Marine Pollution Bulletin 182 (2022) 113927

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Marine Pollution Bulletin

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpolbul

Synthetic polymers in personal care and cosmetics products (PCCPs) as a

source of microplastic (MP) pollution
Nawalamudiyanselaya Semini Kushara Nawalage a, *,
Bellanthudawage Kushan Aravinda Bellanthudawa b
a
Department of Chemistry, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka
b
Department of Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna, Mapalana, Matara 81100, Sri Lanka

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Intentionally added MPs in PCCPs have created concerning threats to the environment. Therefore, this study
Microplastic pollution aimed to screen synthetic polymers having MPs favoring chemical properties in PCCPs while estimating the
Synthetic polymers theoretical emission into the environment and the level of awareness on the availability of MPs in PCCPs. A
Personal care and cosmetic products
questionnaire survey was conducted via Google form using a complete random sampling method (n = 312). Next,
Sri Lanka
a market survey was conducted and theoretical estimations were calculated for the products that recorded the
Water contamination
highest MPs favoring polymers. Toothpaste products were identified as mostly used (95.8 %) and face cleanser
(20.8 %) as least used. Of those MP ingredients, many chemical ingredients (11) were acrylate copolymers, and
dimethicone polymers (5). A total of 21.4 trillion MP particles are released to the environment annually from
considered four PCCPs. This study evidenced the availability of MP favoring chemicals in PCCPs in the Sri Lankan
market that need further assessments.

1. Introduction
Daily plastic product usage is tremendously increasing globally and
has ever-growing trends in the product market due to their properties
such as higher durability, high specific strength, bio-inertness, and
barrier (Andrady, 2011; Koongolla et al., 2018). Nearly, 1.7 million tons
of plastic production were reported in 1950 (Plastic Europe, 2016) as it
exhibited an exponential demand. Subsequently, global plastic produc­
tion increased to 360 MTs in 2018, whereas Asia accounted for 51 % of
total plastic production (Plastic Europe, 2019). Among plastics, MPs are
defined as plastic products less than 5 mm in size (Ng et al., 2018; Luo
et al., 2022) and have been highlighted as a focal point of scientists who
engage in plastic pollution-related studies. Given the importance of
categorization of MPs, plastic particles and pellets that are produced for
some applications such as PCCPs, and abrasives are termed as primary
MPs. In industrial applications, MPs found in PCCPs are generally called
‘microbeads” (Isobe, 2016) where polyethylene, polypropylene, poly­
methyl methacrylate, nylon, terephthalate, and polyethylene are some
of the main constitutes of these primary MPs and polyethylene
comprised 93 % of the total composition of primary MPs (Gouin et al.,
2011).
MPs have been identified as a potent detrimental root cause for many
organisms in the aquatic environments as these MPs can finally end up in
water sources. MPs are accidentally consumed by larvae, zooplankton,
small crustaceans, bivalves, and fishes as a food source in the aquatic
environments and hence, MPs can be transferred among faunal species
through food chains and food webs (Cole et al., 2013; Cole and
Galloway, 2015; Cau et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2020). In addition, some
studies have discovered that lethal impacts of MPs such as malnutrition
and starvations, retardation of reproduction, and internal damage to
tissues and organs of faunal groups, namely copepods, mussels, poly­
chaetes, oysters, and other crustaceans in the marine environments due
to the ingestion of MPs (Wright et al., 2013; Galloway and Lewis, 2016;
Sussarellu et al., 2016). Besides, leaching and adsorption of chemicals
and other toxic pollutants to MPs also cause the transfer of chemicals
and toxins via MPs through ingestion (Kampf et al., 2013; Hartmann
et al., 2017; Fred-Ahmadu et al., 2020). Ultimately, these MPs are
transferred to humans via food chains and food webs causing numerous
negative health impacts on humans (Carbery et al., 2018). Conse­
quently, the impacts of MPs can be ranged from small levels to higher
levels of organisms. Thus, quantification of the MPs released into the
aquatic environments is significant yet challenging as there might be

