., Geyer, R., Wilcox, C., Siegler, T.R., Perryman, M., Andrady, A., & Law, K.L.
(2015). Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean. Science, 347 (6223), 768-771
2 Emmert, R. I. (1957). The Design of The Htre-3 Automatic Control (No. DC-57-9-107).
General Electric Co. Aircraft nuclear Propulsion Dept., Cincinnati.

6
 PLASTIC
is a Common Material used for mulching.

A wide range of plastics are used in agriculture mulching, including, polyolefin, PE, polypropylene (PP),
ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer (EVA) and poly-vinyl chloride (PVC), etc.3 With further intensification
of agriculture, the demand for plastic will continue to rise.4

1.3 MULCH MATERIAL AND METHODS

Currently, mulch material is broadly classified into three main groups — organic mulch (straw
or wood chips, industrial waste, processing residue, agricultural waste, animal manure, paper
films etc.), inorganic or synthetic material (polypropylene nonwoven fabric, polyethylene foils,
biodegradable plastic foils etc.) and special material (gravel [sand–gravel] concrete tephra mulch). In
the synthetic category, currently different types of plastic (PE, PVC, PP, EVA and polyolefin) are used
in agricultural for mulching technique.5

Various mulching materials are applied in agricultural field by different methods such as flat mulching
(fully covered and partially covered) and ridge-furrow mulching (ridge covering and furrows covering),
etc. Flat mulching is an old-style method in which the soil surface is covered by mulching materials
(organic, inorganic and special material). A plastic sheet with holes is a modified flat mulching in which
the soil surface is only partially covered by film. The ridge-furrow mulching system is used in semi-arid
environments.

There have been various studies reporting the benefits of using mulch. Mulch can facilitate fertiliser
placement and reduce the loss of plant nutrients through leaching. Mulches can also provide a barrier
to soil pathogens. The film makes the soil warmer at night, which helps in rapid root establishment in
the early stages of plant growth. In addition, it has been revealed that the micro-climate is modified
at the base of the plant, which assists promotion of plant growth. Mulching with polyethylene film is
quite efficient in increasing yield and improving product quality by modifying soil temperature and
controlling soil moisture by reducing water loss by evaporation. The widespread use of PE (the principal
type of plastic used today) is due to easy processibility, excellent chemical resistance, high durability,
flexibility and odourlessness.

Though organic mulches can bio-degrade, leaving little impact on soil and surrounding environments,
the use of plastic mulch can also have other effects, which need to be understood before its extensive
adoption.

3 Plastics – the Facts 2018 An analysis of European plastics production, demand and waste data
4 Gao, S., Tang, G., Hua, D., Xiong, R., Han, J., Jiang, S., & Huang, C. (2019). Stimuli-responsive bio-based polymeric systems and their
applications. Journal of Materials Chemistry B, 7(5), 709-729.
5 Y.T. Gan, K.H.M. Siddique, N.C. Turner, X.G. Li, J.Y. Niu, C. Yang, L.P. Liu, Q. Chai, Ridge-furrowmulching systems-an innovative
technique for boosting crop productivity in semiarid rain-fed environments, Adv. Agron. 118 (2013) 429–476.

7
8
02
PLASTIC MULCH

9
 The global mulch films market has grown
exponentially in the last few years. Its size is
projected to reach USD 4.07 billion by 2020,
at a CAGR of around 6.5% from 2015 to 2020.
Increasing demand for food and growing
population are the major drivers for this market The global mulch films
and countries such as India and China are market has grown
the primary targets of the industry6. The rise exponentially in the last
in demand for plastic mulch films is leading few years. Its size is
the growth of mulch films and is expected to projected to reach
dominate in the next five years. USD 4.07 billion by
2020, at a CAGR of
The global use of agricultural plastic film, around 6.5% from
which includes films used for greenhouses, 2015 to 2020.
mulching and silage, was expected to grow
at 69% from 4.4 million tonnes in 2012 to 7.4
million tonnes in 2019.

2.1 USAGE
Plastic mulch films have been known to provide multiple benefits for
crop production. They control weeds and insects, increase soil and air
temperature, reduce evaporation, minimise soil erosion and prevent soil
splashing on fruits or vegetables. These benefits translate to reduced
pesticide use, early planting in spring, water conservation and increased
crop yield and quality. Plastic is now used in all types of climates,
seasons and soils.

PE film mulch is a non-renewable, petroleum-based material, and has

an operational lifetime span of usually one growing season before it is
disposed. It is the most common type of plastic film used nowadays as
Plastic mulch has been
more than 80% of the world’s agricultural film is made up of low-density
polyethylene (LDPE)7. It is durable and may remain in the soil for 200-400 used in commercial
years. Plastic mulch film cannot always be completely removed from the vegetable production
fields after harvest, leading to accumulation of plastic residue in the soil.
Plastic debris from degradation of such film can remain in the soil for since the 1960s.
long durations, thus spoiling the microclimate (any climatic condition in
a relatively small area, within a few metres or less above and below the
Earth’s surface and within canopies of vegetation) of the cropping system.

6 Mulch Films Market by Type (Clear/Transparent, Black, Colored, and Degradable),

Application (Agricultural Farms, and Horticulture), Element (LLDPE, LDPE, HDPE, EVA, PLA,
and PHA), & by Region - Global Trends and Forecast to 2020
7 Ramos, L., Berenstein, G., Hughes, E. A., Zalts, A., & Montserrat, J. M. (2015). Polyethylene film
incorporation into the horticultural soil of small periurban production units in Argentina.
Science of the Total Environment, 523, 74-81.

10
Photo 1: Usage of plastic mulching (image taken during the sampling)

2.2 MULCH - COLOURS

Different-coloured plastic mulches are used in different parts of world for the production of various
crops. Some of the most commonly used ones are black, white and clear plastic mulch. Additionally,
silver, green, red, brown, yellow, grey, orange and blue mulches are also available in certain regions.
Different mulch colours have different effects on moderating soil and canopy temperatures owing to
their light-transmitting or reflecting properties, which can be beneficial, negative or neutral depending
on the crop and environment8

Black colour plastic mulch

This is chosen more often than clear polythene mulch because of its ability to control weed by
excluding photosynthetically active radiation. Black polythene placed in direct contact with the soil can
warm the soil down to a depth of about 8-10 cm. Under black plastic film, the temperature of the soil
during the day is not significantly higher and, in certain cases, it is even lower than in the bare ground.
At night, the temperature is always higher by 0.5-4°C than uncovered ground.
8 Grout, B.W.W., & Greig, M.J. (2012, October). Counteracting low light levels in protected strawberry cultivation using reflective
mulches. In VII International Symposium on Light in Horticultural Systems 956 (pp. 489-492).

11
 This is desirable for warm-season vegetables such as pepper, tomato,
eggplant, etc. It is also widely used for the cultivation of pineapple9.

Transparent/clear plastic mulch

A wide
Clear plastics have the greatest warming potential. They are
variety of
transparent to incoming radiation and trap the longer wavelengths
re-radiating from the soil, thereby producing a greenhouse effect
coloured
that warms the soil underneath. Under transparent plastic film plastic mulch
during daytime, soil temperature remains 2-10°C more than the bare
ground while at night the difference of 2-4°C is observed depending reflects,
absorbs or
upon the season, soil type and its moisture content9. For warm
season crops, such as vine crops, earlier and higher yields can be
achieved with clear mulch. However, as clear mulch is transparent to
visible light, weed infestation under these mulch sheets pose serious
transmits
problems, which may negate the benefits of soil warming. sunlight. The
White plastic mulch colour of
Under white plastic mulch, the temperature always remains lower
than the uncovered ground due to its high reflectance and low
mulch has a
transmittance of solar radiation. Since energy exchange is very big influence
poor, this film is used either in regions with a high level of sunshine
— where it is required to reduce the energy and lower the soil on how it
affects the
temperature — or in regions of low luminosity where the amount of
reflected light is to be increased on the lower and middle leaves of
crop plants.
microclimate
Coloured plastic mulch
around a crop
These are opaque, like black plastic, and are made with many
different pigments. They do not allow light to pass through, but
plant.
rather, reflect specific wavelengths of light up into the crop canopy.
These mulches may be useful for enhancing specific crop production.
For example, red mulches are effective in promoting the growth
of tomatoes. The other response observed with the different
mulch colours is the increase or the decrease in insect population,
depending on reflected light and possibly temperature. Yellow
appears to attract insects, especially the cucumber beetle, and silver
appears to repel aphids. The possibility of utilising the yellow mulch
to monitor insect populations in a field of non-yellow plastic mulch
shows promise. In addition, reduction of pesticide applications is
possible if only rows of yellow mulch (one row of yellow for every five
or six rows of other coloured mulch laid) are sprayed with insecticide.
Thus, yellow plastic mulches can be used to attract insects, much like
a trap crop.

9 Acharya, C.L., Bandyopadhyay, K.K., & Hati, K.M. (2018). Mulches: Role in climate resilient
agriculture.

12
Infrared transmitting mulches (IRT)

Developed recently, these are wavelength-selective mulches. IRT mulches

warm the soil intermediate to clear and black polythene mulches. These
mulches are pigmented to reduce the amount of visible light transmitted
and thereby reduce weed growth underneath. Thus, these blend the
soil warming characteristics of clear mulch with the weed control ability
of black mulch. IRTs contain very specific pigments that give them the
unique ability to transmit a maximum of near infrared radiation and a
minimum (14%–16%) of visible light. Some visible light is required to be
transmitted in order to maximise soil warming. The benefits of IRTs are
greatest for early season plantings in temperate region. Though these
mulches are more expensive than black or clear plastics, some growers
find them useful for high-value, heat-loving crops such as melons.

Several studies have demonstrated the beneficial effect of PE film as

a mulch material in increasing the productivity of different crops. For
example, the PE mulch recorded higher grain yield of maize and wheat
followed by straw mulch as compared to control10. Another study also
reported that the highest fruit weight was recorded with black PE (100m)
mulch (13.28q tree-1) followed by grass mulching (11.89q tree-1).

2.3 DISPOSAL OF PLASTIC FILM

Disposal or removal of plastic film from the agricultural field
is emerging as a major concern. Plastic mulch films consist
mostly of low-density and linear low-density polyethylene,
which do not readily biodegrade. As a result, these PE-based
mulches must be retrieved and disposed of after usage.
Agricultural plastic mulch films are often contaminated with
soil, and therefore not accepted by many recycling facilities.
This limits disposal options for PE mulches, which often have
to be discarded in unscientific manner. According to existing
literature, some of the most common ways of disposing of
PE waste are on-farm burning or burial, landfill, incineration,
recycling and construction of roads. Each of these methods
has merits and demerits. High labour and transportation
cost for burning, landfilling and recycling forces farmers to
bury and dump PFM in the field or land itself 11. Some of the
key disposal methods of APW (agricultural plastic waste) are
briefly discussed below.

On-farm burning or burial

Open, on-farm or onsite burning of Agriculture Plastic Waste

(APW) especially plastic film mulch (arguably the dirtiest
and least recyclable among APW) is the most common

10 Sharma, J.C., & Kathiravan, G. (2009). Effect of mulches on soil hydrothermal regimes and
growth of plum in mid hill region of Himachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Horticulture,
66(4), 465-471.
11 Goldberger, J.R., DeVetter, L., Dentzman, W., 2019. Polyethylene and biodegradable plastic
mulches for strawberry production in the United States: Experiences and opinions of
growers in three regions. HortTechnology 5, 619–628.

13
 method of disposal12. Onsite burning or burial may be economical for
farmers, as these do not require any additional cost most of the time. But
the problem is the potential negative environmental effects that are not
well understood yet. On-farm burning or burial may lead to production
of toxic gases near the site and these gases may increase the risk of
strokes, asthmatic attacks, lung problems and respiratory diseases among
humans, due to more frequent exposure to toxic substances13. Burning of
APW can lead to the release of several environmental pollutants such as
dioxins and furans. Field-burning of APW is not considered a sustainable
option and is now illegal in Scotland, Australia and in many states in the
US, including Arizona, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Hawaii, Idaho,
Kentucky, Massachusetts, New York, Ohio, Tennessee, Vermont and
Wisconsin14. In India, plastic waste burning is banned. According to the
Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules, 2018, the local bodies and
gram panchayats have to ensure that open burning of plastics waste should
not take place15.

Landfilling

Landfilling has been one of the primary disposal techniques for plastic
disposal since long. In many countries where recycling or incineration
is not readily available, growers/farmers have to haul the plastic to a
landfill and pay the increasing tipping fee16. According to the statistics
of US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2019), almost 26 million
tonnes of plastic was landfilled during 2015; which constituted 18.9% of all According to the
municipal solid waste landfilled. One of the drawbacks of landfilling is that statistics of US
biodegradable waste commodities such as food waste, garden waste and Environmental
paper, etc. persist under the landfill conditions for many years in spite of
significant degraders in the form of microbes17. The reason for persistency
Protection Agency
is that most of such waste is surrounded by bio-inert and impermeable (EPA) (2019), almost 26
coatings such as plastic mulch that offer resistance to the passage of both million tonnes of plastic
liquids and gases and thus minimise the chances of degradation. There is
was landfilled during
obviously risk of the sheets breaking down into MPs and also leaching out
chemicals in the landfill. 2015; which constituted
18.9% of all municipal
Incineration
solid waste landfilled.
Incineration is the reduction of PE films into carbon through a process of
combustion. This process produces usable heat and electricity from either
relatively pure plastics or as part of a mixed waste stream18. Incineration is
another common method used to dispose of the plastic waste. A serious

12 Ingman, M., Santelmann, M.V., Tilt, B., 2015. Agricultural water conservation in China: plastic
mulch and traditional irrigation. Ecosyst. Health Sustain 1 (4), 12.
13 Dockery, D.W., & Pope, C.A. (1994). Acute respiratory effects of particulate air pollution.
Annual review of public health, 15(1), 107-132.
14 Hawkins, S.A. 2010. A guide to legal and safe open burning of on-farm wastes in Tennessee.
UT Extension Publication W249.
15 Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules, 2018 Published in the Gazette of India,
Part-II, Section-3, Sub-section (i)] Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
16 Moore, J., & Wszelaki, A. (2016). Plastic mulch in fruit and vegetable production: Challenges
for disposal. Washington State University Extension Fact Sheet FA-2016, 2.
17 Wiles, D.M., & Scott, G. (2006). Polyolefins with controlled environmental degradability.
Polymer degradation and stability, 91(7), 1581-1592.
18 Hemphill, D.D. (1993). Agricultural plastics as solid waste: what are the options for disposal.
HortTechnology, 3(1), 70-73.

