REFRIGERATION

What is refrigeration?
❏ Refrigeration is defined as the science of maintaining the temperature of a particular space lower
than the surrounding space.
❏ Thermodynamically, when the body at certain temperature is kept in the atmosphere it tends to
attain the temperature of the atmosphere.
❏ But with the process of refrigeration it can be kept at temperature much lower than the atmospheric
temperature.
❏ Refrigeration has number of applications; one of the most common applications is household
refrigerator and air conditioner.
❏ Other applications of refrigeration include making ice, ice cream, chilled water, frozen food etc.
 Methods to achieve refrigeration
❏ There are number of methods by which the refrigeration can be achieved.
❏ They are broadly classified into two categories: Non-Cyclic and Cyclic methods of Refrigeration.
❏ In the non-cyclic method of refrigeration there is no thermodynamic cycle followed for creating
the cooling effect.
❏ In the cyclic process of refrigeration the heat is removed from the low temperature reservoir and
is thrown to high temperature reservoir. As per the second law of thermodynamics the natural
flow of heat is from the high temperature reservoir to low temperature reservoir. In the cyclic
refrigeration process since the flow of heat is reversed, the external work has to be done on the
system. The cyclic process of refrigeration is also reverse of the thermodynamic power cycle or
Carnot cycle in which the heat flows from high temperature reservoir to low temperature
reservoir; hence the cycle of refrigeration is also called as Reverse Carnot Cycle.There are two
types of cyclic process of refrigeration: vapor cycle and gas cycle. The vapor cycle is classified
into vapor compression cycle and vapor absorption cycle.
 Vapor Compression Cycle
❏ The vapor compression cycle is the mostly widely used method of refrigeration in the modern
applications.
❏ The cycle is called as vapor compression cycle, because the vapors of refrigerant are
compressed in the compressor of the refrigerator system to develop the cooling effect.
❏ Here are the various processes of vapor compression cycle as shown in figure below
❏ Compression: The vapors of refrigerant enter the compressor and get compressed to high
pressure and high temperature. During this process the entropy of the refrigerant ideally remains
constant and it leaves in superheated state.
❏ Condensation: The superheated refrigerant then enters the condenser where it is cooled either
by air or water due to which its temperature reduces, but pressure remains constant and it gets
converted into liquid state.
❏ Expansion: The liquid refrigerant then enters the expansion valve or throttling valve where
sudden expansion of the refrigerant occurs, due to which its temperature and pressure falls
down. The refrigerant leaves expansion valve in partially liquid state and partially in gaseous
state.
❏ Evaporation or cooling: The partially liquid and partially gaseous refrigerant at very low
temperature enters the evaporator where the substance to be cooled is kept. It is here where the
refrigeration effect is produced. The refrigerant absorbs the heat from the substance to be cooled
and gets converted into vapor state.
 Vapor Absorption Cycle
❏ Before the development of the vapor compression system of refrigeration, vapor absorption cycle
was very widely used.
❏ The vapor compression system replaced vapor absorption system because it has high coefficient
of performance (COP).
❏ The vapor absorption system requires very less amount of electricity but large amount of heat;
hence it can be used very effectively in industries where very large stocks of excessive steam
are available.
❏ In such cases there is not only effective utilization of steam, but also lots of savings in electricity
costs.
❏ Of late the vapor absorption systems are being employed by a number of industries to save on
their electric bills.
❏ However, the vapor absorption system is useful only where large scale refrigeration in excess of
at least 20 tons is required.
❏ The various processes of the vapor absorption cycle are similar to the one in vapor compression
cycle, only the method of compression of the refrigerant is different. In vapor absorption system
ammonia is used as the refrigerant, which has very high affinity to dissolve in water. Here are
various processes of vapor absorption cycle:
❏ Compression or absorption of the refrigerant: In vapor absorption system there is no
traditional compressor, instead there is absorber. The absorber consists of water, called as
absorbent, in which the refrigerant, ammonia, dissolves. This mixture of water and ammonia is
then pumped and heated thus increase in temperature and pressure of the ammonia occurs.
Ammonia leaves the absorber at high pressure and high temperature. Some work has to be
provided to the pump and heating is carried out by the steam. The amount of electricity required
by the pump is much lesser than that required by the compressor hence there is lots of saving of
electricity, however, the additional source of heat in the form of steam has to be provided.
❏ Condensation: The refrigerant at pressure and temperature then enters condenser where it is
cooled by water and its temperature and pressure reduces.