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: seminikushara@gmail.com (N.S.K. Nawalage).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2022.113927
Received 13 April 2022; Received in revised form 1 June 2022; Accepted 6 July 2022
Available online 22 July 2022
0025-326X/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
N.S.K. Nawalage and B.K.A. Bellanthudawa
ranged MPs and limited technologies.
Among the daily consumed products PCCPs, products including
toothpaste, soaps, shampoos and conditioners, deodorants, sunscreens,
lipsticks, eyeliners, nail polishes, and facial creams contain MPs (Pra­
veena et al., 2018). Some PCCPs may comprise up to 5 % of microbeads
with a mean size of 250 μm (GESAMP, 2010) and to enhance the
cleansing and exfoliating activity, polyethylene-based MPs are added to
the commercial PCCPs in the market. Moreover, microbeads have the
potentials to be employed as natural exfoliants while minimizing skin
damage and irritations. This is justified by the fact that a single exfoliant
wash can cause the release of microbeads up to 94,500 (Napper et al.,
2015). As per the statistics in the United Kingdom, 16–86 tons of
microbeads from facial exfoliants are released into the environment
annually (Napper et al., 2015). Microbeads released from liquid soup
usage were reported as 260 tons per year in the United States (Gouin
et al., 2011). Also, microbeads in toothpaste eliminate stains using
abrasion and release nearly 4000 microbeads in a single wash (Carr
et al., 2016). Hence, understanding the release of MPs into aquatic re­
sources and the impacts of these MPs in those ecosystems are vital, yet
timely and topical.
In the global context, Boucher and Friot (2017) stated that (18.3 %)
Asia, (17.2 %) North America, (15.8 %) China, (15.9 %) Europe and
Central Asia, (15 %) Oceania, (9.1 %) South America and Africa, and
(8.7 %) of Middle East contribute to the release of MPs into the envi­
ronment. Moreover, it was found that 16 × 108 MPs are released daily by
Italy, 8 × 107 MPs are released by Canada, and 6.5 × 107 MPs are
released by Scotland (Alvim et al., 2020). As a collaborative approach,
Anderson et al. (2016) outlined the importance of acknowledging and
studying on perceptions of beauticians, the public as consumers, and
environmentalists are essential to managing MP pollution caused by
PCCPs.
In the context of the Asian region, Bashir et al. (2021) studied the
availability of PCCPs containing MPs and cosmetics containing
microbeads in markets in Macao, China. Further, it was noted that 70 %
of identified PCCPs contain polyethylene and more than 37 billion
microbeads are released to the environment per year through waste­
water treatment plants. Sun et al. (2020) mentioned the fact that the
relative content of MPs in PCCPs in Asia was reported as the least
compared to the USA and Europe. The mean abundance and the mass of
MP content in PCCPs vary as 2162 particles/g and 0.04 g/g. With
regards to the size, MPs that can be found in these products are generally
less than 350 μm in diameter. Approximately 3 × 105 tons of MPs
originating from PCCPs have been released into the environment from
1970 to 2019. Praveena et al. (2018) asserted that particle sizes of
sampled toothpaste and facial cleaners containing polypropylene and
low-density polyethylene ranged from 3 to 178 μm, and 0.199 trillion
MPs annually in Malaysia. Cheung and Fok (2016) reported information
on contamination of the sea belonging to Hong Kong due to the
microbeads from personal care products. The findings recorded evi­
dence of blue color spherical types of microbeads ranging from 0.332
mm to 1.015 mm. Park et al. (2015) determined the exposure factor of
personal and home care products following the Korean National data­
base, explored that 97 % of the sampled population used toothpaste and
shampoo, and suggested that these obtained exposure data can be uti­
lized for implementation of regulations regarding PCCPs usage. Even
though some studies have been conducted to assess the MP abundance,
properties, and pollution that occurred in the South Asia region (Pat­
terson et al., 2019; Sathish et al., 2020; Radhakrishnan et al., 2021), no
creditable research has been published with regards to MPs in PCCPs.
However, according to the latest working definitions of the European
Chemical Agency ECHA, MPs in PCCPs defines MPs ingredient as
“intentionally added synthetic polymers or polymer containing, solid or
semi-solid particles having a size of 5mm or less in at least one external
dimension” (European chemical agency (ECHA), 2018). As there is a
controversy about the possibility of using synthetic and persistent
polymers like elastomers other than polyethylene or polypropylene, the
2
Marine Pollution Bulletin 182 (2022) 113927
ECHA has launched a working definition intended to identify a wide
range of polymer-based materials as MPs. The four criteria such as
substance, physical state, morphology, and dimensions needed to be
fulfilled concurrently for a material to be considered as an MP. The term
“substance” indicates the synthetic polymers or polymers that occur in
nature that have been modified (for example, crosslinked). Nevertheless,
to define any polymer as MPs, other criteria for the physical state,
morphology, and dimensions should be fulfilled (European chemical
agency (ECHA), 2018). The physical state of the polymer relates to the
presence of a material as a solid while the morphology criterion con­
siders the presence of a polymer as a particle. The morphology can be
varied as spherical (bead), flake or fiber. Furthermore, ECHA has
declared other three criteria to consider as a certain chemical as an MPs
and alarm the potential concern on environment and health which are
MPs present at the point of use, MPs released during use (or subsequent
life-cycle step), MPs persistent in the environment (European chemical
agency (ECHA), 2018). Concerning the concept of ECHA, a novel plat­
form is opened for researchers as previous studies have alarmed the
presence of MPs in PCCPs.
The growing demand for numerous PCCPs purchases and the PCCPs
consumption in Sri Lanka may adversely contaminate inland aquatic
and marine environments accelerating the MPs pollution in waters due
to the direct release (Randiwela and Mihirani, 2015). The scientists have
focused on the contamination of many marine ecosystems by different
MPs using parameters such as the abundance, shapes, and quantity
(mass) available in coastal sediment sand, coastal waters, and biota. The
outcomes of major research conducted in Sri Lanka in terms of MPs are
tabulated in Table 1.
Nevertheless, the investigations of MPs abundance and pollution in
the marine environment in Sri Lanka have been the focal point, yet
documented literature is limited. Likewise, since there is no other
literature, the current study depicts the first attempt to investigate MPs
usage rate and emission in PCCPs into the freshwater resources in Sri
Lanka. Moreover, findings on synthetics polymers that have the poten­
tial to act as MPs in PCCPs are yet to be investigated. Thus, this study
also corroborates and quantifies the level of awareness of consumers on
the negative environmental impacts caused by MPs in PCCPs. This novel
study fulfills one of the main research gaps of MPs pollution as it
highlights the contribution of intentionally added synthetic polymers in
personal care products to environmental pollution. The study hypothesis
is that market available PCCPs contain intentionally added synthetic
polymers that can act as MPs when they release into the environment as
per the definition made by ECHA. These findings can be incorporated to
establish a baseline of the existing nature of usage and emissions MPs
from the national level most demanded PCCPs in Sri Lanka. On top of
that, this discovery can be applied to broaden the MP release status in
personal care usage in South Asia, Asia, and the World. Thus, the present
study was conducted with the objective of, (1) identifying the top 10
PCCPs and their usage patterns in the Sri Lanka market; (2) identifying
available MPs chemicals in PCCPs (confirmed and unconfirmed); (3)
calculating the theoretical emission of MPs from widely used products in
Sri Lanka; (4) to investigate the level of awareness on the availability of
MPs in PCCPs in Sri Lanka.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Questionnaire survey for identifying the top ten personal care
products, usage patterns, and current public awareness on MP emissions in
Sri Lanka
2.1.1. Composition of the questionnaire
To screen out the 10 commonly used and demanded PCCPs by con­
sumers, a questionnaire survey was designed following the Praveena
et al. (2018). The questionnaire was composed of 4 main sections
namely parts A, B, C, and D. Part A was composed of demography and
social information. Part B is on frequently consumed PCCPs, and part C
N.S.K. Nawalage and B.K.A. Bellanthudawa Marine Pollution Bulletin 182 (2022) 113927