14
concern about incineration is the release of hazardous substances19. It leads to the release of toxic gases
into the environment such as carbon dioxide, heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), toxic carbon and oxygen-based free radicals, furans, and dioxins20.
These toxic gases cause various diseases among the inhabitant of the localities near these incineration
sites.

2.4 MICROPLASTICS

Tiny plastic material with diameter <5mm is termed as microplastics or MPs, which can be classified
into primary and secondary types. Plastic that is released into the environment directly in the form
of tiny particles is known as primary MPs and are made for particular functions and used as such.
Some sources of primary MPs are manufactured pellets used in plastic production or in feedstock,
industrial abrasives for sandblasting, plastic powders used in moulding, microbeads used in the
formulation of cosmetics. These tiny particles travel through the drains and cannot be entirely trapped
by wastewater treatment plants, which leads them into the oceans21.

Secondary MPs, on the other hand, are produced as a result of degradation of macroplastics due
to the action of winds, currents, UV radiation and microbial activity. Microplastic particles can also
be categorised on the basis of their morphology into fragments, pellets, films, foams and fibres.
The presence of microplastics have been reported in almost all the environments: marine, urban
and agricultural soils. In fact, there are reports of the presence of MPs in biota including human
beings22. Some of the common sources of MPs can be coastal tourism, marine industries fishing and
wastewater treatment plants. Other sources may be the textile industry, cosmetics, household waste,
mulch sheets and fishing gear.

19 Hopewell, J., Dvorak, R., & Kosior, E. (2009). Plastics recycling: challenges and opportunities. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364 (1526), 2115-2126.
20 Shen C et al (2010) Levels and patterns of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polychlorinated biphenyls in municipal waste
incinerator bottom ash in Zhejiang province, China. J Hazard Mater 179:197–202.
21 Fendall, L. S., & Sewell, M. A. (2009). Contributing to marine pollution by washing your face: microplastics in facial
cleansers. Marine pollution bulletin, 58(8), 1225-1228.
22 Ragusa, A., Svelato, A., Santacroce, C., Catalano, P., Notarstefano, V., Carnevali, O. &Giorgini, E. (2021). Plasticenta: First evidence of
microplastics in human placenta. Environment international, 146, 106274.

15
 A study conducted by Toxics Link
(2020) detected

MPS IN THE GANGA,

one of the most sacred rivers and an important source of water for
the country. The study conducted at three different cities (Haridwar,
Varanasi and Kanpur) where the Ganga flows shows how river bodies
are getting contaminated from primary and secondary MPs.

Studies conducted in India show the presence of MPs in rivers as well as tap water. A study conducted
by Toxics Link (2020)23 detected MPs in the Ganga, one of the most sacred rivers and an important
source of water for the country. The study conducted at three different cities (Haridwar, Varanasi
and Kanpur) where the Ganga flows shows how river bodies are getting contaminated from primary
and secondary MPs. Another study conducted by Toxics Link in 2020 found MPs in water samples
collected from different parts in Goa — i.e., tap water (Mapusa, Panjim, Marcel, Margao and Canacona)
and water treatment plants (Assonora, Opa and Salaulim)24. Another study previously done by Orb
Media, where Toxics Link was the Indian partner, found MPs in tap water samples collected and tested
from eight regions of the world.

In many respects, MPs are potentially more harmful than macroplastics, because of their small size.
MPs can be mistaken as food and be ingested by the aquatic organisms at the lower levels of the food
chain25. This can lead to many problems such as inhibited photosynthesis26; weight loss27; reduced
filtration; impact on feeding and digestion28, and even mortality29. MPs have been isolated from sea
birds30, benthic invertebrates31 fish gut, harbour seals32, etc. As the MPs enter the food chain, the
health of humans and predators who feed on these organisms comes under threat.

In addition to its effects on organisms, MPs can also affect sediments. A study of sediment cores
from Hawaiian beaches demonstrated that the MPs can increase the permeability and decrease heat
absorbance of the sediments33 .

23 Priti, M., Saha, M., Amit (2020)., Quantitative analysis of Microplastics along River Ganga. Toxics LINK, 0-38.
24 Priti, M., Amit., Saha, M., (2020) Assessment of microplastics in tap water from different water sources in goa. Toxics Link, 1-36.
25 Wright, S.L., Thompson, R.C., & Galloway, T.S. (2013). The physical impacts of microplastics on marine organisms: a
review. Environmental pollution, 178, 483-492.
26 Bhattacharya, P., Lin, S., Turner, J.P., & Ke, P.C. (2010). Physical adsorption of charged plastic nanoparticles affects algal
photosynthesis. The journal of physical chemistry C, 114(39), 16556-16561.
27 Besseling, E., Wang, B., Lürling, M., &Koelmans, A.A. (2014). Nanoplastic affects growth of S. obliquus and reproduction of D.
magna. Environmental science & technology, 48(20), 12336-12343.
28 Cole, M., Lindeque, P., Halsband, C., & Galloway, T.S. (2011). Microplastics as contaminants in the marine environment: a
review. Marine pollution bulletin, 62(12), 2588-2597.
29 Lee, J., Hong, S., Song, Y.K., Hong, S.H., Jang, YC., Jang, M., .& Shim, W.J. (2013). Relationships among the abundances of plastic
debris in different size classes on beaches in South Korea. Marine pollution bulletin, 77(1-2), 349-354.
30 Garcia-Garin, O., Vighi, M., Aguilar, A., Tsangaris, C., Digka, N., Kaberi, H., & Borrell, A. (2019). Boopsboops as a bioindicator of
microplastic pollution along the Spanish Catalan coast. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 149, 110648.
31 Naidu, S.A., Rao, V.R., & Ramu, K. (2018). Microplastics in the benthic invertebrates from the coastal waters of Kochi,
Southeastern Arabian Sea. Environmental geochemistry and health, 40(4), 1377-1383.
32 Rebolledo, E. L. B., Van Franeker, J. A., Jansen, O. E., & Brasseur, S. M. (2013). Plastic ingestion by harbour seals (Phocavitulina) in
The Netherlands. Marine pollution bulletin, 67(1-2), 200-202.
33 Carson, H. S., Colbert, S.L., Kaylor, M. J., & McDermid, K.J. (2011). Small plastic debris changes water movement and heat transfer
through beach sediments. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 62(8), 1708-1713.

16
 MPs also have the ability to absorb a wide range of pollutants. This
severely affects the aquatic organisms which ingest the particles34. This
is further validated by the observation that some amounts of persistent
organic pollutants (POPs) have also been found in the structure of MPs34.

Another important factor to consider is the degradation of the MPs.

MPs can be further degraded by biotic or abiotic factors35, among which
the abiotic factor, such as photo-oxidation, is the major mechanism for
most of the abundant polymer types36 . Fragmentation of MPS further
reduces their size and increases their surface area, which makes them
more susceptible to further degradation into smaller particles36. The tiny
particles produced by degradation result in their increased availability to
the aquatic organisms for ingestion.

2.5 SOURCE AND IMPACTS OF

MICROPLASTICS ON AGRICULTURAL
SOILS
Agricultural soils contain a significant amount of the plastic waste.
It is estimated that the plastic inventory in agricultural soils exceeds
those in marine and freshwater environments, whereby up to 2.6.
million tonnes in China and up to 4,30,000 tonnes of plastic in
Europe and North America are annually deposited on agricultural
soils37. After its deposition on agricultural soils, plastic is subject
to decomposition due to ageing from macro- to micro- and even
It is estimated to nano-sized particles (MPs and NPs). The major sources of MPs

that the plastic deposited in agricultural soil are the plastic mulching films, sewage
sludge fertilisers irrigation using wastewater, municipal waste and
inventory in atmospheric deposition.
agricultural
Use of plastic mulching in farmland has been considered very
soils exceeds beneficial. However, removing and recycling these plastic films
those in marine from the agricultural field is a tedious and laborious job as the
and freshwater plastic used for mulching is very thin. It remains in the field, and

environments, degrades to micro-level particles that accumulate in the soil38.

Long-term plastic mulching and improper handling of films
whereby up after the harvest leads to the accumulation of MPs in agricultural
to 2.6. million soils. The abundance of MPs increase with the continuous plastic

tonnes in
China and up
34 Steer, M., Cole, M., Thompson, R.C., & Lindeque, P.K. (2017). Microplastic ingestion in
to 4,30,000 fish larvae in the western English Channel. Environmental Pollution, 226, 250-259.

tonnes of plastic 35 Klein, S., Dimzon, I.K., Eubeler, J., & Knepper, T.P. (2018). Analysis, occurrence,
and degradation of microplastics in the aqueous environment. In Freshwater
in Europe and microplastics (pp. 51-67). Springer, Cham.

North America 36 Hepsø, M.O. (2018). Experimental weathering of microplastic under simulated
environmental conditions-method development and characterization of pristine,
are annually photodegraded and mechanically weathered microplastic (Master›s thesis, NTNU).

deposited on 37 Wanner, Philipp (2021). Plastic in agricultural soils -A global risk for groundwater
systems and drinking water supplies? A review, Chemosphere, Volume 264, Part 1, 2021,
agricultural 38 Zhou, B., Wang, J., Zhang, H., Shi, H., Fei, Y., Huang, S., & Barceló, D. (2020).

soils. Microplastics in agricultural soils on the coastal plain of Hangzhou Bay, east China:
Multiple sources other than plastic mulching film. Journal of hazardous materials, 388,
121814.

17
 mulching in agricultural soils. A study in China39 showed that the quantity
of MPs is higher in shallow soils than in deep soils.

The MPs accumulating in the soil can have a manifold impact on the
surrounding environment. Existing research indicates that MP and NP
particles can migrate through agricultural soils and enhance pesticide
transport into underlying aquifer systems. There is evidence based
research to show vertical migration of plastic particles in agricultural
soils and plastic-induced enhancement of pesticide transport towards
underlying groundwater systems. Investigations also showed that plastic
changes the sorption behaviour of pesticides in agricultural soils and
enhances their transport towards underlying groundwater systems.
Hence, the deposited plastic in agricultural soils likely poses a major
risk for underlying aquifers and drinking water supplies that rely on
groundwater resources below farmlands to be contaminated by plastic
and pesticides.40

2.6 MICROPLASTICS IN AGRICULTURAL

SOILS - AVAILABLE RESEARCH
Agricultural fields are the major sinks for MPs. Several studies on farmlands
identified the intensity of the issue. This section takes a brief look at
the literature that describes the occurrence and distribution of MPs in
agricultural soils.

Huang et al.41 investigated the effect of agricultural plastic mulching in a

terrestrial soil. They collected 384 samples across 19 provinces in China.
MPs were found in every sample. Greater concentration was found in
Xinjiang Uygur region in West China. It is due to the comparatively long-
term plastic mulching in West China than East China. The number of
MPs in soils increased significantly with the number of years of plastic
mulching.

An abundance of MPs study based on sludge-based fertilisers in

agricultural soils was done by Zhang et al.42. They investigated the polymer
composition, size, type, abundance and morphology of MPs in dewatered
sludge.

The samples were collected from three sites. In Site 1 ~30t/ha of compost
was used annually for two years, and in Site 2 ~15t/ha of compost was used
for over five years. Site 3 did not use sludge fertilisers. In each site, samples
were collected from shallow, middle and deep soils. The concentration of

39 Liu, M., Lu, S., Song, Y., Lei, L., Hu, J., Lv, W., & He, D. (2018). Microplastic and mesoplastic
pollution in farmland soils in suburbs of Shanghai, China. Environmental Pollution, 242,
855-862.
40 Horton, A.A., Walton, A., Spurgeon, D.J., Lahive, E., & Svendsen, C. (2017). Microplastics in
freshwater and terrestrial environments: evaluating the current understanding to identify
the knowledge gaps and future research priorities. Science of the total environment, 586,
127-141.
41 Huang, Yi, et al. “Agricultural plastic mulching as a source of microplastics in the terrestrial
environment.” Environmental Pollution 260 (2020): 114096.
42 Zhang, Y., Kang, S., Allen, S., Allen, D., Gao, T., & Sillanpää, M. (2020). Atmospheric
microplastics: A review on current status and perspectives. Earth-Science Reviews, 203,
103118.

18
MPs was directly proportional to the amount of sludge compost applied
in soils. Middle soils had more MPs (330.4±21.5 item/kg) than shallow and
deep soils. It was attributed to the ploughing every year.

Liu et al.43 studied the abundance and occurrence of MPs and mesoplastics
in agricultural soils. Microplastic abundance were found in all over the
samples. Fibre (53.3%) and PP (50.51%) were the dominant category and
polymer observed in the samples, respectively. They concluded that the
most contamination is from mulching and sludge application. A study was
44
conducted on the extraction and characterisation of MPs in arid regions
with different plastic mulching periods. They took five samples from four
different sites. The sites were selected according to the period of mulching
(5y, 10y, 30y and without mulching). This study also concluded that the
concentration of MPs was rising with the increase in the period of plastic
mulching. The size of the MPs was inversely proportional to the period of
mulching. Major shapes identified were primarily fragment and fibre.

Zhou et al.45 studied the MPs contamination in agricultural soils in the

coastal plains in China. Fifteen samples were collected from mulching and
non-mulching farmlands. Films, fragments and fibre were the morphology
found in the study area. PE and PP were the most abundant polymer
types. Such abundance was not just caused by plastic mulching but also
from the irrigation and sludge compost.