❏ Expansion: Thereafter the expansion of refrigerant occurs in throttling valve due to which the
temperature and pressure of the ammonia refrigerant reduces drastically and suddenly.
❏ Evaporation: Finally the refrigerant enters the evaporator where it produces the cooling effect. It
leaves the evaporator in vapor state and then enters absorber, where it is absorbed by
absorbent, water and compressed by the pump. This process repeats again and cycle continues.
 Refrigerants
❏ Air
❏ Air is one of the earliest refrigerant to be used in the refrigeration systems.
❏ Its advantages are that it is available free of cost, is non-toxic and non-flammable and does
not affect the commodity if pure.
❏ Air contains moisture and this reacts with the material of the evaporator and condenser
severely affecting their working capacity.
❏ Further, there is a possibility that the passages may be blocked by the formation of ice from
this moisture.
❏ The COP of air is of the order of 0.6 and thus, not suitable for use in refrigeration systems on a
commercial scale.
❏ It is mainly used for air conditioning in aircrafts where efficiency of operation is of secondary
importance.
❏ Ammonia
❏ Ammonia is one of the oldest refrigerants and it was commonly employed in places where toxicity
effects were of secondary importance.
❏ Its advantages are its low cost, low specific volume, high COP (of the order of 4.0) and high
refrigeration effect per unit mass of the refrigerant.
❏ Its primary drawback is its toxicity which prevents its use in air-conditioning and food preservation
systems.
❏ Carbon Dioxide
❏ Carbon dioxide is a non-toxic and non-poisonous refrigerant.
❏ Also, it is not only non-flammable but and is an excellent extinguishing agent as well.
❏ Its other advantages are that it is chemically stable, immiscible with the lubricating oil and does not
affect the metal used in the system.
❏ It has a low specific volume and this requires volume displacement per ton of refrigeration. However,
its critical pressure is too high.
❏ Also, its critical temperature is only 31 0C which makes it unsuitable for use in countries with a hot
climate like India. It is an excellent refrigerant for low temperature refrigeration.
❏ Sulphur Dioxide
❏ Sulphur dioxide is a colourless, suffocating and irritating gas and is twice as heavy as air at
atmospheric conditions.
❏ It was mostly used as a household refrigerant in the older days, but has since been discarded for
better refrigerants.
❏ Sulphur dioxide reacts with water forming sulphurous acid, which in presence of oxygen becomes
sulphuric acid, a corrosive compound for metals.
❏ It is non-flammable but attacks foodstuff on coming in contact with it.
❏ It is also partially miscible with the lubricating oil.
❏ Hydrocarbons
❏ This group consists of colourless fluids normally in gaseous state and made up of various
combinations of carbon and hydrogen.
❏ Most of the refrigerants from this category are suitable for low temperature refrigeration.
❏ Isobutane falls in this category and has been suitable for domestic refrigeration.
❏ They are non-poisonous, but are flammable and highly explosive when exposed to air.
 ❏ The molecular weight and boiling point of each gas varies according to the number of hydrogen and
carbon atoms.
❏ The larger the number of hydrogen and carbon atoms, the heavier is the gas and higher is its boiling
point.
❏ Halocarbons
❏ The halocarbon refrigerants are formed by replacing one or more of hydrogen atoms of methane or
ethane by one or more atoms of the three halogens: fluorine, chlorine or bromine.
❏ Some of the refrigerants coming under this category are mentioned below:
❏ Refrigerant R12
❏ The refrigerant R12 is the most widely used refrigerant in the domestic and large commercial
establishments.
❏ Its chemical formula is CCl2F2 and its boiling point is -300C at 1 bar.
❏ It is a non-flammable, non-explosive, non-irritating, non-toxic and odourless refrigerant.
❏ It remains chemically stable up to 5500C.
❏ Also, it does not affect the material of the refrigeration system.
❏ It is available in abundance and is quite cheap.
❏ Refrigerant R13
❏ Its chemical formula is CClF3.
❏ It is a non-flammable, non-toxic and stable refrigerant.
❏ It is very suitable for achieving low temperatures in a cascade refrigeration system.
❏ Its specific volume is high and therefore, it is suitable for centrifugal compressors.
❏ However, it also has a negative effect on ozone depletion.
❏ Refrigerant R22
❏ Its chemical formula is CHClF2.
❏ It is also a non-toxic, non-flammable, non-corrosive and non-irritating refrigerant.
❏ It is the most common refrigerant for use in large refrigeration systems and is preferred to R12.
❏ Refrigerant R114
❏ Its chemical formula is C2Cl2F4.
❏ It has properties very similar to those of R12 with respect to water and oil combination.
❏ It is not suitable for low temperature refrigeration since it has negative evaporator pressure even at
around 90C.
❏ It is non-toxic, non-explosive and non-corrosive even in the presence of water.
 Choice of refrigerants based on properties
Properties which should be considered in selection of any refrigerant for the requisite purpose is provided below:
Thermodynamic Properties Chemical Properties Physical Properties