Table 1 questionnaire that was composed of open-ended, multiple-choice, and

Studies on MP pollution and status in Sri Lanka. Likert scale-based questions was adopted for data collection. The ques­
Region of Sri Study Major findings Reference tionnaire of the study was designed by the researcher, depending on the
Lanka published literature, and the questionnaire was finalized as a form of
Colombo coast Quantification and The mean (Athawuda Google Form and circulated randomly using platforms such as emails,
morphological abundance (± SE) of et al., 2020) WhatsApp, Instagram, and Facebook (Praveena et al., 2018).
characterization of total plastics
plastic litter recovered from off 2.1.3. Data analysis approach
(0.30–100 mm) in was 140.34 ± 15.23
surface waters off items/m3
The collected data were cross-checked and transferred into IBM SPSS
Colombo, west coast (0.30–100 mm) by to ensure the quality control measures. The Cronbach's alpha reliability
of Sri Lanka weight (n = 63). test was followed using IBM SPSS software to check the reliability of the
Bundala MP pollution in MPs in coastal (Dharmadasa collected study data (The Cronbach's alpha reliability value: 0.854). The
National Park marine protected sediments and et al., 2021)
percentage values of the responses were presented using R studio soft­
and areas of Southern Sri waters in
Hikkaduwa Lanka Hikkaduwa (111 ± ware to understand the demographic and social composition of the
Marine 29 MPs/m2 for sample population, the top 10 brands of PCCPs used, their usage rate,
National Park sediments and and the awareness of the environmental pollution of MPs contamination
0.515 ± 0.054 MPs/ that can be caused by using of MPs contained PCCPs.
m3 for water)
The southern Evidence of MPs 60 % of sand (Koongolla
part (Galle and pollution in coastal contamination, and et al., 2018) 2.1.4. Ethical considerations
Matara beaches and waters 70 % of water The participants who participated in the questionnaire survey were
districts) in Southern Sri Lanka contamination by provided with the opportunity to voluntarily participate in the study,
MPs
and otherwise, the participants were allowed to withdraw their partic­
Madu-Ganga Occurrence of MPs in The mean MP (Praboda
Estuary Gut and Muscles of accumulation rate et al., 2020) ipation at any time during the survey. The research team ensured the
Commerson's of anchovy gut and confidentiality of the information given by the participants during the
Anchovy in Madu- muscles were questionnaire survey and for the rest of the time by getting statements
Ganga Estuary of recorded as 301.70 from participants before starting the questionnaire survey on partici­
Southern Province, ± 3.58 items/g and
pant's consent to participate, publish this information, and assurance
Sri Lanka 29.33 ± 1.19 items/
g respectively. given to the participants by the research group on the confidentiality of
Kalpitiya Lagoon MPs in cultured Mean MP content of (Sathyadith their information. Hence, the present study didn't acquire ethical
oyster, Crassostrea non-depurated and et al., 2019) clearance from an ethics review committee.
madrasensis for depurated oysters
human consumption were 4.0 ± 2.4 and
1.1 ± 0.6 MP 2.2. Identification of MP ingredients in selected products
particles per
individual oyster The outcomes of the questionnaire survey were received and nar­
Kelani River Evidence of MP MPs abundance in (Thakshila rowed down to the 10 most used PCCPs to investigate the available MPs
Estuary contamination in surface water (7 ± and
chemicals in the ingredient list. A market survey was conducted in
surface waters and 0.28 to 2.5 ± 1.323 Ranatunga,
sediment of Kelani items/m3) 2019) September 2021 following the Praveena et al. (2018) and Bashir et al.
River Estuary compared to (2021), covering 10 local retail shops to discover ingredient lists of 28
sediment samples (4 toothpaste products belonging to 9 brands, 50 soap products belonging
± 0.5 to 1 ± 0.43
to 16 brands, 73 shampoo products belong to 18 brands, 22 hands wash
item/kg).
Bentota, Plastic Plastics abundance (Viraj et al.,
products belonging to 9 brands, 47 face wash products belong to 14
Rekawa, and contamination in is 293.67 ± 27.22 2019) brands, 40 conditioner products belong to 15 brands, 36 moisturizer
Ussangoda selected beaches of items/m2 with a products belong to 10 brands, 33 face cream products belong to 14
beaches Sri Lanka with 276.66 ± 24.67 brands and 15 face cleanser products belong to 5 brands that are popular
special reference to items/m2 (94%) of
in Sri Lankan local market. Four hundred eight products were visually
MPs MPs.
West Coast, East Enumeration of MPs The highest (Weerakoon screened to identify synthetic polymeric products in the ingredients la­
Coast, in Sri Lankan waters: abundance of MPs et al., 2019) bels based on the “Beat the Microbead” database and smartphone
Northwestern Preliminary findings (0.85 particles/m3). application (Beat the Microbead, 2022a). The available chemical in­
coast, from the RV Dr.
gredients in the product label are categorized as MP ingredients either as
Southeast Fridtjof Nansen
coast Ecosystem Survey,
(1) confirmed MPs ingredients; those having proven scientific evidence
2018 of toxicity to human and aquatic environments (2) unconfirmed MP
Southern coast Screening the effects MPs accumulation (Wijethunga ingredients; synthetic polymers with not enough information available
of MPs on selected on rock oysters, et al., 2019) to prove exact toxic effects according to the guidelines of ECHA and
invertebrates along Limpets, and
database of beat the microbeads organization (Beat the Microbead,
Southern coastal belt Periwinkles at
in Sri Lanka: A average rates of 2022a).
Preliminary 7.2–2.8 counts/g in
approach to coastal all sampling sites. 2.3. Calculation of theoretical emission rate of personal care products
pollution control

The MPs emissions into the water environments can be calculated as

is on the usage rate of PCCPs. Finally, part D is based on the awareness of
MP contamination and pollution induced by PCCPs.
2.1.2. Data collection method
The complete randomized sampling technique was followed to
obtain the study sample of the present study. A semi-structured
direct MP emissions (DME) released from PCCPs in localities where
there exists no sewage treatment. The DME was calculated using Eq. (1)
(Praveena et al., 2018; Ustabasi and Baysal, 2019a, 2019b). For the
analysis of DME, modifications from the estimated calculation were
incorporated to quantify the DME from PCCPs (Cheung and Fok, 2016).
DME = TP × P20− 44 × Rc × Pmb × Nuse × W × Dmb × Runtreated (1)

3
N.S.K. Nawalage and B.K.A. Bellanthudawa Marine Pollution Bulletin 182 (2022) 113927

Where; TP refers to the total population, P20− 44 refers percentage of the handwash (71.8 %) > conditioner (58 %) > moisturizing cream (51.3)
population aged between 20 and 44 years old (population aged from 20 > face cream (45.5 %) > deodorants (40.4 %) > face cleanser (20.8 %)
to 44 years old was selected as this is the highest PCCPs users in Sri (Table 3).
Lanka), Rc refers to product usage rate, Pmb refers to the percentage of PCCPs usage frequency results of the questionnaire survey revealed
facial scrubs containing plastic MPs, Nuse refers no. of uses per year, W shampoo (68.6 %), conditioner (55.2 %), moisturizing cream (54.4 %),
refers to the weight of product used each time, Dmb refers density of MPs and deodorant (76.9 %) usage distinctively restricted in once-a-day
in personal care products, Runtreatment refers percentage of untreated frequency (Fig. 1) whereas toothpaste (76.9 %) and face wash (54.2
sewage. Based on the market survey, emission was calculated for two %) commonly use twice a day. However, soap and handwash usage
PCCPs that have the highest MPs ingredients and for two PCCPs that (56.6 %) and (66.5 %) respectively showed a high frequency of use more
have been widely studied on MPs emission during previous decades than twice a day.
(Annex 1; Table 6).
3.2. MP ingredients in PCCPs
3. Results
3.2.1. Availability of MPs ingredients in top ten personal care products
3.1. Top ten PCCPs and usage patterns in the Sri Lankan context
From the market survey results on MPs ingredients, out of 408 PCCPs
surveyed, 283 products showed at least one probable MP ingredient in
A total of 321 responses were recorded from the participants during
the ingredient list. Distinctively, toothpaste, soap, and deodorant
the questionnaire conducted covering Sri Lanka. Table 2 represents the
products consisted of only probable MPs ingredients (Fig. 2). However,
data obtained from the study and out of 312 respondents, the majority of
the percentage of toothpaste and soap products that contain MPs in­
respondents (99.7 %) belong to the 21–50-year age category while the
gredients was considerably low 37.7 % and 32 % respectively while
topmost respondents 272 (87.2 %) belonged to the age category of
deodorant products reported 80 % frequency (Table 3).
21–30 years. Notably, the highest number of respondents were inhibited
Conversely, the uppermost number of MPs ingredients found in
in the Suburban area (53.5 %) and most respondents were females (58.7
shampoo was followed by face cream with 11; confirmed and 26; un­
%).
confirmed ingredients while 13; confirmed and 16; confirmed in­
Further, 23 PCCPs recorded as commonly used during the ques­
gredients respectively. The study found that almost 95 % proportion of
tionnaire survey. Over 23 products, toothpaste products were high­
shampoo products surveyed in the local market in Sri Lanka contained
lighted as mostly used (95.8 %) and top ten PCCPs used in Sri Lanka
both confirmed and unconfirmed MP ingredients. Of ten PCCPs sur­
ranked as, toothpaste (95.8 %) > soap (91.7 %) > shampoo (90.7 %) >
veyed, 13 confirmed MP chemicals were reported in face creams which
is the topmost value. More than 80 % of face cleanser and moisturizing
Table 2 creams products in the local market recorded an almost similar number
Demographic and PCCPs usage information obtained from the questionnaire of both confirmed and unconfirmed MP ingredients. Except for tooth­
survey. paste and soap products, the percentage availability of MP ingredients in
Questionnaire Criterion Response frequency and each product category is higher than 50 % with a maximum percentage
category percentage value of 94.5 (Table 3).
Demographics Age group 21–30 years 272 (87.2
%) 3.2.2. Chemical composition of MPs ingredients in top 10 PCCPs
31–40 years 35 (11.2 The market survey on MP ingredients recorded a total of 86 MP
%) chemical ingredients within the top ten PCCPs and is listed in Table 4.
41–50 years 4 (1.3 %)
Characteristically, a total of 29 synthetic polymers belonged to the
51–60 years 0 (0 %)
Above 61 years 1 (0.3 %) confirmed MP ingredient category. Of those MP ingredients, a large
Below 21 years 0 (0 %) number of chemical ingredients (11) were acrylate copolymers (Fig. 3).
Gender Male 129 (41.3) On top of that, dimethicone polymers (5), ethylene and ethylene poly­
Female 183 (58.7
mers (3), polyquaternium (2), VP/VA copolymers (1) acrylamides/
%)
Residential area Urban 83 (26.6
nylon (2), and acrylonitrile polymers (1), and polymethylsilsesquioxane
classification %) (1) were found from the inspected PCCPs.
Sub urban 167(53.5 Out of total recorded MP ingredients, the most common compounds
%) were unconfirmed ingredients (66 %) which are synthetic polymers with
Rural 62 (19.9
a lack of information available to prove exact toxic effects (Table 4).
%)
PCCP usage as a rate Type of personal care Toothpaste 299 (95.8 Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) compound was frequently observed in nine
(Rc) product %) out of ten personal care product categories with a molecular weight
Soap 286 (91.7
%)
Table 3
Shampoo 283 (90.7
%) Percentage of confirmed and unconfirmed MP ingredient availability.
Handwash 224 (71.8 PCCPs Percentagea of MP ingredient availability (Pmb)
%)
Face wash 199 (63.8 Toothpaste 37.7
%) Soap 32
Conditioner 181 (58 Shampoo 94.5
%) Handwash 50
Moisturizing 160 (51.3) Face wash 76.6
cream Conditioner 82.5
Face cream 142 (45.5 Moisturizing cream 83.3
%) Face cream 81.8
Deodorants 126 (40.4 Deodorant 80
%) Face cleanser 86.7
Face cleanser 65 (20.8 a
The percentages value denotes the number of MP recorded products out of a
%)
total number of products surveyed.