Feng et al.46 investigated the occurrence of MPs in the farmland and

greenhouse cultivation land. They collected 35 samples, including
mulching land, greenhouse land and ordinary farmland. The abundance
of MPs was more in topsoil than deep soil. The abundance was more
in mulched farmlands with a mean of 100 items/kg, followed by the
greenhouse land. Polypropylene, polyethylene, polystyrene, polyamide
were the most abundant polymer types. The characteristics of MPs in the
largest vegetable land in China were investigated by Yu et al. 47. Samples
from different players were collected from Shouguang city. The MPs were
identified and found to be more abundant in every sample with a size
less than 0.5mm were more abundant (65.2%). MPs of this size were found
more in deep soils, and they concluded that the small MPs could easily
migrate towards deeper soil.

The effect of low-density MPs in agricultural soils and sheep faeces in

43 Liu, M., Lu, S., Song, Y., Lei, L., Hu, J., Lv, W., . & He, D. (2018). Microplastic and mesoplastic
pollution in farmland soils in suburbs of Shanghai, China. Environmental Pollution, 242,
855-862.
44 Li, W., Wufuer, R., Duo, J., Wang, S., Luo, Y., Zhang, D., & Pan, X. (2020). Microplastics in
agricultural soils: Extraction and characterization after different periods of polythene film
mulching in an arid region. Science of the Total Environment, 749, 141420.
45 Zhou, B., Wang, J., Zhang, H., Shi, H., Fei, Y., Huang, S., & Barceló, D. (2020). Microplastics in
agricultural soils on the coastal plain of Hangzhou Bay, east China: Multiple sources other
than plastic mulching film. Journal of hazardous materials, 388, 121814.
46 Feng, S., Lu, H., & Liu, Y. (2021). The occurrence of microplastics in farmland and grassland
soils in the Qinghai-Tibet plateau: Different land use and mulching time in facility
agriculture. Environmental Pollution, 279, 116939.
47 Li, M., Liu, Y., Xu, G., Wang, Y., & Yu, Y. (2021). Impacts of polyethylene microplastics on
bioavailability and toxicity of metals in soil. Science of The Total Environment, 760, 144037.

19
 Plastic pollution is
vegetable farmlands were studied by Beriot et al. in the Murcia region. linked to several
48

Plastic mulching was practised in soils with LDPE for 10 years. Faecal
samples were collected from sheep that grazed in the agricultural field.
SDGs. SDG target
MPs were found in all the samples. 14.1 is often referred
to when combatting
international plastic
2.7 The UN SDGs pollution. It reads:
The UN announced the launch of the SDGs at the UN summit in “By 2025, prevent and
September 2015. The UN SDGs were developed to address the most
significantly reduce
important global threats of our time and provide a vision for achieving
a sustainable future. The UN SDGs are a universal call to action to end marine pollution of
poverty, protect the planet, and ensure that all people enjoy peace and all kinds, in particular
prosperity. There are 17 universal goals for 203049, each providing guidelines
from land-based
and 169 specific targets in which goals may be measured and achieved.
While each goal matters on its own, they all interconnect, incorporating
activities, including
social, economic and environmental sustainability. While none of the 17 marine debris and
SDGs has plastic pollution as a main theme, the relationship between the nutrient pollution.”
SDGs and the need to curb plastic pollution is clear. Plastic pollution is
linked to several SDGs:

48 Beriot, N., Peek, J., Zornoza, R., Geissen, V., & Lwanga, E.H. (2021). Low density-microplastics
detected in sheep faeces and soil: A case study from the intensive vegetable farming in
Southeast Spain. Science of the Total Environment, 755, 142653.
49 Nations, U. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform-SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
GOAL 3. 2017.

20
One could easily link plastic pollution to other SDGs as well, given that
plastic and plastic waste are omnipresent. The issues related to marine
plastics are being addressed in the UN SDGs under Goal 14 which is to:
Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for
sustainable development. Specifically, in target 14.1: By 2025, prevent and
significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in particular from land-
based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution. This will be
measured by indicator 14.1.1: Index of coastal eutrophication and floating
plastic debris density.

21
22
03
OBJECTIVE,
SAMPLING AND
METHODOLOGY

23
 Plastic mulching has been most plastic mulch sheets
adopted globally as it are being dumped or
offers various benefits. But burned in an improper
plastic material used in manner. Non-availability
agriculture can become a of comprehensive data is
source of pollution. Plastic making it difficult to foresee
mulch sheets seem to have the ultimate outcome of the
made inroads to the Indian fragmentation process of the
agricultural scene as well mulch sheets.
and is being widely used by
This study is part of Toxics
farmers during cultivating
Links effort to understand
various crops. But there
and assess plastic pollution
is little attention on the
from various sources and
disposal practices. In the
also delve into MPs pollution
absence of a formal system
issues in depth.
and lack of awareness,
it can be assumed that

3.1 OBJECTIVES OF THIS STUDY

• To understand the current usage of plastic mulch in agricultural
fields in India.

• To investigate the presence of MPs in the mulched and un-mulched

agricultural soils of Maharashtra and Karnataka.

• To study the textural properties of mulched and un-mulched

agricultural soils and explore their relationship with MPs data.

• To analyse the heavy metal content of the agricultural soils, in respect

to use of plastic mulch.

3.2 METHODOLOGY FOR FARMER

SURVEY
The farmers’ survey was conducted through a structured questionnaire,
which was field tested to determine its veracity. The questionnaire was
designed based on secondary research and informal discussions and
included questions related to usage and disposal of plastics mulching.

The method used for conducting the survey was snowball sampling.
Snowball sampling refers to the method for collecting samples where the
respondents only direct you to the next respondent.

24
 This method of collecting survey was advantageous in this scenario, as
there was lack of clarity on where the plastic mulching was happening
or the village or farmers involved in the same. Face-to-face surveys were
conducted in the Karnataka and Maharashtra using kobo toolbox which is
an online data collection system.

3.3 STUDY AREA

For this investigation, mulched and un-mulched agricultural soil profiles
were selected from four farmlands in Maharashtra and Karnataka (figure
1). In Kolhapur district of Maharashtra, Aurnol and Badgaon were the two
areas and in Belgaum district of Karnataka, Khanapur and Hukkeri were
the other two locations. Besides, soil samples from dumpsites in these
regions were also collected. The details of the sampling locations are
provided in Table 1 and Figure 1.

Table 1: Details of sampling locations and the type of samples studied.

Profile
Sl. Sampling Total no. of
Latitude Longitude Type of soil sample depth
No. location samples
(cm)
1. Khanapur MSP1-15.52138889 74.60527778 Mulched soil profiles 0-15-30 cm
(Karnataka) (n=2)
MSP2-15.65416667 74.60361111 0-15 cm n=11
Un-mulched soil
USP1-15.65527778 74.60583333 profiles (n=2)

USP2-15.655 74.60555556 dumpsite (n=1)

BDS- 15.6721
2. Hukkeri HMS-16.14722222 74.52638889 Mulched soil profile 0-15-30 cm
(Karnataka) (n=1)
HUS-16.15 0-15 cm n=5
Un-mulched soil
74.52555556 profile (n=1)

3. Aurnol AMS1-16.25694444 74.37388889 Mulched soil profiles 0-15-30 cm

(Maharashtra) (n=2)
AMS2-16.26 74.37611111 0-15 cm n=9
Un-mulched soil
AUS-16.26 74.37666667 profiles (n=1)

ADS- 16.25 dumpsite (n=1)

74.37797923
4. Badgaon BMS-16.19 74.37722222 Mulched soil profile 0-15-30 cm
(n=1)
(Maharashtra) BUS-16.86388889 74.93722222 0-15 cm n=5
Un-mulched soil
profile (n=1)

25
 Figure 1: Location map of the agricultural soils collected from
Karnataka and Maharashtra.

SAMPLING

Agricultural soil samples were collected on January 12 and 13, 2021, from
different fields in Belgaum district of Karnataka (Khanapur and Hukkeri)
and Maharashtra (Aurnol and Badgaon) as shown in Figure 2. Mulched
soil samples were collected in three different depths (0cm, 15cm & 30cm).
Un-mulched soils were sampled from two depths (0cm & 15cm) (Table
1). In the case of dumpsite, only surface samples were collected. A trench
was dug in the field with the help of a garden spade. The depths of the
trenches were measured using a wooden scale and a tape. Eighteen
out of the 30 collected were mulched, 10 un-mulched and two from
dumpsite. A stainless-steel spatula was used for transferring the samples
into an aluminium container and later the container was covered with a
foil. Besides, samples for the geochemical analysis were collected using
a wooden spoon. All the samples were packed and safely kept inside a
carton box until it was taken to the laboratory for further analysis. The
coordinates of each sample location were noted using a handheld GPS.

3.4 EXTRACTION OF MICROPLASTICS

MPs were extracted from the soil samples using a modified version of the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) protocol50,51 .
Around 400 grams of the sample was weighed into a one-litre beaker and
50 Masura, J., Baker, J., Foster, G., & Arthur, C. (2015). Laboratory Methods for the Analysis of
Microplastics in the Marine Environment: Recommendations for quantifying synthetic
particles in waters and sediments.
51 Amrutha, K., & Warrier, A.K. (2020). The first report on the source-to-sink characterization
of microplastic pollution from a riverine environment in tropical India. Science of the Total
Environment, 739, 140377.

26
oven-dried at a temperature of 90 °C overnight. The dry weight of the soil was noted and later treated
with 300 ml of sodium hexametaphosphate solution (5.5g/l). The beakers containing the soil samples
were kept on the rotary shaker for an hour at 250 rpm to disaggregate the samples. Wet sieving
was performed on the disaggregated samples by passing them through sieves (Haver standard test
sieve) of 5mm and 0.3mm mesh sizes in the presence of double-distilled water. The plastic materials
observed in the sieve of 5mm were kept separately. The particles in the 0.3 mm sieve were transferred
to a one-litre beaker, and 300 ml of zinc chloride solution (933.3g/l) was added for primary density
separation.

Figure 2: Photos taken in the field during sampling in January 2021

(A) A trench being dug up in the field.

(B) Soil samples being transferred into an (C) Photos of the soil samples after collection.
aluminium tray.

27
 particles were sieved through 0.3-mm mesh and then transferred to a 500-ml beaker and oven-dried at
75 C for 24 hours. Organic matter present in the sample was digested using the wet peroxide oxidation
(WPO) method52. In this technique, 20ml of 0.05 M Fe (II) solution was added to the sample along
with 20ml of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂; 30%). The process was continued until all the organic matter
was digested. The remaining particles were again treated with 300ml of zinc chloride solution for the
secondary density separation and kept overnight. The next day, the floating particles were passed
through 1-mm and 0.3-mm sieves.

3.5 VISUAL IDENTIFICATION OF MICROPLASTICS AND

POLYMER COMPOSITION
The particles in the two sieves were transferred into different watch glasses, dried and were visually
identified with the help of a stereo zoom microscope (Nikon) at a magnification of 40x. The recovered
MPs were transferred into pre-weighed glass vials and then weighed. The MPs were morphologically
categorised into fibres, fragments, films, foams and pellets53. To determine the chemical composition
of the polymers, frequently occurring and suspected microplastics (n=25) were analysed with the
help of a Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer affixed with an attenuated total reflectance
(ATR) unit. The identification of the polymer composition of MPs was made with the help of Shimadzu
IR Spirit FTIR with QATR-S Single Reflection ATR Accessory. Per cent transmission was recorded at a
range of 3500 [-500 cm-1 with a resolution of 4 cm-1. Around 25 scans were performed for each sample.
Chloroform was used to clean the ATR crystal each time before scanning. The identification of the

52 Kapp, K. J., & Yeatman, E. (2018). Microplastic hotspots in the Snake and Lower Columbia rivers: A journey from the Greater
Yellowstone Ecosystem to the Pacific Ocean. Environmental Pollution, 241, 1082-1090.

28
chemical composition of polymer particle was made by comparing the data with reference spectra.53
Open Specy522, an open-source spectra identification tool, was used to recognise the IR Spectra
(Pearson correlation coefficient > 0.8).

3.6 PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS

Particle size analysis was performed using the pipette analysis.54 Approximately 10 grams of sediment
sample was treated with 20ml of 30% H2O2 followed by 15ml of glacial acetic acid (10%) to remove
the organic and carbonate contents, respectively. After adding 15ml of sodium hexametaphosphate
(Calgon) solution, the sample was wet-sieved to separate the sand fraction (>63 microns) using an
ASTM mesh number 230. The fraction containing silt and clay (<63 microns) was transferred into
a 1,000-ml measuring cylinder. The silt+clay fractions were pipetted from depths of 10 and 5cm,
respectively, at different time intervals according to Stokes’ Law. The three fractions were oven-dried,
and the dry weights were used to calculate their percentages.

3.7 QUALITY ANALYSIS AND QUALITY CONTROL

All necessary precautions were adopted to avoid contamination of the samples. No plastic accessories
or items of equipment were used during sampling or processing. Only glass and steel apparatus were
used that helped in controlling the quality. The laboratory where the samples were analysed was very
clean, and the supply of outside air was minimal. On all days, the working bench inside the laboratory
was thoroughly cleaned with ethanol. During the analysis, nitrile gloves and cotton aprons were worn.
Milli-Q water was used to prepare solutions, and double-distilled water was used to clean all the lab
apparatus. Aluminium foil and watch glasses were used to cover the apparatus items in order to avoid
contamination due to the falling of airborne particles. All the experiments were performed in triplicates.
All the glassware were properly washed and sterilised before the experiments.

3.8 LIMITATIONS
1. FTIR was performed on large-sized (1 to 5mm) MPs. Due to the operational limitation of FTIR, small-
sized MPs could not be analysed. A micro-Raman spectroscope for the analysis of smaller particles
was not available during the study.

2. As the survey and soil samples were collected when Covid 19 cases were high in both states
(Karnataka and Maharashtra), it was difficult to obtain more samples and interact with more
farmers to understand their views on disposal of mulching sheet or practices of mulching sheets.