Critical temperature and pressure Chemical stability and inertness Leakage and detection

Specific heat Action on rubber/plastics Miscibility with oil

Enthalpy of vaporization Flammability Viscosity

Conductivity Effect on oil

Evaporator and condenser pressure Effect on commodity

Compression ratio Toxicity

Freezing point

Coefficient of performance

Density

Compression temperature
❏ Apart from properties two other criterias are also frequently observed while making a choice for refrigerant.
❏ Safety criteria
❏ Under safety criteria, we consider the toxicity, flammability, action on perishable food and formation of
explosive compound on exposure to air.
❏ An ideal refrigerant should be non-toxic, non-flammable, have no effect on food products and should
not react with atmospheric air.
❏ No refrigerant satisfy these criteria fully.
❏ We can therefore, group refrigerants into different sub-groups based on their flammability and toxicity
levels.
❏ Economic Criteria
❏ The economic criterion takes into account the cost of the refrigerant, the availability and supply levels of the
refrigerant, cost of storage and handling.
❏ Cost of Refrigerant
❏ The cost of the refrigerant has a big impact on the overall cost of the refrigeration system.
Hence, its cost should be as low as possible.
 ❏ From this viewpoint, ammonia and water are ideally suited, but their low thermodynamic and chemical
properties restrict their use in all types of refrigeration systems.
❏ Particularly, for flooded type evaporator or condenser, the refrigerant amount required is high and their
cost needs to be factored in while making the initial investments.
❏ Availability and Supply
❏ The refrigerant should be easily available in the market and in abundant quantity.
❏ This ensures that the cost of the refrigerant is not prohibitive.
❏ An abundant and free supply of the refrigerant ensures that refrigeration systems will be designed
specifically for use with them.
❏ Storage and Handling
❏ The refrigerant should be such that it can be conveniently stored and handled during transportation
and charging.
❏ It should be stored in as small a pressure vessel as possible.
❏ Also, if we have to handle a toxic or flammable refrigerant, then the cost involved will be higher
compared to handling and storage cost of non-toxic and non-flammable refrigerant.
 Insulation for Refrigeration
❏ Insulation is defined as a material or combination of materials, which retard the flow of heat.

❏ Important functions performed by them are:

❏ Conserve energy by reducing heat loss or gain.

❏ Control surface temperatures for personnel protection and comfort.
❏ Facilitate temperature control of a process.
❏ Prevent vapor flow and water condensation on cold surfaces.
❏ Increase operating efficiency of heating/ventilating/cooling, plumbing, steam, process
and power systems
❏ Prevent or reduce damage to equipment from exposure to fire or corrosive atmospheres.

❏ The temperature range, within which the term "thermal insulation" will apply, is from -73.3ºC (-

100ºF) to 815.6ºC (1500ºF). Typically all applications below -73.3ºC (-100ºF) are termed
"cryogenic," and those above 815.6ºC (1500ºF) are termed "refractory". Usually 2300° F is the

maximum temperature for which insulation is applied.

 Thermal Insulations
Fiberglass Mineral wool Cellulose
 Thermal Insulations
Polyurethane Foam Polystyrene Asbestos
 Properties of Thermal Insulations
❏ Thermal properties are the primary consideration in choosing insulations.
❏ Mechanical and chemical properties must be considered when choosing materials for
specific applications.
❏ Some of the important properties of insulation are:
❏ Temperature limits
❏ Thermal conductance
❏ Thermal conductivity "K“
❏ Thermal resistance "R“
❏ Emissivity "E“
❏ Thermal transmittance
❏ Chemical reactivity
❏ Chemical resistance
❏ Compressive strength
❏ Density