4
N.S.K. Nawalage and B.K.A. Bellanthudawa
Fig. 1. Frequency of personal care product usage.
range from 8 to 90 M. Seven Polyquaternium compounds were observed
only in shampoo, face wash, conditioner, and face cleanser products,
followed by 6 Laureth polymers which are a derivative of PEG in hair
care and body care products (shampoo, conditioner, hand wash, face
cream, deodorant). Furthermore, PEG derivatives of Ceteareth and Tri­
deceth polymer groups were notably reported in several chemical de­
rivatives next to the Polysorbate, Polypropylene Glycol (PPG) (Table 4).
3.3. Emission of MP ingredients from Sri Lanka
Table 5 depicts the calculated theoretical emissions of MP in­
gredients (both confirmed and unconfirmed) for four personal care
products. The values used for calculation have complied in Table 6.
According to the present study, it is estimated that a total of 21.4 trillion
MP particles / 3778.4 tons are released to water bodies annually from
considered four products. Out of total emissions, the proportion of
contribution by shampoo products is in the highest rank (10.6 trillion
MP partials), while face cream contributes to the release of 7.1 trillion
MP particles.
3.4. Current status of public awareness on MPs and emissions in Sri
Lanka
To assess the awareness of the environmental friendliness of PCCPs
that is available in the market, a total of 311 respondents reacted to the
statement “PCCPs in the market are environmentally friendly,” except
one respondent (Fig. 4(a)). Notably, the highest proportion of 39.2 % of
respondents (122) “disagreed” with the idea of PCCPs are environ­
mentally friendly, followed by neutral responses (107). Nearly 44 re­
spondents reacted as they “agreed” with the statement, while 32
30
25
20
15
10
Fig. 2. Distribution of recorded confirmed and unconfirmed MP ingredients among selected ten PCCPs.
5
Marine Pollution Bulletin 182 (2022) 113927
answered belong “strongly disagree” (Fig. 4(a)). There were 302 an­
swers to the question of “your awareness of the presence of MPs in
PCCPs and cosmetics,” which was dominated by the answer of “Aware”
(39.7 %) while 34.8 % had “Fairly awareness” of the availability of MPs
in the personal care products. (Fig. 4(b)). Interestingly, 95.7 % of re­
spondents out of 301 answers to the question on MP toxicity on biota
(Fig. 4(c)) responded as “True”.
4. Discussion
4.1. Top ten PCCPs and usage pattern
The type and usage pattern of a personal care product vary
depending on the country and associated habits, practices, and cultural
norms. The study identified the ten most popular PCCPs in Sri Lanka out
of a total of 23 PCCPs, while a notable number of responses belong to
toothpaste. However, the toothpaste usage rate found in this study is
higher than the those in Netherland (89.3 %) (Park et al., 2015) and
Malaysia (64 %) (Praveena et al., 2018) whereas lower than Korea (99.8
%) (Park et al., 2015). Toothpaste usage frequency was found twice a
day which is similar to the study of Park et al. (2015) in Korea and
Praveena et al. (2018) in Malaysia 2.5 and 2 times per day, respectively.
Interestingly, the soap usage rate was recorded as the second highest in
this study which is evidence that 91 % of the households reported that
bar soaps are available for hand washing and 99 % for bathing purposes
in Bangladesh (Gadgil et al., 2018). Furthermore, the main purpose of
the soap usage was considered bathing and handwashing in this study,
and the frequency of usage was noted as more than twice. As the
questionnaire survey was conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic
situation, the results might be influenced to include handwashing in the
top 10 categories. The recent studies on hand wash usage patterns before
and after the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak revealed a significant in­
crease in usage rate of liquid hand soap by 5.9 % (before:7.7 % and
after:13.6) and usage frequency from 5 times per day to 10 times per day
(Choi et al., 2021). Notably, scrubs were not recorded within the top ten
list though most studies recorded the presence of MPs in those PCCPs
while face cleansers were included in the 10th place.
4.2. Availability of MP ingredients in top 10 PCCPs used in Sri Lanka
According to the list of ingredients in the product label, most of the
surveyed products recorded synthetic polymers or polymers containing
MP features (Table 4). Worldwide studies on MP emissions evidence that
PCCPs of cleansing products, makeup cosmetics, shower gel, facial
cleanser, hand sanitizer, soap, toothpaste, shaving cream, sunscreen,
and shampoo contained MP ingredients (Nizzetto et al., 2016; Sun et al.,
2020). Recorded low values of MPs in soaps and deodorant do not
N.S.K. Nawalage and B.K.A. Bellanthudawa
Table 4
List of MPs favoring synthetic polymers recorded during the market survey.a
PCCPs Confirmed chemicals Unconfirmed chemicals
Toothpaste N/Ra PEG-32, PEG-6, PEG- 600,
Poloxamer 407
Soap N/R a
PEG-40 Hydrogenated castor
oil, PEG -8, Polysorbate
Shampoo Acrylates/Beheneth-25 Laureth-23, Laureth-4,
Methacrylate copolymer, Laureth-3
Bis amino propyl-dimethicone, PEG 90M, PEG- 9M, PEG-150
Carbomer, pentaerythrityl tetrastearate,
Dimethicone, PEG-18 Glyceryl oleate/
Divinyldimethicone/ Cocoate, PEG-180M, PEG-3,
Dimethicone copolymer PEG-45M, Amodimethicone
Ethylene/octene copolymer PPG-6, Dimethiconol
Ethylene/Sodium Acrylate PEG-6 Capric glycerides,
Copolymer PEG-7, PEG-7Glyceryl
Polyquaterinun-6 cocoate, PEG-40
Polyquaternium-7 Hydrogenated castor oil,
Styrene/Acrylates Copolymer PEG-80 Sorbitan Laurate,
VP/VA Co polymer Laureth-10,
Poloxamer 407,
Polyaquaternium-10,
Polyquaternium-55,
Polyaquaternium-67,
Polysorbate 20
PPG-5-Ceteth-20, PPG-9
Handwash Acrylates/C10-30 Alkyl Acrylate PEG-8, PEG-180, PEG-3
Cross polymer distearate, PEG-6 Cocamide
Dimethicone,
polyquaternium-7
Face wash Acrylates copolymer, PEG-7 Glyceryl cocoate, PEG-
Acrylates/Ammonium 150 Disearate, PEG-80
methacrylate copolymer, Sorbitan Laurate, PEG-40
Polyquaternium-7, hydrogenated glyceryl
sodium acrylates copolymer, palmate, PEG-40
Acrylates/C10-30 Alkyl Acrylate hydrogenated castor oil, PEG-
Cross polymer, 14 M, PEG-55 propylene
glycol oleate, PPG-5-Ceteth-
20, PEG-75 Shea butter
glycerides
PEG 100 stearate, PEG-55
propylene oleate
PEG-90, Ceteareth-60-
myristyl glycol
Polyquaternium -10,
Polyquanternium-53
Conditioner Carbomer, Amodimethicone,
Dimethicone, Dimethiconol,
Sodium acrylates copolymer, Laureth 3
PEG 7 propyl ether,
PEG 7 -propyl heptyl ether,
Polyquaternium-10,
Polyquaternium-11
Polyquaternium-55,
Trideceth-12, Trideceth-6
Moisturizing Acrylate/C10-30 acrylate Cetearth-20,
cream copolymer, Cyclohexasiloxane, capryloyl
carbomer, glycerin/sebacic acid
Dimethicone, copolymer,
Hydroxyethyl acrylate/sodium Cyclopentasiloxane,
acryloyl dimethyl taurate PEG-100, PEG-75 lanolin
copolymer, Polysorbate 60, Polysorbate
polyacrylate cross polymer-6, 80
Sodium Acrylates Copolymer, Polysorbate
Face cream Acrylamide/sodium Cyclomethicone,
acryloyldimethyltaurate Cyclotetrasiloxane
copolymer, Dimethiconol, Laureth-7,
Acrylate/sodium Laureth-20, PEG-10,
acryloyldimethyl taurate PEG-100, PEG- 100 stearate
copolymer, PEG-20, Polysorbate 20,
Acrylonitrile/methyl Polysorbate 60, Polysorbate
methacrylate/vinylidene 80, Cyclohexasiloxane,
chloride copolymer, Microcrystalline Wax,
Ammonium polyacrylate, Disodium Ethylene
Carbomer, Dicocamide
Dimethicone crosspolymer, PEG-15 Disulfate,
6
Marine Pollution Bulletin 182 (2022) 113927
Table 4 (continued )
PCCPs Confirmed chemicals Unconfirmed chemicals
Dimethicone, Methyl
methacrylate cross polymer,
Nylon-66,
Polyethylene,
Polymethylsilsesquioxane,
acrylates/c10-30 alkyl acrylate