3. The presence of NPs in the farmland soils could not be investigated due to the non-availability of
accessories. It is expected that a high proportion of NPs in these soils could be due to continuous
tilling and irrigation.

53 Cowger, W., Booth, A. M., Hamilton, B. M., Thaysen, C., Primpke, S., Munno, K., & Nel, H. (2020). Reporting guidelines to increase
the reproducibility and comparability of research on microplastics. Applied spectroscopy, 74(9), 1066-1077.
54 Carver, R. E. (1971). Procedures in sedimentary petrology. John Wiley & Sons Incorporated.

29
30
04
FINDINGS

31
 4.1 FARMER SURVEY
According to the industry information, Maharashtra was one of the
first states in the country to introduce plastic mulching as a cultivation
technique. The technique travelled from Maharashtra to the adjoining
villages in Karnataka. The following areas were included in the study as the
secondary study indicated extensive use of plastic as mulch material in
these areas:

• Five villages (Hiremanoli, Kodachwad, MK Hubli, Gadkopp and

Hattargi) from the district of Belgaum in Karnataka

• Aurnol and Badgaon villages from Kolhapur district in Maharashtra

The team interacted with more than 100 farmers and recorded 61
responses from the farmers who are using mulching sheet. Interactions
with these farmers as well as other stakeholders revealed that most
farmers in these regions are using plastic sheets for the mulching process. According to the
The crops grown by the farmers using plastic mulch are mainly chillies,
industry information,
brinjal, tomato, watermelon, capsicum, cucumber and bitter gourd.
Maharashtra was one
The farmers were asked about procurement, usage and disposal through a of the first states in the
structured questionnaire.
country to introduce
4.1.1 Procurement plastic mulching as a
cultivation technique.
Plastic mulching sheets are available in varying thickness and four
different colours— black, white, silver and green — in the regions included The technique travelled
in the study. There are several distributors in both the states for mulching from Maharashtra to
sheets at village level as well in nearby cities. the adjoining villages in
The procurement price for the plastic mulch varied in the two states. Karnataka.
Interaction with the farmers and the mulch distributers indicated that the
price is lower in Maharashtra. The difference could be attributed to several
reasons, mainly higher usage in Maharashtra. Also, farmers in Maharashtra
have been using plastic mulch for the last 25 years and there are multiple
shops/distributors in the surveyed regions. The cost also varied on the basis
of the thickness and colour.

Most of the farmers get mulching

sheets in the range of ₹1,000-1,600
per roll. As per the survey, an acre
of agricultural land required 2,800
metres of plastic mulch, which will
cost around ₹12,000 ± 500.
32
Most of the farmers get mulching sheets in the range of ₹1,000-1,600 per roll. As per the survey, an acre
of agricultural land required 2,800 metres of plastic mulch, which will cost around ₹12,000 ± 500. Some
farmers, who were not using plastic mulches, shared that they cannot afford these.

4.1.2 Usage

In Khanapur (sub-district of Belgaum) of Karnataka, where the three villages of Hiremanoli, Godikop
and Kodachwad were selected for the study, the majority of farmers have been using the mulching
sheet from past 2-4 years. Only few in these villages were using the plastic sheets as mulch for the last
10 years or so. Farmers use the mulch sheets from December to June to mainly grow chillies, tomato
and watermelon. They don’t use the mulching sheet in rainy season as they cultivate crops such as
water-consuming crops such as sugar cane and paddy during those months.

In the villages of Bhadgaon and Aurnal in Kolhapur district, Maharashtra, most farmers have been
using plastic mulch sheet for many years, with some of them using it for more than 20 years. The
crops grown using the mulch sheets are brinjal, capsicum, tomato, bitter gourd and cucumber. In
the Maharashtra villages as well, farmers don’t use the plastic mulch in the rainy season as they grow
sugarcane and paddy.

Figure 3: Farmers using plastic mulch sheet - duration

70%

60% 55%
Percentage

50%

40% 35%
30%

20%

10% 6%
4%
0%
0-5 Year 5-10 Year 10-15 Year 15-20 Year
Plastic Mulch Usage Duration

Overall, the use of plastic mulch usage seemed not too old in the surveyed villages, as 55% of the
farmers interviewed have been using the material for less than 5 years. Another 35% have been using
it for 5-10 years. Only 6% have been using it for 10-15 years and 4% of the farmers have been using this
non-biodegradable material for 15-20 years, as shown in Figure 3. If we look at state-specific data as
per the survey, around 30% and 23% farmers in Maharashtra villages are using the plastic sheet for the
last 10-15 years and 15-20 years, respectively, whereas in Karnataka, we could not find farmers who were

33
 using this material beyond the last 10 years. In Karnataka, the users were
mostly new users, with 62.5% farmers having used the plastic sheet only in
the last 5 years.

Figure 4: Farmers using plastic mulch sheet – duration in Maharashtra

and Karnataka region

Plastic Usage in Both States

80%

62.50%
60%
Percentage

40%
37.50%
30.76%
23.08% 23.08% 23.07%
20%

0%
0-5 Year 5-10 Year 10-15 Year 15-20 Year
Maharashtra Karnataka

The durability of mulch sheets depend on the quality. A large section of

farmers, especially the ones who have been using plastic mulch for longer
periods, use it multiple times before discarding it. All the farmers who
have been using plastic mulch for more than 10 years are using the same
sheet twice or thrice.

Figure 5: Multiple usage of mulching sheet

No. of Time Plastic Mulch Used

100%
88%
80%
67% 67%
60%
50% 50%
Percentage

40%
33%
28%
20%

6% 6% 5%
0%
0-5 Year 5-10 Year 10-15 Year 15-20 Year
Once Twice Thrice

Seventy-eight per cent of the farmers contacted during the survey in

both the states, are using black-coloured sheet, with smaller percentage

56%
of farmers using white, silver and green-coloured sheets as shown in the
Figure 6. The usage of black sheets is higher as compared to other colours,
as it is supposed to absorb UV (ultraviolet), visible and infrared wavelengths
of solar radiation. This can have significant impact on increasing soil
of the farmers shared
temperature. Black plastic mulch is also the most abundantly available in
the market. that the use of mulching
sheet resulted in 50-
4.1.3 Advantages of using plastic mulch - Farmers’ perception 60% reduction in water
The farmers interviewed during the survey cited many benefits of using consumption.
the plastic mulch sheets. One primary benefit that all farmers recognised

34
was the decrease in water consumption. Fifty-six per cent of the farmers shared that the use of
mulching sheet resulted in 50-60% reduction in water consumption. Seven per cent of the farmers
felt the saving was much more and that the use of plastic sheet has resulted in the reduction of water
consumption by more than 70%. A large number of farmers also felt that their productivity increased
due to plastic mulch usage.

Figure 6: Usage of different coloured Figure 7: Decreasing water consumption

mulch sheets rate after using plastic sheet

2% 23%
12% Green Less than 50%
White Decreasing Rate

8%
Silver
7% 56%
50 - 60%
More than 70% Decreasing Rate
Decreasing Rate

78% 14%
Black
60 - 70%
Decreasing Rate

Some farmers also felt that the use of plastic mulch impacted consumption of chemicals and fertilisers,
with 27% of farmers saying that there was reduction in the quantity of chemicals and fertilisers used
after they had started using plastic mulch sheets. Seventy-two per cent of the farmers, though, felt
that there was no change in usage of fertilisers and 1% claiming an increase. One benefit that almost
all farmers claimed was the suppression in the growth of unwanted weeds and plants. Since many
of these areas receive heavy rainfall, the farmers also shared that using the mulch sheet prevents the
crop from getting impacted from such rains. These inputs were shared by the farmers but were totally
based on recall as no data regarding the same was shared with the study team.

4.1.4 Disposal

Disposal of the used plastic mulch sheet is a challenge, with the farmers interviewed employing
different methods like burning, dumping on land or water. A large percentage of farmers dispose
it in in and around their fields or a dumpsite that the farmers had earmarked. In Maharashtra, 77%
dump it on land while 23% burn the sheet. Besides dumping in nearby areas and burning, around 12%
farmers in Karnataka are also dumping it in waterbodies. A small percentage of farmers also use the
discarded sheet in making the shade of hut to safeguard it during rains. But even these will eventually
be dumped or disposed of.

Figure 8: Disposal trend of mulching sheets

100%

80% 77%

65% 63%
60%
Percentage

40%

23%
20% 19%
20% 12%
10%
5% 6%
0%
Overall Karnataka Maharashtra
Burn Disposed in Land Disposed in Water Bodies Other

35
 Photo 2: Disposal of plastic mulching in Photo 3: Discarded mulch sheet being reused as
survey area a roof covering the survey areas

Team interacted with the distributors available in Khanapur and discussed

the disposal of mulching, and found that normally distributors take
back the mulching sheet (₹10/kg) for recycling purpose. However, it is
not a common practice as only fewer farmers return the waste sheets to
distributors .

4.2 MICROPLASTICS IN AGRICULTURAL

SOILS
A total of 30 soil samples were collected from three selected villages in
Karnataka and two selected villages in Maharashtra, respectively. The
samples were analysed for the presence of MPs. Samples were taken from
mulched and un-mulched and dumpsite at different depths. FTIR was
performed on large-sized (1 to 5mm) particles detected, but due to the
operational limitation of FTIR, small-sized particles could not be analysed. A total of 30 soil
samples were
For the purpose of this study, the following terms are used to denote
collected.
• Mulched: Plastic sheets used as mulch

• Un-mulched: Material, other than plastic, used for mulching

(biodegradable)

Microplastics were found in all the soil samples. The result established
that the abundance of MPs found in the mulched soil samples was much
higher than the un-mulched soil samples. This clearly points out towards
a possible contamination of soil due to the usage of plastic as mulch
sheets. Also, the higher accumulation of MPs were observed in Karnataka
where plastic mulching has been practised for relatively longer duration, in
comparison to Maharashtra.

36
 Highest MPs Detected

87.57 Piece/Kg 40.46 Piece/Kg 20.54 Piece/Kg

Dumpsite Mulched Site Un-Mulched Site

Among the 30 soil samples [including mulched, un-mulched and

dumpsites], the highest abundance of 87.57 pieces/kg of MPs was found at
a dumpsites in Maharashtra. This is almost double the abundance found
in mulched soil, indicating that plastic mulch sheets dumped around
the agriculture area is causing huge pollution. In case of all mulched soil
samples, the highest concentration of MPs, 40.46 pieces/kg was found
at 15cm depth in BMS in Maharashtra, whereas the lowest concentration
of 8.45 pieces/kg of MP was found at 30cm in MSP1 of Karnataka state.
Among all un-mulched sites, the AUS site in Maharashtra showed the
20.54 pieces/kg highest concentration of MPs at 15 cm, although HUS
in Karnataka showed the 2.83 pieces/kg lowest concentration of MPs at
the same depth. Irrigation and heavy rainfall could be the main reasons
for the transportation of MPs from one field to another, possibly leading
to the detection of MPs in un-mulched soil. Heavy rainfall can aid in the
transportation of MPs.
Microplastics
were found in all the 4.2.1 Mulched soils of Karnataka
soil samples. The concentration of MPs in the soil in the three village sites of Karnataka
state (Hiremanoli, Kodachwad and Hukkeri) where plastic mulch sheets
were being used extensively, ranged from 8.45 to 37.97 pieces/kg, with a
mean (SD) average of 20.11 ± 9.36) pieces/kg as reported in Figure 9. The
highest concentration detected in the samples taken from Karnataka
was 37.97 pieces/kg of MPs, found at 0cm in soil samples MSP2. The
lowest concentration 8.45 pieces/kg of MP was found at 30cm in MSP1 of
Karnataka state as illustrated in Figure 9. The surface soils from Khanapur
(MSP2) showed a greater abundance of MPs.

Figure 9: Abundance of microplastics found in the mulched soils of

Karnataka (MSP1 and MSP2: Belgaum, HMS: Hukkeri)

Mulched Sites in Karnataka

40 37.97
35
MP Abundance (Item/Kg)

30 27.76 27.82
25.32
25 22.66
20.38 20.11
20 16.20
15 15.62 14.40
12.39 12.35
10 8.45
5
0%
MSP1 MSP1 MSP1 MSP2 MSP2 MSP2 HMS HMS HMS Average Average Average Average
(0cm) (15cm) (30cm) (0cm) (15cm) (30cm) (0cm) (15cm) (30cm) (0cm) (15cm) (30cm)
Sampling Site at Different Depth

37
 Size

On an average, nearly 68% of the MPs detected in these soils were found to be tiny in size (0.3-1mm) as
reported in Figure 10. Interestingly, the tiny particles showed an increasing trend in the deeper levels,
except for MSP2 at 30cm, where both the particles were found in equal quantities. The association
between Total organic carbon (TOC) and 0.3-1 mm is significant as regions with higher organic
productivity usually contain a more significant proportion of small-sized MPs, which pose an ecological
threat to the benthic organisms living within these soils. The samples taken from deeper levels of
MSP and HMS soil profiles are rich in organic matter and are composed of smaller sediment sizes.
Particle size and organic matter can influence the metal bioavailability of organisms ingesting finer soil
particles. Further, the increased surface area to volume ratio of smaller MPs favours the accumulation
of pollutants55, which can cause further damage to the organic community living in these soils.

Figure 10: Per cent abundance of microplastics of different sizes found in the mulched soils of
Karnataka (MSP1 and MSP2: Belgaum, HMS: Hukkeri)

Mulched sites in Karnataka

1 - 0.3 mm,
1 - 0.3 mm,
100

1-0.3 mm,

1 - 0.3 mm,

100
72.22
69.72
68.07
66.67
66.67

80

66.67

62.22

80
62.5
60

60

60
50
50

37.77
33.33

33.33

33.33
37.5

30.27
31.94
40

40

27.78

40
20

20

0
MSP1 MSP1 MSP1 MSP2 MSP2 MSP2 HMS HMS HMS Average Average Average Average
(0cm) (15cm) (30cm) (0cm) (15cm) (30cm) (0cm) (15cm) (30cm) (0cm) (15cm) (30cm)

1- 5 mm 1 - 0.3 mm

55 Kazmiruk, T.N., Kazmiruk, V.D., & Bendell, L.I. (2018). Abundance and distribution of microplastics within surface sediments of a
key shellfish growing region of Canada. PLoS One, 13(5).