cross polymer, vinyl dimethicone
cross polymer
Deodorant N/Ra Cyclopentasiloxane,
Dimethiconal,
Isoceteth-20, Laureth-4,
PEG-150 Distearate, PEG-40
Hydrogenated Castor Oil,
PEG-7 Esters, PEG-8,
PPG-15, PPG-4,
PPG4-butyl ether
Face cleanser Acrylates/c10-30 alkyl acrylate PEG-14M,
cross polymer PEG-7 Glycerile cocate,
Sodium Acrylates Copolymer, PEG-75 Lanolin,
Sodium Carbomer, PEG-8
Sulfate Perlite Acrylates polyquaternium-39,
Copolymer PPG-5-Ceteth-20,
polyquaternium-47
a
N/R indicate- Not Recorded in the product.
Acrylate copolymers and Carbomers
Acrylates/Beheneth-25 Methacrylate copolymer
Styrene/Acrylates Copolymer
Acrylates/C10-30 Alkyl Acrylate Crosspolymer
Acrylates/Ammonium methacrylate copolymer
Sodium acrylates copolymer,
Hydroxyethyl acrylate/sodium acryloyldimethyl taurate copolymer,
Polyacrylate crosspolymer-6
Acrylate/sodium acryloyldimethyl taurate copolymer
Ammonium polyacrylate,
Sulfate Perlite Acrylates Copolymer
Acrylates coplymer
•Methyl methacrylate cross polymer,
•Ethylene/Sodium Acrylate Copolymer
Dimethicone polymers
•Bis amino propyl-dimethicone
•Dimethicone
•Divinyldimethicone/Dimethicone copolymer
•Dimethicone crosspolymer
•vinyl dimethicone crosspolymer
•Polymethylsilsesquioxane
Ethylene based copolymer
•Ethylene/octene copolymer
•Ethylene/Sodium Acrylate Copolymer
•Polyethylene
Fig. 3. Recorded acrylate, dimethicone, and ethylene-based polymers.
Table 5
Estimated emission of MPs from each product.
PCCPs Direct MP emissions (DME) Direct MP emissions (DME)
particles/year (Trillions) Tons/year
Shampoo 10.6 1869.0
Face cream 7.1 1253.0
Toothpaste 3.0 532.9
Face 0.7 123.5
cleanser
Total 21.4 3778.4
confirm that those products are safe, as all PCCPs do not list plastics in
their ingredient list (Sun et al., 2020).
The topmost number of MP ingredients was recorded in shampoo
products during the study. The addition of those chemicals aims to
improve the thickness, substantivity, combing, and improve emulsion
stability of shampoo (Robbins, 1994). Of these synthetic polymers, some
N.S.K. Nawalage and B.K.A. Bellanthudawa
a)
2% Strongly
10.30% disagree
14.10% Disagree
Neutral
34.40% 39.20% Agree
Strongly
disagree
c)
4.30%
95.70%
Fig. 4. Public Awareness on MPs (a); percentage of responses to the question of “Are PCCPs in the market environmentally friendly? (b) Percentage of responses for
the question of “Are you aware of the presence of MPs in PCCPs and cosmetics”, (c) percentage of responses for the question of “Are MPs harmful to humans and other
living animals?”
additives such as silicones; dimethicone, dimethiconol, and amino­
dimethicone have high hydrophobicity that flavor MP features (Board,
2004). Although this study found the topmost values of MP ingredient
availability in shampoo, available literature on shampoo-based MP
emission is limited meanwhile most studies have focused on facial
cleansers, scrubs, shower gels, and toothpaste (Napper et al., 2015;
Cheung and Fok, 2017; Lei et al., 2017; Praveena et al., 2018; Godoy
et al., 2019; Bashir et al., 2021). However, the study results showed
lower MP ingredient levels in face cleansers (86.7 %) and toothpaste
(37.7 %) than shampoo.
4.3. Chemical composition of MP ingredients in top ten personal care
products
4.3.1. Confirmed MP ingredients
The working definition of ECHA was based on the polymers and
considered the starting point for the identification of MP ingredients
(European chemical agency (ECHA), 2018). Synthetic polymers repre­
sent the second largest portion of PCCPs (Lochhead, 2007). A total of 29
synthetic polymers were recorded during the study that has confirmed
features as MPs (Fig. 2). The most abundant group of acrylate co­
polymers are non-crosslinked copolymers made of acrylic acid, meth­
acrylic acid, and their simple esters (Lochhead, 2007). They are mostly
used as stabilizers in cosmetics and PCCPs with notable features of
transparency, resistance to breakage, and elasticity (Kleida, 2020). Of
acrylates, methacrylates are the most common, while polyacrylates are
the simplest form (Kema, 2020). The film-forming ability of poly­
acrylates uses in nail skin or hair products (Kema, 2020). Polyacrylate
cross polymer-6, Ammonium polyacrylate compounds were observed
respectively in moisturizing creams and face creams during the study.
Methacrylates are derived from derivatives of methacrylic acid or
7
Marine Pollution Bulletin 182 (2022) 113927
b)
Aware
25.50%
39.70%
Fairly aware
34.80% Unaware
True
False
methyl ester of acrylic acid, whereas those monomers create polymers
easily because of having highly reactive double bonds (Kema, 2020).
The recorded Acrylates/Beheneth-25 Methacrylate copolymer in
shampoo and Acrylates/Ammonium methacrylate copolymer are
mainly used as a viscosity controlling and film-forming agents (Galle­
guillos et al., 2011) in personal care products. Sodium acrylate copol­
ymer recorded in conditioner products, moisturizing creams, and face
cleansers is a sodium salt of polyacrylic acid. The crosslinked polymers
of Sodium acrylates form a hydrogel that swells greatly in water because
of forming hydrogen bonds between water and crosslinked polymer
(Kema, 2020). The term “Carbomer” was observed in some PCCPs that
describe high molecular weight polymers of crosslinked acrylic acids
(Lochhead, 2007).
The proven facts on persistency and accumulation of acrylate poly­
mers in the environment are limited and impacts in the ecosystems are
almost unexplored (Gaytán et al., 2021). However, the biodegradability
of Acrylate polymers depends on the C–C backbone size, the available
side groups in the chemical structure, residual monomers, linear poly­
mers, etc., (Gaytán et al., 2021). The addition of large polymers results
in low biodegradability and specifically, methacrylic acid–ethyl acrylate
copolymers and acrylamide–acrylic acid copolymers were also classified
as not readily biodegradable (Duis et al., 2021). On the other hand,
favorable environmental conditions like the presence of sufficient
divalent and polyvalent cations result in strong sorption of anionic
polycarboxylates derivatives from the acrylate polymers to activated
sludge, soil particles, and other solids (ECETOC, 1993; Duis et al., 2021).
Silicone-based dimethicone or polydimethylsiloxane was recorded in
shampoo, handwash, conditioner, and moisturizing creams during the
study, which is evidenced in the (Fevola, 2013; Baumann, 2014; Drug
bank, 2015). A study by Becker et al. (2014) stated that the cross
polymers of dimethicone used in PCCPs as absorbents, bulking agents,
N.S.K. Nawalage and B.K.A. Bellanthudawa
film formers, hair-conditioning agents, emollient skin-conditioning
agents, slip modifiers, surface modifiers, and nonaqueous viscosity-
increasing agents. Typically, dimethicone uses in 0.1–2.0 % w/w per­
centages in skincare emulsions. Dimethicone polymers exhibit notable
features of greater chain mobility, flexibility, and a high degree of
polymerization while remaining fluid in the bulk state, whereas other
organic polymers like polyethylene, polypropylene, or polyethylene
oxide exist as solids in the bulk state (Fevola, 2013). Dimethicone
polymers are water-insoluble and exhibit molecular weight dependent
solubility (Fevola, 2013). The high molecular weight with non-volatile
properties of dimethicone features results in washing off the skin or
hair, thereby contaminating water through drains. The attentive facts
regarding dimethicone contamination of water are extremely low water
solubility and very high binding affinity for particulate matter (Stevens,
1998). Nevertheless, previous studies evidenced that more than 94 % of
dimethicone is removed from wastewater treatment plants via adsorp­
tion since dimethicones are non-volatile and are known not to be
degraded biologically during the normal residence time for sewage
treatment (Stevens, 1998) in the context of Sri Lanka, the low coverage
of sewage and wastewater treatments would lead to the free release of
these polymers into natural ecosystems.
The smallest olefin of ethylene polymerization is direct for the for­
mation of polyethylene which is a synthetic polymer that is used in many
industrial applications, including cosmetics and personal care products.
The market survey of this study revealed the presence of Ethylene/
octene copolymer and, Ethylene/Sodium Acrylate Copolymer in
shampoo products while polyethylene in face cream products. Similarly,
Praveena et al. (2018); Cheung and Fok (2017); Bashir et al. (2021)
evidenced the presence of ethylene-based polymers in cosmetic prod­
ucts. Generally, they are used for Abrasive, film-forming, viscosity
controlling, and binder for powders (Leslie, 2014). Polyethylene poly­
mers are highly recalcitrant due to low water insolubility, degree of
crystallinity, and high molecular weight, which possess low degrad­
ability in the natural environment (Ghatge et al., 2020).
Of the recorded “confirmed” MP ingredients, the occurrence of pol­
yquaternium is frequently noted in shampoo products as they are adding
the purpose of conditioning hair. Most recent studies evidenced the use
of polyquaternium in shampoo products which is cationic (Hössel et al.,
2000; Gruber and Lamoureux, 2001; Zięba and Tomczyk, 2019). The
polyamide 66 or nylon 66 features high mechanical strength, stiffness,
heat, and water resistance that serve as MP ingredients when released
into the natural environment in minute size (density: 1.14 g/cm3 and
water absorption: 1.6 %) (Matmatch, 2015). Nylon 66 is considered a
film former in PCCPs, which evidenced the presence in face creams as a
result recorded in this study (Palmer, 2000).
4.3.2. Unconfirmed MP ingredients
Synthetic polymers that favor MP characteristics with a lack of in­
formation recorded in the proportion of 66 % during the study. The most
recorded PEG is the polymers of ethylene glycol, which are intentionally
added as stabilizing and bulking agents (Cox et al., 2021). As the solu­
bility, toxicity, persistence, and bio-accumulation of PEGs are still un­
covered and it depends on the different chain lengths and is recognized
as “skeptical MPs” (Beat the microbead, 2022b). The recorded most
common synthetic polymer of polyethylene glycol (PEG) is widely used
in the cosmetic industry as surfactant cleansing agents, emulsifiers, skin
conditioners, and humectants (Fruijtier-Pölloth, 2005). In cosmetics,
PEG is employed as it is and as a derivative like PEG fatty acid esters;
PEG laurates, dilaurates, stearates, and distearates, PEG ethers; laureths,
ceteths, ceteareths, oleths, and PEG ethers of glyceryl cocoates, PEG
amine ethers; PEG cocamines, PEG castor oils, PEG propylene glycols,
and other derivates; PEG soy sterols, PEG beeswax (Fruijtier-Pölloth,
2005). Results recorded in this study proved the presence of those
compounds in the personal care products, most commonly as PEG and
other derivatives like laureths, ceteareths, PEG glyceryl cocoates, stea­
rate, PEG 7 propyl ether, propyl heptyl ether, myristyl glycol,
8
Marine Pollution Bulletin 182 (2022) 113927
hydrogenated castor oil, propylene glycol oleate. The physical state of
the PEG compound depends on Molecular weight (MW) as the solubility
decrease with increasing MW. The PEG compounds having weights up to
400 are in a liquid state at room temperature while higher molecular
weight is waxy solids (Fruijtier-Pölloth, 2005). PEG polymers with a
higher molecular weight that exceeds 400 were noted during the study
such as PEG 600, 90M, 9M, 45M, and 14M.
4.4. Theoretical emission of MP ingredients from Sri Lanka
The annual MP ingredient emission from shampoo and face cream
products; the highest recorded MP ingredients during the market survey
were estimated from the population of Sri Lanka. Moreover, the theo­
retical estimation from toothpaste and face cleansers was calculated
with the purpose of comparing previously studied emissions as tooth­
paste and facial scrubs/face cleansers products are considered a major
source responsible for releasing microbeads. Cumulative emission of
shampoo, face cream, toothpaste, and facial cleanser can lead to emit­
ting 21.4 trillion particles (3778.4 tons) into the environment annually.
By number, the value is comparatively least than the MP beads emission
value from facial scrubs done in mainland China (39.2 trillion
microbeads) (Cheung and Fok, 2017) and towering than the microbead
emission recorded in Malaysia (0.189 trillion microbeads) from five
facial cleansers and five kinds of toothpaste (Praveena et al., 2018). On
the contrary, total emissions from toothpaste and facial cleanser account
for 3.7 trillion particles which are merely 20 times higher than the value
recorded in Malaysia (Praveena et al., 2018). The MPs released in
Istanbul, Turkey for toothpaste has recorded 871 million which is a
notable least value compared to this study (3 trillion) (Ustabasi and
Baysal, 2019a, 2019b).
The notable difference in these numbers might be due to population
differences (Praveena et al., 2018) as 21.9 million,1.42 billion, and 32.0
million respectively in Sri Lanka, China, and Malaysia. On the other
hand, the percentage of untreated (Runtreated) sewage is distinctively low
in both China (38.2 %; Urban areas) and Malaysia (4 %) than in Sri
Lanka (97.6 %). Wash away and waste of the consumed personal care
and cosmetics are ended up in wastewater treatment plants or directly
released into the soil (Ziajahromi et al., 2017). In contrast to the pre­
vious literature (Browne et al., 2011; Gies et al., 2018), conventional
treatment plants show a higher efficiency in retaining these MPs con­
tained in the wastewater (Prata, 2018). The primary and secondary
treatment steps of the wastewater treatment process enable the removal
of MPs up to 98 % and up to 20 %, respectively. Nonetheless, the tertiary
treatment step holds no responsibility for removing MPs. As previous
studies assert a high percentage of removal of MPs via primary, sec­
ondary, and tertiary treatments, the direct emission without sewage
treatment would increase the number of MP ingredient emission values.
The values estimated from previous studies have laboratory confirma­
tion of MP availability while this study whole depended on the ingre­
dient list of the label and published literature (Murphy et al., 2016;
Talvitie et al., 2017).
As this study recorded the presence of only unconfirmed MP in­
gredients through the screening of labels in toothpaste products, the
estimated values account only for the release of unconfirmed MPs.
However, previous studies confirmed the availability of low-density
polyethylene in toothpaste and face cleanser products via FTIR anal­
ysis (Praveena et al., 2018; Ustabasi and Baysal, 2019a, 2019b; Sun
et al., 2020). Lei et al. (2017) explored that out of sampled face cleaners,
7.1 % is composed of MPs, whereas the mean weight of MPs was
observed as 25.04 ± 10.69 mg MP/g and the average size of 313 ± 130
μm. Other than toothpaste and facial cleanser products the available
scientific data on the availability of shampoo and face cream are rare,
which warrants further laboratory analysis for confirmation.
N.S.K. Nawalage and B.K.A. Bellanthudawa
4.5. Current status of public awareness on MPs and emissions in Sri
Lanka
The outcomes of the present study asserted that awareness of the
environmental unfriendliness of PCCPs was 50.5 %, awareness of the
presence of MPs in PCCPs was around 39 %, and knowledge of adverse