38
Type

The shape of observed MPs was sorted into fibres, fragments, foams and
film. As reported in

Figure 11B, these were detected in the following percentages-

• Fragments (60.96 % ± 11.42),

• Fibres (20.68% ± 15.12),
• Foams (9.48% ± 13.23) and films (8.89% ± 14.53)

Fragments were the most abundant with 75%, followed by 44.40% fibres,
37.50% foams and 40% films in HMS 30cm, HMS 15cm, MSP2 15cm and
HMS 0cm, respectively as reported in Figure 11A. It may be due to the
disintegration of plastic waste and farming items such as packaging
material, plastic seed bags, etc.56.

56 Antunes, J. C., Frias, J.G.L., Micaelo, A. C., & Sobral, P. (2013). Resin pellets from beaches of the
Portuguese coast and adsorbed persistent organic pollutants. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf
Science, 130, 62-69.

39
 Fibrous plastic particles in soils may have formed as a result of water irrigation and the application of
bio-solid sludge from wastewater treatment plants.57 Furthermore, extremely small fibrous particles
that remain airborne in the atmosphere may fall down and mix with the soils during periods of heavy
rainfall. Additionally, fibre particles can easily move to deeper levels with the percolating water due of
their linear structure, explaining the higher presence at deeper levels.

Figure 11a&b: Per cent abundance of different categories of microplastics found in the mulched
soils of Karnataka (MSP1 and MSP2: Khanapur, HMS: Hukkeri)

11a - Types of MPs in Karnataka - average

Average at 30cm 30.56 69.44

Average at 15cm 22.87 6.67 14.81 55.65

Average at 0cm 5.56 20.00 16.67 57.78

Average 9.48 8.89 20.68 60.96

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%

80% 90% 100%
FOAM % FILM % FIBRE % FRAGMENT %

11b - Type of MPs detected in Karnataka

HMS 30cm 25.00 75.00

HMS 15cm 11.11 44.44 44.44

HMS 0cm 40.00 20.00 40.00

MSP2 30cm 33.33 66.67

MSP2 15cm 37.50 62.50

MSP2 0cm 20.00 13.33 66.67

MSP1 30cm 33.33 66.67

MSP1 15cm 20.00 20.00 60.00

MSP1 0cm 16.67 16.67 66.67

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

FOAM % FILM % FIBRE % FRAGMENT %

4.2.1 Un-mulched soils of Karnataka

Among the six samples evaluated in the three selected un-mulched sites (two in Khanapur and one in
Hukkeri) in Karnataka, an average of 8 ± 2.82 pieces/kg MPs populations was found, as shown inFigure
12. It is interesting to note that the un-mulched soil was also found to have MPs contamination,
although the abundance was much lower or almost half of the mulched sample. The maximum
abundance 10.75 pieces/kg of MPs was found in the surface sample (0 cm) of USP2 from Khanapur.

57 Scheurer, M., & Bigalke, M. (2018). Microplastics in Swiss floodplain soils. Environmental science & technology, 52(6), 3591-3598.

40
Figure 12: Abundance of microplastics found in the un-mulched soils of Karnataka (USP1 and USP2:
Belgaum, HUS: Hukkeri)

10.75

10.26

9.53
MP ABUNDANCE ( mg/kg)

8.33

7.99
8.21
7.59

6.45
2.81
USP1 0 cm USP1 15 cm USP2 0 cm USP2 15 cm HUS 0 cm HUS 15 cm Average Average at 0 Average at
SAMPLE ID cm 15 cm

Size

The abundance of small MPs was higher at 15cm depth than the surface level in all the three soil
profiles. Large-sized MPs (1-5 mm) show an opposite trend (higher in the surface samples and lower
in the bottom samples) in all the samples. It may be due to the small MPs that are closely associated
with the sedimentary properties and may be transferred down to deeper levels during irrigation and
cultivation of the farmland soils.

Figure 13: Per cent abundance of microplastics of different sizes (0.3-1mm and 1-5mm) found in the
un-mulched soils of Karnataka (USP1 and USP2: Belgaum, HUS: Hukkeri).

Un - mulched sites in Karnataka

100.00

MP Size (0.3 - 1 mm)

100.00
MP Size (1 - 5 mm) %,

77.78
90.00
75.00
75.00

66.67
66.67

66.67

80.00
%, 61.11

55.56

70.00
60.00
44.44
38.89

50.00
33.33

33.33

33.33

25.00

40.00
25.00

22.22

30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
USP1 0cm USP1 15cm USP2 0cm USP2 15cm HUS 0cm HUS 15cm Average Average at Average at
0 cm 15 cm

MP Size (0.3-1mm) % MP Size (1-5 mm) %

Type

As shown in Figure 14, the morphology of MPs in the un-mulched soils are largely dominated by:

▶ Fibres-Mean = 61.11% ± 49.07%

▶ Films – Mean = 16.67% ± 40.82%)
▶ Fragments - Mean = 16.67% ± 40.82%
▶ Foams - 5.56 % (± 13.61%)

41
 Similar to the mulched soils, no pellets were found in these samples too. The higher films abundance
in the mulching soils compared to the non-mulching soils demonstrated the major contribution of
plastic mulching to the films in the farmlands.

Figure 14A & B: Per cent abundance of different categories of microplastics found in the
un-mulched soils of Karnataka (USP1 and USP2: Belgaum, HUS: Hukkeri).

Average at 15 cm 11.11 55.56 33.33

Average at 0cm 33.33 66.67

Average 5.56 16.67 61.11 16.67

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

FOAM % FILM % FIBRE % FRAGMENT %

UNMULCHED SITES

HUS 15cm 100.00

HUS 0cm 100.00

USP2 15cm 100.00

USP2 0cm 100.00

USP1 15cm 33.33 66.67

USP1 0cm 100.00

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

FOAM % FILM % FIBRE % FRAGMENT %

4.2.3 Soils from the dumpsites in Karnataka

Only one soil sample from dumpsites from Karnataka (BDS) was investigated for microplastics. BDS,
taken from Khanapur dumpsite showed 37.20 pieces/kg MPs. Nearly 62% of the MPs belonged to
the smaller size class (0.3-1 mm). The low abundance of large-sized MPs (38%) suggests the quick
disintegration of larger macroplastics into finer sized materials. In terms of morphology, films are
the most dominant type (61.54%) followed by 23.08% of foams, fibres and fragments (7.69% each).
No pellets were observed in these soils. The soils are sand-rich (76.52%) with very little amounts of
silt (20.21%) and clay-sized (3.28%) particles. The higher abundance of sand signifies that the larger
microplastics are broken down into finer pieces due to abrasion.

4.2.4 Mulched soils of Maharashtra

Three mulched soil profiles were collected from Aurnol (2) and Badgaon (1) in Maharashtra. In these soil
samples, the concentration of MPs ranged from 40.46 to 13.69 pieces/kg, with an average of 29.83 ± 9.32
pieces/kg as illustrated in Figure 15. In all the three soil profiles, the higher quantity of MPs was seen at
15-cm depth. This is similar to the trend seen in the mulched soils of Karnataka.

42
Figure 15: Abundance of microplastics found in the un-mulched soils of Maharashtra (AMS1 and
AMS2: Aurnol, BMS:Badgaon).

Stations in Maharashtra

45.00
39.40 40.46 39.55
40.00 38.78
MPs abundance (pieces/kg)

35.68
35.00
29.83 29.53
30.00 26.48 28.00
24.92
25.00
21.06 20.41
20.00
15.00 13.69
10.00
5.00
0.00
AMS1 AMS1 AMS1 AMS2 AMS2 AMS2 BMS BMS BMS Average Average Average Average
0cm 15cm 30cm 0cm 15cm 30cm 0cm 15cm 30cm at 0 cm at 15 cm at 30 cm

MULCHED SITES

Size

With respect to the size of the MPs, on an average, nearly 65% of the MPs detected were small-sized
(0.3-1mm) as reported in Figure 16.Similar to the findings in Karnataka, even in Maharashtra, the small-
sized particles showed an increasing trend at the deeper levels. The clayey particles would have been
adsorbed onto the surface of these smaller MPs and along with a higher amount of water, they would
have been transported to deeper levels in the soil profiles.

Figure 16: Per cent abundance of microplastics of different sizes (0.3-1 mm and 1-5 mm) found in
the mulched soils of Maharashtra (AMS1 and AMS2: Aurnol, BMS: Badgaon).
MP Size (0.3 - 1 mm%,

90.00
80.00
77.78
75.00

80.00 66.20
65.00

64.56
64.23
62.50
61.54

70.00
58.33
57.14

57.14
55.56

60.00
44.44
ABUNDANCE (%)

42.86

42.86

50.00
41.67
38.46

37.50

35.77

35.44
35.00

33.80

40.00
25.00

22.22

30.00
20.00

20.00

10.00

0.00
AMS1 AMS1 AMS1 AMS2 AMS2 AMS2 BMS BMS BMS Average Average Average Average
0cm 15cm 30cm 0cm 15cm 30cm 0cm 15cm 30cm at 0 cm at 15 cm at 30 cm

MULCHED SAMPLES

MP Size (0.3-1mm) % MP Size (1-5 mm) %

Type

With respect to the morphology of MPs, fibres were found in greater abundance (mean = 44% ± 26.07%)
and was closely followed by fragments (43.42% ± 22.99%) as reported in Figure 17. On an average, nearly

43
 8.63% ± 14.12%) of MPs were films and 3.94% (± 6.90%) were foams. No pellets were found in the mulched
soils of Maharashtra. The greater abundance of fragments may be attributed to the disintegration of
plastic wastes and farming items such as packaging materials, plastic seed bags, etc.58
. In two (AMS1 and BMS) of the three soil profiles, fibre particles were found in significantly higher
quantities at 30-cm depth. It is likely that these fibrous pieces would have been transported to deeper
levels during irrigation with water and the application of biosolid sludge obtained from the wastewater
treatment plants59. Besides, there is a possibility that extremely small fibrous particles that remain
suspended in the atmosphere can fall down and mix with the soils during high rainfall periods.

Figure 17A & B: Per cent abundance of different categories of microplastics found in the mulched
soils of Maharashtra (AMS1 and AMS2: Aurnol, BMS: Badgaon
MULCHED SITES

BMS 30cm 58.33 41.67

BMS 15cm 7.14 42.86 21.43 28.57

BMS 0cm 20.00 40.00 40.00

AMS2 30cm 22.22 77.78

AMS2 15cm 8.33 8.33 83.33

AMS2 0cm 57.14 42.86

AMS1 30cm 87.50 12.50

AMS1 15cm 15.38 53.85 30.77

AMS1 0cm 11.11 55.56 33.33

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

FOAM % FILM % FIBRE % FRAGMENT %

Average at different depth

Average at
30 cm
56.02 43.98

Average at
5.16 22.19 25.09 47.56
15 cm

Average at 0 6.67 3.70 50.90 38.73

Average 3.94 8.63 44.00 43.42

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

FOAM % FILM % FIBRE % FRAGMENT %

4.2.5 Un-mulched soils of Maharashtra

Two soil profiles (one each in Aurnol and Badgaon) were sampled from un-mulched agricultural fields
in Maharashtra at two depths. The four samples that were analysed showed a mean MPs abundance of
11.56 (± 7.20) pieces/kg as illustrated in Figure 18. The maximum number of MPs at 20.53 pieces/kg was
found at 15-cm depth of Aurnol soil profile.

58 Mizukawa, K., Takada, H., Ito, M., Geok, Y.B., Hosoda, J., Yamashita, R., & Ferreira, A.M. (2013). Monitoring of a wide range of organic
micropollutants on the Portuguese coast using plastic resin pellets. Marine pollution bulletin, 70(1-2), 296-302.
59 Scheurer, M., & Bigalke, M. (2018). Microplastics in Swiss floodplain soils. Environmental science & technology, 52(6), 3591-3598.

44
 Figure 18: Abundance of microplastics found in the un-mulched soils of Maharashtra (AUS:Aurnol,
BUS: Badgaon).

Stations in Maharashtra

20.54

14.22 13.31
11.56
9.81
6.09
ABUNDANCE (%)

5.41

AUS 0cm AUS 15cm BUS 0cm BUS 15cm Average Average at Average at
0 cm 15 cm
UN - MULCHED SITE

Size

Small-sized microplastics (0.3-1 mm) were found to be in abundance (mean = 61.79%). The average
concentrations of these small MPs were found high in the both Aurnol and Badgaon soil profile as seen
inFigure 19. No significant relationship is evident between the MP abundance and sedimentary data for
the un-mulched soils of Maharashtra.

Figure 19: Size wise abundance of microplastics in the un-mulched soils of Maharashtra (AUS:
Aurnol, BUS: Badgaon).

Stations in Maharashtra

MP Size (0.3 - 1 mm) %,

MP Size (0.3 - 1 mm) %,

MP Size (0.3 - 1 mm) %,

100.00

120.00

100.00
70.00

80.00
ABUNDANCE

60.00

61.79
57.14

53.57
50.00
50.00

60.00 46.43
42.86

40.00

38.21

30.00

40.00

20.00

0.00
AUS 0cm AUS 15cm BUS 0cm BUS 15cm Average Average at 0 cm Average at
15 cm
UN-MULCHED SITE

MP Size (0.3-1mm) % MP Size (1-5 mm) %

Type

The morphology of MPs in the un-mulched soils are largely dominated by fibres (mean = 52.86% ±
13.25%) followed by fragments (mean = 19.64% ± 24.31%), foams (mean = 15.00% ± 30.00%) and films
(mean = 12.50% ± 25.00%). Similar to the mulched soils, no pellets were found in these samples too.