impacts of MPs on the humans and other faunal species was more than
95 %. At present, the current study serves as the first study in Sri Lanka
conducted to screen out the potential of MP contamination of the
environment as a result of using PCCPs and quantify the release of MPs
based on their usage rate and the findings underline the obligation to
enhance the knowledge, attitude, and preventative practices on select­
ing and consuming the PCCPs to abate the MPs contamination. The re­
sults disseminated by the present study correspond with Gamage and
Mahagamage (2021), showing that awareness of MPs and microbeads
was around 42 % and thus, they suggested understanding the knowledge
gap between the consumer PCCPs usage and proactive regulatory ac­
tions that should be effectively implemented by the relevant government
authorities. Furthermore, the authors suggested that enforcing extended
producer responsibility policies, improving waste management
including recycling facilities, and promoting sustainable packaging
should be focused on and carefully monitored to reduce the MP impacts
by PCCPs (Gamage and Mahagamage, 2021). Additionally, many studies
conducted in the Sri Lanka context have investigated and quantified the
MP availability and densities in coastal areas and ecosystems and the
outcomes of these studies spotlighted the need to actively raise the
awareness among the community from microscale to macro scale of the
community as this is an emerging and growing crisis not only for Sri
Lank but for the rest of the world to conserve vital coastal ecosystems
(Koongolla et al., 2018; Weerakoon et al., 2019; Athawuda et al., 2020;
Praboda et al., 2020; Dharmadasa et al., 2021).
Also, DME particles per year in Trillions and DME in tons per year in
only shampoo, face cream, toothpaste, and hair conditioners were
observed at 21.4 and 3778.4 in the present study (Table 6). It releases a
substantially higher number of MPs into the environment yearly.
Certainly, the MPs contained in the PCCPs are ended up in either
freshwater or marine aquatic environments once they are consumed as
some percentage of MPs can escape through the wastewater treatment
plant systems (Murphy et al., 2016). To remove MPs to a certain extent,
treatment processes such as sludge setting (Carr et al., 2016), primary
setting and clarification (Murphy et al., 2016), and skimming can be
identified. Consequently, the integrative system of removal of sus­
pended solids in different stages can finally lead to capture capturing
several MPs. Correspondingly, integrative and careful monitoring at the
wastewater treatment plants and facilities should be encouraged while
uplifting the knowledge and technical entities of engineers, health and
safety officers, and technicians in capturing the MPs.
The lack of knowledge and awareness in students and beautician
trainees' sampled population revealed the fact that even though they
tend to consume PCCPs more frequently, the knowledge on the impact of
MPs generated from PCCPs was not coherent and well understood
(Chang, 2015). It was stated that regardless of the percentage of MPs and
microbeads coming from PCCPs composed of a smaller proportion of the
total marine litter (Sherrington et al., 2016), this concern should not be
neglected because their resilience and existence in the environment are
significantly higher than most of the substances. Resultantly, MPs
require more time for degradation through chemical, physical, and
biological means and the prevalence of MPs in the environment may
impose numerous adverse impacts on floral, faunal, and abiotic com­
ponents of biosphere-land-water systems (Praveena et al., 2018).
Therefore, preventative measures should be adopted at industrial,
governmental, and other sectorial levels to combat this environmental
and health issue by strengthening the existing rules and regulations and
introducing novel and timely policies and legislations to overcome the
MP contamination. Raab and Bogner (2021) pinpointed the fate,
contamination, and effects and prevention of MPs pollution are
9
Marine Pollution Bulletin 182 (2022) 113927
important, and thus, the incorporation of that knowledge into education
modules and curricula will foster the younger generation to understand,
act, and decision making in purchasing good quality PCCPs to reduce
this MPs contamination issues. For this purpose, aligning the objectives
of modules and curricula in environmental education to achieve the
reduction of plastic contamination through SDGs (United Nations, 2019)
is critical and yet challenging, and nurturing the knowledge on envi­
ronmental education and pollution prevention should be followed as the
MPs contamination is rising (Plastics Europe, 2020), especially with
ever-growing PCCPs industries. In addition, the strategical approach
that can be conducted is to improve the community awareness of the
young adults' generation, for instance, from 18 to 30 years, as they are
the active users of PCCPs using modes of commercials, and voluntary
research activities, knowledge dissemination campaigns, and
competitions.
4.6. Limitations of the study
The present study presented a tailored questionnaire designed by the
research team and circulated among the participants. However, the
study sample size did not cover all the districts in Sri Lanka but the most
densely populated regions of the country. The baseline information on
the usage rate, PCCPs preferences, and awareness level might have been
affected based on the regions. In addition, since the present study tar­
geted on top 10 consumed PCCPs, all the PCCPs in the market were not
considered for the analysis. This selective approach could have con­
strained the concluding emissions of MPs from the PCCPs on a broad
scale. Furthermore, the referred MP chemical database of Beat the
microbeads is subject to update daily with recent chemical information,
which would alter the finding of this study.
As the MP ingredient emissions were estimated based on the pre-
estimated values; W, Dmb in previous studies, the actual value would
have variations that require laboratory analysis-based estimations. On
the other hand, the study aimed to cover the chemical ingredient
identification via a market survey of product labels, creating certain
limitations since some products might not indicate the complete list of
ingredients used.
5. Conclusion and prospects
The current study explored the available MP ingredients in the
PCCPs in the Sri Lankan market and estimated the theoretical emission
rates to the aquatic systems. Though studies on MPs present in the
natural environment, the emission of MP ingredients, including
microbeads from PCCPs is least discussed and limited. Hence, this novel
study revealed the facts on MP availability in PCCPs in the Sri Lankan
market, representing South Asia while opening a new pathway to future
studies. Moreover, this would be a basement to formulate regulations
related to the MP containing cosmetics. However, this study is an
investigation of a theoretical emission excluding laboratory experi­
ments. Laboratory tests would recommend confirming the availability of
synthetic polymers that act as MPs. Further studies on actual chemical
composition and ecotoxicological effects are warranted to formulate
regulations to band PCCPs that contain MP ingredients in Sri Lanka. On
top of that, the improvement of the sewage treatment facilities within
the country is an important fact while enhancing microplastic knowl­
edge in the local community to prevent further MP pollution in inland
water bodies and the ocean.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
N.S.K. Nawalage and B.K.A. Bellanthudawa Marine Pollution Bulletin 182 (2022) 113927