45
 Figure 20A & B: Per cent abundance of different categories of microplastics found in the un-
mulched soils of Maharashtra (AUS: Aurnol, BUS: Badgaon).

STATIONS IN MAHARASHTRA

BUS 15 cm 50.00 50.00

BUS 0 cm 60.00 40.00

AUS 15 cm 71.43 28.57

AUS 0 cm 50.00 50.00

FOAM % FILM % FIBRE % FRAGMENT %

STATIONS IN MAHARASHTRA

Average at 15 cm 25.00 60.71 14.29

Average at 0 cm 30.00 45.00 25.00

Average 15.00 12.50 52.86 19.64

FOAM % FILM % FIBRE % FRAGMENT %

4.2.6 Soils from the dumpite in Aurnol

Only one soil sample from the dumpsites in Maharashtra was picked up during this study. The sample
had the highest concentration of MPs (87.57 pieces/kg) detected in this entire study. It seems probable
that this might be due to the farmer’s use of the dumpsites for their mulching sheets. Few farmers
confirmed this during the survey. These are not official dumpsites in the survey or study area; farmers
have made a few dumpsites that were mutually agreed upon by them.  

Nearly 65.52% of the MPs detected in the site were of smaller size (0.3-1 mm). The lower abundance
of large-sized MPs (34.48%) suggests quick disintegration of larger macroplastics into finer-sized
materials due to dumping of soils. During dumping, the abrasive nature of the soils will tear the
macroplastics into smaller-sized MPs. In terms of morphology, fibres are the dominant type (48.28%)
followed by fragments (44.83%), foam (3.45%), and film (3.45%).

Nearly 65.52% of the

MPs detected in the
site were of smaller
size (0.3-1 mm).

46
Figure 21: Microphotographs of a few microplastics from the soils of Karnataka and Maharashtra.
(a) Film, (b) Fragment, and (c) Fragment with fibres.

4.3 POLYMER COMPOSITION BASED ON ATR-FTIR

STUDIES
FTIR was carried out only on the large-sized microplastics (1 to 5mm range). Small-sized MPs (0.3
to 1mm) could not be subjected to FTIR due to the operational deficiency of the FTIR. The polymer
composition of 25 soil samples was examined with the help of attenuated total refection (ATR)-Fourier
transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Among the 25 samples, 15 from mulched sites, 5 from un-
mulched sites and another 5 from dumpsite were examined. From some sites, more than one sample
of different colours were picked up. The ATR-FTIR spectral curves for all the samples are presented
in Appendix-2. In total, five different polymers were detected. The main polymers found in the
soil samples were polyacrylamide (PA; 69.8%) followed by polyethylene (PE; 11.63%). The other
polymers found in the samples were polypropylene (PP; 7.7%), cellulose (CL; 3.87%) and polyethylene
terephthalate (PET; 3.87%). Samples from the mulched sites show the presence of polyethylene,
polypropylene, polyethylene terephthalates, cellulose and polyacrylamide. All the samples from un-
mulched sites were found to have polyacrylamide polymers. However, the samples from dumpsites
were found to have 80% of polyacrylamide and 20% polyethylene, respectively. Some sites were
detected with more than one polymer microplastics.

Table 2: Polymer detected in MPs

FTIR Profile
Sample type Depth Colour Polymer composition
sample ID name
Mulched A1 MSP1 0CM Transparent polyethylene
Mulched A2 MSP1 15CM Brown polypropylene
Mulched A3 MSP1 15CM Transparent polypropylene

47
 polyethylene
Mulched A4 MSP2 0CM White
terephthalate
Mulched A5 MSP2 15CM Transparent polyethylene
Mulched A6 MSP2 15CM White cellulose
Mulched A7 AMS1 15CM White polyacrylamide
Mulched A8 AMS2 15CM Transparent polyacrylamide
Mulched A9 AMS2 15CM Black polyacrylamide
Mulched A10 BMS 15CM Blue polyacrylamide
Mulched A11 BMS 15CM Black polyacrylamide
Mulched A12 BMS 15CM Transparent polyacrylamide
Mulched A13 BMS 15CM Transparent polyacrylamide
Dumping A14 ADS Surface Blue polyacrylamide
Dumping A15 ADS Surface Blue polyacrylamide
Dumping A16 ADS Surface Black polyethylene
Dumping A17 ADS Surface Transparent polyacrylamide
Dumping A18 ADS Surface White polyacrylamide
Mulched A19 HMS1 0CM White polyacrylamide
Mulched A20 HMS1 15CM Brown polyacrylamide
Un-mulched A21 USP1 15CM Transparent polyacrylamide
Un-mulched A22 AUS 15CM Transparent polyacrylamide
Un-mulched A23 BUS 0CM Transparent polyacrylamide
Un-mulched A24 BUS 15CM Transparent polyacrylamide
Un-mulched A25 USP1 0CM Transparent polyacrylamide

Polyethylene, polypropylene and polyethylene terephthalate are among

the most commonly used polymers in the agriculture sector60. PE detected
in the soil samples are likely from the breakdown of PE mulch sheets as
the thinner films of PE can lose its integrity during cultivation61. Irrigation
is likely to be the main source of transfer of PET fibres, found abundantly
during the testing, into these soils. Previous studies have documented the
presence of PET fibres in water used for irrigation, sludge sourced from
wastewater treatment plants62 and atmospheric samples63. This could
also explain the higher quantities of fibres found in un-mulched soils of
Karnataka and Maharashtra.

The polymers polyacrylamide and cellulose are largely associated with the
usage of fertilisers in the agricultural fields, so detection of polyacrylamide
in both mulched and un-mulched fields could be linked to that. These
polymers possess super absorbent properties due to which the fertilisers
show excellent water retention capacity.
PE, PP
and PET
60 Scarascia-Mugnozza, G., Sica, C. and Russo, G. (2012). Plastic materials in European
agriculture: actual use and perspectives. J. Agric. Eng. 42, 15 are among the most
61 Ding, L., Zhang, S., Wang, X., Yang, X., Zhang, C., Qi, Y. and Guo, X. (2020). The occurrence commonly used
and distribution characteristicsof microplastics in the agricultural soils of Shaanxi Province,
in north-western China. Science of the Total Environment, v. 720, 137525. polymers in the
62 Zubris, K.AV., and Richards, B.K. (2005). Synthetic fibers as an indicator of land application agriculture sector.
of sludge. Environmental Pollution, 138(2), 201–211.
63 Dris, R., Gasperi, J., Saad, M., Mirande, C., & Tassin, B. (2016). Synthetic fibers in atmospheric
fallout: a source of microplastics in the environment?. Marine pollution bulletin, 104(1-2),
290-293.

48
Besides, cellulose acetate is also used as a binder material in the manufacturing of urea through the
technique of phase inversion64 .

Figure 22: Polymer compounds associated with microplastics found in agricultural soils of
Maharashtra and Karnataka. PAM: Polyacrylamide, CL: Cellulose, PP: Polypropylene, PE:
Polyethylene, PET: Polyethylene Terephthalate

3.01%
3.87%
11.63%
PAM

CL

7.7% PP
69.8%
PE
3.87%
PET

Others

4.4 COLOUR OF MICROPLASTICS DETECTED

Figure 23a, b & c: Different colours of microplastics found in the agricultural soils of Karnataka.

23a - Mulched 23b -Unmulched 23c -Dumpsite

3%
3%
5% 7%
6% 14% 13%
White White
20% Black 7% Black
9% 27% Black
Blue Blue
Blue
Red 58% Red
Transparent Red Transparent
14% 23% 44%
Brown Transparent Brown
5%
Green Green Green
36% 5%

1%

The MPs recovered from the mulched soils from Karnataka were largely transparent (36%) as shown in
Figure 23, though the farmer survey showed higher usage of coloured, mainly black, sheets. The reason
for this might be the fading of coloured sheets over time owing to solar radiation or UV rays. Another
reason for the mulch sheets losing its colour might be the quality of the sheet. Reports have shown
that the fading of coloured plastic products is related to light resistance, antioxidant activity, heat
resistance and acid and alkali resistance of colourment and characteristics of resin65.

64 Tomaszewska, M. and Jarosiewicz, A. (2004). Polysulfone coating with starch addition in CRF formulation. Desalination, v. 163 (1),
pp. 247–252.
65 https://www.szfh.com/enwap/show-206.html

49
 Besides mulch sheets, plastic packaging materials and plastic bags that
are thrown near fields could be also contributing to the transparent MPs.
In the un-mulched soils from Karnataka, black MPs dominated (58%),
followed by transparent MPs (27%). The MPs found in the dumped soil
sample from Khanapur were mainly black (44%), blue (23%) and white
(13%). This could be attributed to other sources of plastic waste, apart from
mulching, in these sites, especially the dumpsites.

Interestingly, in Maharashtra, black MPs were found in significant numbers

in mulched, un-mulched and dumpsite, as reported in Figure 24. Higher
black MPs abundance may be due to the fact that 70% of farmers are
using black-coloured mulching sheets in Maharashtra (as per farmer’s
survey). The un-mulched soils in Maharashtra had a high percentage of
transparent (44%). The soil sample from the dumpsites mainly had black
(92%).

Figure 24 a, b & c: Different colours found in the microplastics of the

agricultural soils of Maharashtra.

24a - Mulched 24b -Unmulched 24c -Dumpsites

10% 5% 12% 8%
White
11% Black
White
Blue White
39% 44% Black
Red Black
Blue
20% Transparent 38%
Brown Transparent
Green 92%
5% 10% 6%

The variety of coloured MPs found in the different categories of soil

samples suggests different sources of MPs. The abundance of the
black MPs can be largely derived from the black mulching films used
to cover the crops as part of the cultivation process. Also, the usage of
plastic packaging materials, plastic bags, etc. which are thrown near
the cultivation fields, will contribute to the presence of transparent The abundance of the
MPs, apart from discolouring of coloured mulch sheets over time. The black MPs found during
fertiliser and the seed bags sold in Karnataka and Maharashtra are mostly
the study can largely
packed in white sacks and supplied to the farmers. According to a few
farmers, they were using these sacks to cover small patches in the field.
be from the black
Improper disposal of these sacks or their reuse as sheets can lead to the mulching films used.
disintegration into smaller sizes and transparent MPs.

50
4.5 SURFACE MORPHOLOGY OF THE MICROPLASTICS IN
THE AGRICULTURAL SOILS
The SEM images show that the MPs obtained from the agricultural soils were prone to different
degrees of weathering as also seen in Figure 25 - Figure 34. The images revealed the presence of
characteristic pores, pits, cracks, protrusions and scratches, indicating mechanical and oxidative
weathering and polymer ageing. The obtained MPs are highly weathered and damaged due to various
physical and biological factors. This can be mainly due to the high residence time of MPs in the soils
and exposure to UV radiation. Degradation of MPs can enhance the surface area of the material, and
making it more prone to the accumulation of pollutants.

Figure 25: The surface of the fragment exhibit multiple cracks and pits.

Figure 26: Cracks visible at the edges of the microplastics fragment. Fibres disintegrating from
the microplastics surface.

51
 Figure 27: Multiple cracks and protrusions visible on the surfaces of the fragment; the edges
damaged to a higher degree.

Figure 28: The fragment shows rough and abraded surface with scratches. Minor fibres
disintegrating from the surface due to high degree of weathering

52
Figure 29: The surface of mulched film shows scaly features, minor cracks and pores. The edges
and surface are highly damaged.

Figure 30: The surface has more scratches than other erosion features.

53
 Figure 31: The surface is highly weathered, shows erosion features with pits and small cracks.

Figure 32: The microplastics foam exhibits wear and tear at the edges. It shows weathered surface
when zoomed (1K X).

54
Figure 33: The microplastics fragment is disintegrating, resulting in the formation of tiny fibres.
The surface is showing erosion features and protrusions when zoomed (1K X). It also exhibits some
irregular cracks and pits.

Figure 34: The microplastics piece exhibit flaky surface.

55
 4.6 HEAVY METALS
Many heavy metal elements occur naturally in soil, but human activities such as agricultural
production, transportation, and industrial production may increase concentration of metal and create
heavy metal pollution66. High enrichment factor indicates elevated concentrations of the elements in
the soils as compared to their natural concentrations.

4.6.1 Karnataka

The mulched soils of Karnataka show significant enrichment of As and Zn, and very high enrichment of
Pb. Extremely high enrichment of B and Cd are also seen in the studied soils. High values observed for
these indices suggest contamination of soil by these elements.

In the un-mulched soil, arsenic shows significant enrichment while Pb and Zn shows significant to
very high enrichment. Boron, Cd shows very high to extremely high enrichment in un-mulched soils of
Karnataka. The highest concentration of 207.56 mg/kg of boron was observed at 0cm of HUS2.

Table 3: Presence of heavy metals in mulched soil in Karnataka

Heavy
MSP 1 MSP 2 HMS
Metals
0 cm 15 cm 30 cm 0 cm 15 cm 30 cm 0 cm 15 cm 30 cm
Al 10434.19 8118.77 18258.68 19194.38 16014.54 23311.36 32702.69 47564.43 51817.03
As 9.15 2.56 8.28 7.80 4.41 10.52 2.73 4.34 9.21
B 127.50 106.28 109.70 145.15 123.79 152.02 123.35 157.95 191.78
Ba 164.78 147.68 187.01 197.19 178.00 221.94 121.13 160.53 177.47
Ca 227.55 137.47 574.4 938.95 228.26 988.33 8534.47 11488.83 11968.54
C 2.64 2.04 4.67 5.15 3.38 5.29 15.22 20.57 24.16
Co 6.99 5.29 9.38 12.54 9.39 15.47 49.98 61.66 76.03
Cr 68.06 53.24 118.54 169.74 73.39 118.30 133.58 183.18 214.07
Cu 768.11 14.67 11.83 19.81 26.89 15.17 123.52 167.52 192.82
Fe 9070.25 7204.90 17466.70 19260.22 12437.44 19599.31 48349.99 59608.22 67706.83
K 940.49 667.53 1354.34 1695.70 1153.48 1982.24 527.850 773.42 887.90
Mg 253.40 142.32 444.63 1109.50 352.57 1189.59 4574.036 6422.89 6785.23
Mn 191.62 148.42 243.22 475.34 356.91 755.14 1418.82 1746.35 2118.68
Ni 13.33 8.88 21.45 32.48 19.31 31.72 38.95 52.86 61.25
Pb 21.49 17.90 31.79 33.50 29.54 38.88 51.04 71.61 81.33
Sr 7.11 5.62 10.50 16.25 7.264 17.02 50.37 70.43 74.10
Zn 239.23 232.12 230.62 232.55 240.84 246.30 241.31 223.41 243.42
Na 288.77 157.31 313.08 -354.74 239.87 430.34 446.37 1220.40 1267.55

Table 4: Presence of heavy metals in un-mulched soil in Karnataka

USP 1 at depth (cm) USP 2at depth (cm) HUSat depth (cm)
Heavy Metals
0 15 0 15 0 15
Al 9576.89 7362.14 4735.66 6303.94 46565.59 47532.31
As 0.67 -7.11 -1.984 -0.35 11.49 5.57
B 20.34 13.69 11.67 11.84 207.56 162.22
Ba 27.82 21.81 16.05 18.99 118.19 114.57

66 Facchinelli, A., Sacchi, E., & Mallen, L. (2001). Multivariate statistical and GIS-based approach to identify heavy metal sources in
soils. Environmental pollution, 114(3), 313-324.

56
 USP 1 at depth (cm) USP 2at depth (cm) HUSat depth (cm)
Heavy Metals
0 15 0 15 0 15
Ca 131.97 -2.47 101.78 85.40 11293.15 11225.38
Cd 2.192 1.84 2.93 1.54 24.40 21.79
Co 5.57 4.55 3.23 3.58 80.86 71.74
Cr 52.00 31.09 25.26 36.27 211.03 189.78
Cu 4.56 2.062 2.02 4.72 203.79 349.93
Fe 7858.08 6454.07 4219.49 4905.46 67283.39 61484.47
K 659.41 460.63 428.88 488.16 298.78 360.49
Mg 161.26 79.14 66.52 93.39 7961.66 8600.66
Mn 176.12 190.72 83.91 85.33 2003.23 1845.77
Ni 11.01 5.032 3.25 6.10 60.63 55.93
Pb 21.27 14.77 33.99 18.23 77.52 77.54
Sr 3.46 2.14 3.35 3.342 74.85 73.65
Zn 244.61 244.97 228.93 243.66 245.82 240.61
Na 53.82 -18.79 68.89 39.90 751.95 1018.18

Some metals such as arsenic and lead are significantly higher in mulched soil, in comparison to un-
mulched soil samples, indicating a possible role of plastic mulch sheets.

4.6.2 Maharashtra

Pb shows significant enrichment while B and Cd show extremely high enrichment in the mulched soil
sample from Maharashtra. These observations indicate significant contamination of soils by lead, boron
and cadmium.

Table 5: Presence of heavy metals in Maharashtra mulched soil

Heavy AMS 1 at depth (cm) AMS 2 at depth (cm) BMS at depth (cm)
Metals 0 15 30 0 15 30 0 15 30
Al 21251.82 29451.78 24213.74 31749.88 59400.41 25554.50 31890.75 35116.09 43823.2
AS 4.66 3.47 0.88 2.64 18.19 3.43 2.61 3.7145 0.82
B 98.83 102.31 117.31 84.16 142.56 56.24 108.73 124.80 183.57
Ba 71.58 122.57 86.28 108.21 279.71 92.42 81.45 118.66 100.40
Ca 21461.88 27168.44 20218.29 6318.99 12692.95 5593.53 12148.61 11303.48 16110.55
Cd 11.00 13.87 14.83 10.32 19.65 8.95 14.30 15.40 25.89
Co 38.47 50.42 52.11 39.60 97.75 34.85 49.23 58.95 87.32
Cr 111.83 141.46 152.15 110.37 213.99 93.20 152.66 166.70 278.54
Cu 86.26 106.07 114.72 84.36 172.95 77.43 172.9412 156.12 220.62
Fe 34102.53 41451.04 44712.92 36862.74 61777.10 33370.06 44210.2 46687.69 70305.86
K 1261.57 1331.97 1345.51 1360.68 2450.96 954.67 806.5162 961.39 1281.89
Mg 4751.42 6069.61 5472.63 6160.50 11740.91 4303.55 5420.56 5505.52 6040.64
Mn 1021.42 1543.84 1442.27 1175.07 3611.53 1100.11 1274.93 1773.55 2332.44
Ni 34.24 45.45 46.17 41.156 98.14 36.21 42.23 51.58 78.95
Pb 45.73 58.13 55.63 41.47 83.70 35.13 53.31 61.38 88.02
Sr 77.51 90.63 82.87 35.11 74.54 33.15 60.83 61.35 89.03
Zn 231.48 227.47 240.61 234.08 237.64 247.40 245.82 233.42 247.52
Na 25.83 329.63 145.94 407.07 -238.07 227.14 1147.57 1109.42 1234.86

57
 In the un-mulched soil from Maharashtra, arsenic, lead, boron and
cadmium show higher concentrations in the studied soils in comparison to
their natural background values suggesting significant soil contamination.

Table 6: Presence of heavy metals in un-mulched soil in Maharashtra

Heavy AUS at depth (cm) BUS at depth (cm)

Metals 0 15 0 15
Al 49251.36 47744.13 58218.86 48664.14
AS 14.89 11.95 15.87 13.58
B 135.52 129.13 181.35 127.94
Ba 139.15 141.53 180.98 163.40
Ca 8846.24 8770.32 12532.58 11447.74
Cd 16.79 16.47 19.09 15.74
Co 55.76 56.31 62.44 53.39
Cr 172.44 167.86 219.58 178.25
Cu 117.06 115.98 155.35 129.71
Fe 50771.8 50908.92 56744.77 47721.16
K 1411.45 1366.48 1985.82 1662.99
Mg 6572.26 6363.23 8076.45 6882.45
Mn 1696.88 1801.44 1733.94 1634.47
Ni 60.39 60.11 74.76 61.69
Pb 71.88 74.23 87.90 75.26
Sr 52.51 52.85 77.79 67.30
Zn 230.20 243.90 247.52 219.68
Na -210.87 -263.44 -328.96 -354.15

From the above results, it is clear that the studied agricultural soils from
both Karnataka and Maharashtra are polluted by high concentrations
of arsenic, lead, boron and cadmium. These elements show very
high concentrations in the studied soils as compared to their natural
background values, pointing towards significant anthropogenic
contribution. The soils are without doubt contaminated and since they
are collected from agricultural fields, overuse of pesticides/insecticides
and fertilisers could also be one of the main sources of pollution. Irrigation
water may be another source of MPs contamination. It was observed
during the field survey that farmers were using pond or lake water for
irrigation, and considering that lot of plastic waste was dumped in the
waterbodies, it is likely that these might be also contaminated and adding
The studied
to the MPs concentration in the soil, especially in the un-mulched fields.
Several pesticides and fertilisers are known to contain heavy metals and agricultural soils
overapplication of these can cause the concentration of heavy metals from both Karnataka
in the soil to increase resulting in soils contamination. The plants/crops
and Maharashtra
can take in the toxic elements and they can enter our food system while
consumption. This is a serious environmental issue and similar studies
are polluted by high
need to be carried out in nearby areas in order to assess the complete concentrations of
extent of soil pollution. arsenic, lead, boron
It is also clear that the heavy metal concentrations are higher in the and cadmium.
mulched soil, indicating a possible role of leaching of heavy metals from
these sheets.

58
05
ALTERNATIVES TO
PLASTIC MULCH

59
 There are numerous viable alternatives to conventional plastics such
as organic mulching (straw or crop residues mulch, paper mulch);
photodegradable film mulch, and biodegradable plastics. These are all
readily available in market for use.

5.1.1 Organic mulch

Straw or crop residue mulch: Crop straw mulching is one of the best
alternatives and the most commonly practised mulch system in the
organic range. These mulches are biodegradable and environment
friendly, particularly in arable dry-land farming systems. Mulching crop
residues helps in minimising soil evaporation, facilitating water infiltration,
increasing aggregate stability and soil porosity, and minimising the
maximum temperature of surface layer in soil. The carbon containing
organic components of residue serve as of source fuel or energy for
beneficial microorganisms, which recycle inorganic crop nutrients. Crop
residue also represent a rich source of other nutrients such as nitrogen and
phosphorus67.

Paper mulch: It is one of the earliest mulching options mainly used

for vegetables and fruits68. Before the use of plastic films, this was the
predominant type of mulch due to its ease in transportation and quick
degradation. Different forms of paper mulches were employed with better
results during the early 20th century. Most of the paper mulches easily
degrade in the soil unless PE or any other non-degradable materials are
added69. Rainfall and evaporation can partially penetrate in paper mulch;
resulting in intermediate soil moisture when compared with no mulch
and PE film70. Paper mulches, especially tar- or asphalt-impregnated,
are effective in conserving moisture, suppressing weed, increasing in Different forms of
warm seasons and heating the soils. Some of the problems that hinder paper mulches were
the widespread adaptation of paper mulches include greater price than employed with better
plastics, shorter life span and frequent suffering from expansion and
contraction problems with wetting and drying cycles causing problems for
results during the early
plants71. Most of these mulches are usually degraded unevenly and have 20th century. Most
reduced effectiveness in windy and dry seasons72 . of the paper mulches
easily degrade in the
5.1.2 Photo-degradable film mulch
soil unless PE or any
Degradation of mulches through the photo-initiated chemical reaction
other non-degradable
is known as photo degradation. It is preferred because of the quick
degradation after the use. But it has some limitations such as less
materials are added.

67 Sa´nchez–Rodrı´guez, A., Hill, P.W., Chadwick, D.R., Jones, D.L., 2017. Crop residues
exacerbate the negative effects of extreme flooding on soil quality. Biol. Fertil. Soils 53 (7),
751–765.
68 Coolong, T., 2012. Mulches for weed management in vegetable production. In: Price, A. (Ed.),
Weed control. InTech, Croatia, pp. 57–74.
69 Haapala, T., Palonen, P., Korpela, A., Ahokas, J., 2014. Feasibility of paper mulches in crop
production: a review. Agric. Food Sci. 23, 60–79.
70 Saglam, M., Sintim, H.Y., Bary, A.I., Miles, C.A., Ghimire, S., Inglis, D.A., Flury, M., 2017. Modeling
the effect of biodegradable paper and plastic mulch on soil moisture dynamics. Agric
Water Manag 193, 240–250
71 Merfield, C., 2002. Organic weed management. A practical guide. Accessed 3 September
2019.
72 Calkins, J.B., Swanson, B.T., Newman, D.L., 1996. Weed control strategies for field grown
perennials. J. Environ. Hortic. 14, 221–227.

60
 efficiency in low solar radiation areas, higher cost than plastic films,
chances of premature degradation, slower degradation rate with plant
growth due to shading, which reduces the exposure to UV radiation.
Several types of plastic including PE, PP, PVC, polymethyl methacrylate,
polyamides and polystyrene that are probably the most commonly used
forms, can be degraded upon exposure to light. Most of these plastics
are susceptible to light and UV radiations in particular, for instance in
case of PE photo-degradation starts when UV radiations, in the range of
290-330nm, are absorbed by carbonyl and hydroperoxide groups that are
attached invariably to chains of PE.73 This leads to an abrupt, predefined
to some extent, rapid fragmentation into very small bits. It can occur both
BDMs are a in anaerobic (chain scission or cross-linking) and aerobic (photo-oxidative)
promising conditions74. Photo-degradation is an extremely proficient degradation
alternative to process caused by abiotic factors under the natural environment75. In
fact, initially it is abiotic (photo- and thermal-) oxidation, followed by
polyethylene mulch.
biodegradation.
However, there
remains considerable 5.1.3 Biodegradable plastic
uncertainty about To replace the conventional plastic film, scientists have developed
long-term impacts of BDMs, which, after use, are tilled in the soil and degraded by the residing
BDM incorporation microbes. These BDMs can result in higher soil fertility, minimum build-up
of plastic debris in the environment and ultimately lead to low disposal
on soil ecosystems.
expenditure76.
73 Bremer, W.P., 1982. Photodegradable polyethylene. Polym.-Plast. Technol. Eng. 18 (2),
137–148.
74 Yousif, E., Haddad, R., 2013. Photodegradation and photostabilization of polymers, especially
polystyrene: review. SpringerPlus 2 (1), 398.
75 Yang, N., Sun, Z.X., Feng, L.S., Zheng, M.Z., Chi, D.C., Meng, W.Z., Hou, Z.Y., Li, K.Y., 2015. Plastic
film mulching for water–efficient agricultural applications and degradable films materials
development research. Mater. Manuf. Process. 30 (2), 143–154.
76 Tokiwa, Y., Calabia, B.P., Ugwu, C.U., Aiba, S., 2009. Biodegradability of plastics. Int. J. Mol. Sci.
10 (9), 3722–3742.