CRediT authorship contribution statement interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
N.M.S.K. Nawalage – Conceptualization and designing the study,
Data collection, Questionnaire preparation, Data analysis, and inter­ Acknowledgment
pretation, Drafting the manuscript, Final proofreading
B.K.A. Bellanthudawa – Data collection, Drafting the manuscript, We convey our heartiest gratitude toward P.G.L. Madushan for the
Final proofreading support of data analysis.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial

Annex 1.
Table 6
Values used in MP emission estimation.

Term Description Values Source

TP Total population of Sri Lanka 21.919 million Department of census

TP 21–44 Total population belong to the age category of 21–44 36.8 % Department of census
years Sri Lanka (most dominated age group that use
PCCPs)
Rc Percentage of Product usage rate Toothpaste - 95.8 % Questionnaire survey
Rc = (Number of responds for each product ÷ Total number Shampoo- 90.7 %
of responds) 100% Face cream - 45.5 %
Face cleanser- 20.8 %
Pmb Percentage of PCCPs that contain MP ingredients out of Toothpaste – 37.71 % Market survey and beat the microbead data base (www.beatthemicobeads.org)
total PCCPs Shampoo- 94.52 %
Pmb = (Number of products that contain microplastic Face cream – 81.82 %
ingredients ÷ Total number of product investiagted during Face cleanser- 86.67 %
market survey)100%
Nuse Number of uses per year Daily usage Questionnaire survey and assumed
N use = frequency of uses per day × 30 × 12 Toothpaste – 1.5
(max;2, min;1)
Shampoo- 1 (max:1,
min:0.142)
Face cream − 2 (max:3,
min:1)
Face cleanser - (max:1,
min:0.142)
W Weight of product used each time Toothpaste – 0.9 g Literature survey
(Praveena et al., 2018)
Shampoo- 3.5 g (Park
et al., 2015)
Face cream – 1.54 g
(Hall et al., 2007)
Face cleanser- 1.1 g
(Park et al., 2015)
Dmb Density of MPs in PCCPs 2162 density (Sun et al., 2020)
(particles/g)
Runtreatment Percentage of untreated sewage 97.68 % Literature survey
R untreated = (Volume of treated sewage ÷ Total volume of HO5009 http://www.waterboard.lk/web/index.php?option=com_content
sewage generation) × 100 &view=article&id=59:sanitation-development-goals-in-sri-lanka&catid=29:
sewerage&Itemid=174&lang=en

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