61
 In addition, as BDMs do not need to be removed and discarded at the end of its useful lifetime,
farmers do not incur the removal and disposal costs linked with PE mulch77. BDMs are divided into
two classes based on origin; (i) bio-based: produced from natural origin (such as animal, plants and
microorganisms) and can easily biodegrade in nature including polysaccharides (such as starch,
cellulose, lignin and chitin), proteins (gelatine, casein, wheat gluten, silk and wool) and lipids (plant
oils and animal fats); and (ii) petrochemical-based78. BDMs can be prepared from bio-based polymers
derived from microbes or plants, or fossil-sourced materials. Common bio-based polymers used
in BDMs include polylactic acid (PLA), starch, cellulose and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA). Fossil-
sourced polyesters used in BDMs include poly(butylene succinate) (PBS), poly(butylene succinate-co-
adipate) (PBSA), and poly(butylene-adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT)79. BDMs should be completely
catabolised by soil microorganisms, converted to microbial biomass, CO2 and water80,81. The complete
biodegradation takes 1-2 years in the soil under field conditions82. Serious concerns about the lack
of complete degradation and other hazards have been documented in several studies. In order to
replace PE, a BDM film must have certain characteristics, including (1) the ability to provide favourable
microclimate for the growth of plant; (2) enough flexibility to be installed mechanically; (3) stay intact
for most of the cropping season; (4) completely degrade after incorporation into the soil or composting;
(5) safe for the environment, and (6) economically affordable.

Table 7: Advantage and disadvantages of different types of mulch

Mulch Advantage Disadvantage

Organic mulch Gives great insulation, water penetration and Avoid in high-traffic area due to the high in-
(straw) weed control flammable properties and thickness is about
6-8 inches.

Organic mulch Easy transportation and quick degradation High price, shorter life span, reduced
(paper) effectiveness in windy and dry seasons

Photo- Better able to raise temperature, preserve Expensive to use, degradation is also slower in
degradation film moisture, and raise yield than common area that receives less solar radiation.
polyethylene films

Biodegradable Doesn’t produce toxic waste after usage, High cost, chances of premature degradation,
film standard procedure is used for installation slower degradation rate
and does not require special machinery,
doesn’t contain heavy metals.

Plastic mulch Reduced the evaporation, improve soil struc- Removal and disposal is major environmental
ture, insulate the soil, weed control, reduced and human health concern, high cost (12500±
the fertiliser losses, insect control 500 for 1 acre),

77 Goldberger, J.R., DeVetter, L., Dentzman, W., 2019. Polyethylene and biodegradable plastic mulches for strawberry production in
the United States: Experiences and opinions of growers in three regions. HortTechnology 5, 619–628
78 Song, J.H., Murphy, R.J., Narayan, R., Davies, G.B., 2009. Biodegradable and compostable alternatives to conventional plastics.
Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 364 (1526), 2127–2139.
79 Koitabashi, M., Noguchi, M.T., Sameshima–Yamashita, Y., Hiradate, S., Suzuki, K., Yoshida, S., Watanabe, T., Shinozaki, Y., Tsushima,
S., Kitamoto, H.K., 2012. Degradation of biodegradable plasticmulch films in soil environment by phylloplane fungi isolated from
gramineous plants. AMB Express. 2(1), 40. Doi: 10.1186/2191–0855–2–40.
80 Malinconico, M., Immirzi, B., Massenti, S., La Mantia, F.P., Mormile, P., & Petti, L. (2002). Blends of polyvinylalcohol and
functionalised polycaprolactone. A study on the melt extrusion and post-cure of films suitable for protected cultivation. Journal
of materials science, 37(23), 4973-4978.
81 Jahangir, M.A., Gilani, S.J., Muheem, A., & Imam, S.S. (2020). Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Food. In Analysis of Nanoplastics
and Microplastics in Food (pp. 83-99). CRC Press.
82 Zhao, H., Wang, R.Y., Ma, B.L., Xiong, Y.C., Qiang, S.C., Wang, C.L.,... & Li, F.M. (2014). Ridge-furrow with full plastic film mulching
improves water use efficiency and tuber yields of potato in a semiarid rainfed ecosystem. Field Crops Research, 161, 137-148.

62
06
CONCLUSIONS &
RECOMMENDATIONS

63
 The excessive use of plastic across multiple sectors Recommendation
is emerging as a major cause of environmental
concern due to its non-degradable property and Need for more research and data in
remains being found in various ecosystems. The larger mulched soils from across the country.
impacts of plastic fragments (microplastics) in various
ecosystems are yet being studied and evaluated for In-depth studies to understand MPs
the impact on human health and ecology. While there pollution and its impact on ecosystem and
is data of its presence in waterbodies and oceans, not human health.
much information is available of its presence in soil
and its impact thereof. Plastic has been increasingly Awareness campaigns should be initiated
used in agriculture to improve crop productivity and to enhance the consciousness of growers
reduce water consumption in agriculture. In India, about the negative impacts of plastics
too, there has been an increasing trend on use of mulch sheets on environment and its
plastic in agriculture though this is a relatively recent sustainability.
phenomenon. This study has attempted to understand
the usage of plastics in agriculture and connected Subsidies, incentives and rewards should
issues of soil characteristics and contamination. The be given on adoption of environment
states of Maharashtra and Karnataka were identified friendly strategies.
for this study since the farmers there have used plastic
as mulch more extensively for many years on a diverse The standard of plastic manufacturing
range of crops. The results of the study do provide should be improved or modified and
evidence of its residue being abundantly present in facilitating the development of simple,
soil with varying concentration and at various depths. multi-functional machinery for recovering
The results are also indicative of soil characteristic residual PFM.
being altered and its direct linkage to use and disposal
of plastic. There is also a clear distinction between The need for environmentally sound
the abundance of MPs in soil using plastic as much disposal mechanism for plastic waste from
and non-mulch soil. The presence of microfibers in agricultural practices.
soil samples also suggests that this is on account of
further disintegration of plastic and use of specific There is also a need to improve EPR
plastic products in farming. compliance for plastic waste as per the
current rules.
One important conclusion emerging from this
study also points towards the elevated presence of
number of heavy metals in mulched soil. Possible
sources of these heavy metals also point towards its
leaching from the mulch. This would require further
investigation of its uptake into crops and its larger
impact of human health. These results indicate that
plastic mulching is one of the main sources of MPs
in agricultural land, which may mean that soils are
the significant environmental reservoirs of MPs. The
higher heavy metal content in mulched soils implies
that the heavy metal content in MPs might be closely
related to the extent of heavy metal contamination in
the soil environment. Based on these results, it is likely
that MPs in the soil environment can be vectors for
transferring heavy metals or other toxics pollutants.
The synergetic pollution of MPs and heavy metals
might present ecological risks and pose potential
adverse impacts on soil and its organisms.

64
LIST OF APPENDICES

65
 Appendix-1. Sedimentological, organic matter, carbonate and water content data and their statistical
summary for the agricultural soils of Maharashtra and Karnataka.

Water OM Carbonate
Sl. No. Sample Id content (LOI@550) (LOI@950) % Sand % Silt % Clay
(wt %) (wt %) (wt %)

1 MSP1 (0 cm) 0.34 0.26 0.05 80.05 9.89 10.06

2 MSP1 (15 cm) 0.74 0.28 0.04 78.92 10.44 10.64
3 MSP1 (30 cm) 1.14 0.38 0.05 73.42 12.71 13.87
4 MSP2 (0 cm) 0.62 0.26 0.03 62.95 18.61 18.44
5 MSP2 (15 cm) 0.66 0.51 0.07 61.14 18.76 20.09
6 MSP2 (30 cm) 0.98 0.52 0.08 60.10 16.40 23.50
7 USP1 (0 cm) 0.30 0.39 0.03 69.28 12.58 18.14
8 USP1 (15 cm) 0.77 0.41 0.04 73.10 10.47 16.43
9 BMS1 (0 cm) 1.76 0.73 0.13 38.29 26.23 35.48
10 BMS2 (15 cm) 2.52 0.75 0.09 35.44 27.76 36.81
11 BMS3 (30 cm) 2.28 0.70 0.07 44.10 24.71 31.19
12 USP2 (0 cm) 0.62 0.29 0.03 77.32 11.40 11.28
13 USP2 (15 cm) 0.80 0.45 0.11 77.54 8.76 13.70
14 HMS1 (0 cm) 1.88 0.85 0.17 40.17 28.88 30.95
15 HMS2 (15 cm) 3.01 1.10 0.18 41.34 28.63 30.03
16 HMS3 (30 cm) 3.15 1.17 0.15 41.09 28.85 30.06
17 HUS1 (0 cm) 0.88 0.86 0.11 21.80 30.57 47.63
18 HUS2 (15 cm) 3.37 0.83 0.11 17.20 34.18 48.63
19 AUS1 (0 cm) 2.88 1.78 0.17 4.38 31.21 64.40
20 AUS2 (15 cm) 3.21 1.22 0.13 5.22 33.97 60.82
21 BUS1 (0 cm) 2.63 0.95 0.41 9.15 84.98 5.87
22 BUS2 (15 cm) 3.76 1.33 0.47 7.99 83.15 8.85
23 AMS1 (0 cm) 3.35 1.25 0.76 22.88 62.92 14.21
24 AMS2 (15 cm) 2.52 0.87 0.97 27.37 56.93 15.70
25 AMS3 (30 cm) 2.39 0.89 1.07 23.02 64.87 12.11
26 AMS4 (0 cm) 1.17 1.24 0.21 3.81 34.99 61.20

28 AMS6 (30 cm) 3.46 1.01 0.15 3.44 35.02 61.55

29 ADS 2.48 0.87 0.14 26.89 29.42 43.69
30 BDS 1.34 0.20 0.06 76.52 20.21 3.28

Maximum 3.8 1.8 1.1 80.05 84.98 83.11

Statistics

Minimum 0.3 0.2 0.0 3.44 8.76 3.28

Average 1.9 0.8 0.2 40.27 30.34 29.39
Standard deviation 1.1 0.4 0.3 27.48 20.68 20.84

66
Appendix 2: FTIR-ATR spectra of microplastic particles detected in samples

Fig. A1 FTIR-ATR spectra of microplastic particles (polyethylene) found in

agricultural soils. The x-axis is resolution (cm-1) and y-axis is
transmittance (%).

Fig. A2 FTIR-ATR spectra of microplastic particles (polypropylene) found in

agricultural soils. The x-axis is resolution (cm-1) and y-axis is
transmittance (%).

67
 Fig. A3 FTIR-ATR spectra of microplastic particles (polypropylene) found in
agricultural soils. The x-axis is resolution (cm-1) and y-axis is
transmittance (%).

Fig. A4 FTIR-ATR spectra of microplastics particles (polyethylene terephthalate)

found inagricultural soils. The x-axis is resolution (cm-1) and y-axis is
transmittance (%).

68
Fig. A5 FTIR-ATR spectra of microplastics particles (polyethylene) found in
agricultural soils. The x-axis is resolution (cm-1) and y-axis is
transmittance (%).

Fig. A6 FTIR-ATR spectra of microplastic particles (cellulose) found in

agricultural soils. The x-axis is resolution (cm-1) and y-axis is
transmittance (%).

69
 Fig. A7 FTIR-ATR spectra of microplastics particles (polyacrylamide) found in
agricultural soils. The x-axis is resolution (cm-1) and y-axis is
transmittance (%).

Fig. A8 FTIR-ATR spectra of microplastics particles (polyacrylamide) found in

agricultural soils. The x-axis is resolution (cm-1) and y-axis is
transmittance (%).

70
Fig. A9 FTIR-ATR spectra of microplastics particles (polyacrylamide) found in
agricultural soils. The x-axis is resolution (cm-1) and y-axis is
transmittance (%).

Fig. A10 FTIR-ATR spectra of microplastic particles (polyacrylamide) found in

agricultural soils. The x-axis is resolution (cm-1) and y-axis is
transmittance (%).

71
 Fig. A11 FTIR-ATR spectra of microplastic particles (polyacrylamide) found in
agricultural soils. The x-axis is resolution (cm-1) and y-axis is
transmittance (%).

Fig. A12 FTIR-ATR spectra of microplastic particles (polyacrylamide) found in

agricultural soils. The x-axis is resolution (cm-1) and y-axis is
transmittance (%).

72
Fig. A13 FTIR-ATR spectra of microplastic particles (polyacrylamide) found in
agricultural soils. The x-axis is resolution (cm-1) and y-axis is
transmittance (%).

Fig. A14 FTIR-ATR spectra of microplastic particles (polyacrylamide) found in

agricultural soils. The x-axis is resolution (cm-1) and y-axis is
transmittance (%).

73
 Fig. A15 FTIR-ATR spectra of microplastic particles (polyacrylamide) found in
agricultural soils. The x-axis is resolution (cm-1) and y-axis is
transmittance (%).

Fig. A16 FTIR-ATR spectra of microplastic particles (polyethylene) found in

agricultural soils. The x-axis is resolution (cm-1) and y-axis is
transmittance (%).

74
Fig. A17 FTIR-ATR spectra of microplastic particles (polyacrylamide) found in
agricultural soils. The x-axis is resolution (cm-1) and y-axis is
transmittance (%).

Fig. A18 FTIR-ATR spectra of microplastic particles (polyacrylamide) found in

agricultural soils. The x-axis is resolution (cm-1) and y-axis is
transmittance (%).

75
 Fig. A19 FTIR-ATR spectra of microplastic particles (polyacrylamide) found in
agricultural soils. The x-axis is resolution (cm-1) and y-axis is
transmittance (%).

Fig. A20 FTIR-ATR spectra of microplastic particles (polyacrylamide) found in

agricultural soils. The x-axis is resolution (cm-1) and y-axis is
transmittance (%).

76
Fig. A21 FTIR-ATR spectra of microplastic particles (polyacrylamide) found in
agricultural soils. The x-axis is resolution (cm-1) and y-axis is
transmittance (%).

Fig. A22 FTIR-ATR spectra of microplastic particles (polyacrylamide) found in

agricultural soils. The x-axis is resolution (cm-1) and y-axis is
transmittance (%).

77
 Fig. A23 FTIR-ATR spectra of microplastic particles (polyacrylamide) found in
agricultural soils. The x-axis is resolution (cm-1) and y-axis is
transmittance (%).

Fig. A24 FTIR-ATR spectra of microplastic particles (polyacrylamide) found in

agricultural soils. The x-axis is resolution (cm-1) and y-axis is
transmittance (%).

78
Fig. A25 FTIR-ATR spectra of microplastic particles (polyacrylamide) found in
agricultural soils. The x-axis is resolution (cm-1) and y-axis is
transmittance (%).

79
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