.

v~
~

AC1 350R-89

Environmental Engineering Concrete Structures

Reported by AC1 Committee 350
Frank Klein Robert Little h a n d B. Gogate
Chairman Chairman, editorial subcommittee Secretary
James P. Archibald Ashok K. Dhingra Gerard B. Hasselwander Predrag L. Popovic
Jon B. Ardahl Donald R. Dressler Dov Kaminetzky Satish K. Sachdev
Paul A. Beckmann, Jr. Donald L. Dube David A. Kleveter Harold N. Schneider
Reginald H. Benton Anthony L. Felder Nicholas A. Legatos Sudhakar P. Verma
Patrick J. Creegan Timothy J. Fowler* Glenn E. Noble Roger H. Wood

This report presents recommendations for structural design, mate- Chapter 3 -

Materials, mixture proportioning,
rials, and construction of concrefe tanks, reservoirs, and other struc- and testing, p. 350R-15
tures commonly used in water containment, industrial and domestic 3.1 - Cementitious materials
water, and wastewater treatment works, wheredense,impermeable 3.2 - Admixtures
concrete with high resistance to chemical attack is required. Special 3.3 - Water
emphasis is placed on a structural design that minimizes the possibil- 3.4 - Aggregates
ity of cracking and accommodates vibrating equipment and other 3.5 - Mix proportioning
special loads. Design and spacing of joints are considered. Propor- 3.6 - Evaluation and acceptance
tioning of concrete, placement, curing, andpro fection against chem-
icals are alsodescribed. IMormation on seismic design isincluded.
Chapter 4 - Construction, p. 350R-17
Keywords: admixtures; aggregates; cements; chemical attack; coatings; con- 4.1 - Concrete
crete construction;concrete durability; concrete finishing(fresh concrete); con- 4.2 - Placement of concrete
cretes; cracking (fracturing); crack width and spacing; curing; deflection; 4.3 - Joints
earthquake resistant structures; environmental engineering; finishes; floors; 4.4 - Formwork
formwork (construction); foundations; joint sealers; joints Cjunctions); live 4.5 - Finishes for exposed surfaces
loads; mix proportioning; patching; permeability; placing; protective coatings; 4.6 - Curing
qualitycontrol; reinforcedconcrete; reservoirs; sanitary engineering; sewage
4.7 - Leakage testing
treatment; stresses; structural design; tanks (containers); temperature; torque;
vibration; volume change; wastewater treatment; water-cement ratio; water
supply; water treatment.
Chapter 5 - Protection against chemicals,
CONTENTS p. 350R-20
Chapter 1 -
Special requirements for
5.1 - Resistance of concrete and reinforcing steel
5.2 - Need for protection
environmental engineering concrete structures, 5.3 - Types of protection
p. 350R-1 5.4 - Recommended coatings
1.1 -
Introduction 5.5 - Selection of protection system
-
1.2 Design and analysis 5.6 - Safety precautions
-
1.3 Watertightness 5.7 - Chemicals used in treatment plants
1.4 - Durability
Chapter 6 - References, p. 35OR-21
Chapter 2 - Structural design considerations, 6.1 - Recommended references
6.2 - Cited references
p. 35OR-3
6.3 - Additional references
2.1 - Introduction
2.2 -
Principal types of structures
2.3 - Load conditions
2.4 -
Types of foundations CHAPTER 1 -
SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR
2.5 - Structural considerations ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING CONCRETE
-
2.6 Structural design STRUCTURES
2.7 -
Reinforcement splices
1.1 -
Introduction
2.8 - Joints
2.9 -
Impact, vibration, torque, and seismic loads Environmental engineering concrete structures pose
some problems uncommon in otheruses of concrete. In
AC1 Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices; and
Commentaries are intended for guidance in designing, plan- *Chairman when AC1350-83was developed.
ning, executing, or inspecting construction and in preparing ACISfructural Journal, V. 86,No. 3, May-June 1989.
Pertinent discussion will be published in the January-February 1990 ACI
specifications. Reference to these documents shall not be made Sfrucrural Journol if received by Aug. 1, 1989.
in the Project Documents. If items found in these documents Copyright O 1989,American Concrete Institute.
are desired to be part of the Project Documents they should All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or
by anymeans, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by any
be phrased in mandatory language and incorporated into the electronic or mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, orrecording for sound
Project Documents. or visual reproduction or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or de-
vice, unless permission in writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
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 A C 1 350R 87 W O b 6 2 9 4 9 0038038 5 W
35OR-2 MANUAL
PRACTICE
OF CONCRETE
all structures, strength and stability are of paramount
importance. In environmental engineering concrete
structures, serviceability, in terms of limited deflections
and cracking, durability, and low permeability demand
equal consideration. In these structures, concrete that
will be in contact with water or wastewater should:
a. Be extremely dense and impermeable to minimize
contamination of water supplies or the environment.
b, Provide maximum resistance to natural or pro-
cessing chemicals.
c. Provide smooth surfaces to minimize flow resis-
tance.
Concrete is particularly suited to environmental en-
gineering structures. It will not warp or undergo signif-
icant dimensional change under service conditions and,
when properly designed and placed, is nearly imperme-
able and extremely resistant to corrosion.
Because of the stringent: service requirements of en-
vironmental engineering concrete structures, they
should be designed and constructed with great care.
The quality of concrete is of great importance, and
close quality control should be performed during con-
struction to obtain impervious concrete.
1.P.1 Scope - This report is concerned with conven-
tionally reinforced environmental engineering concrete
structures. The recommendations apply to cast-in-place
and precast concrete construction of tanks, reservoirs,
cast-in-placesewers,manholes, wet-wells, flumes,
junction chambers, pump stations, and other similar
structures and appurtenances. The purpose of this re-
port is to recommend methods of design and construc-
tion permitting the production of structural concrete
that will satisfy not only the usual structural require-
ments but also those mentioned in Section l. l(a), (b)
and (c). Emphasis is given to the special steps necessary
to maximize corrosion resistance and imperviousness of
concrete and to the special loading conditions of envi-
ronmental engineering concrete structures.
Recommendations for prestressed concrete are be-
yond the scope of this report. Specific recommenda-
tions for circular prestressed concrete tanks are con-
tained in AC1 344R.
1.2 - Design and analysis
Design loads on environmental engineering concrete
structures are determined from the depth and unit
weight of the retained liquid and/or solids, the external
soil pressure, and the equipment to be installed. Com-
pared to the accurately known liquid and dead loads,
the superimposed design live loads in tanks and reser-
voirs generally are small. As discussed in Section 2.9,
special care is required when designing for impact and
dynamic loads caused by mechanical equipment. De-
sign analysis must be accurate to obtain a true picture
of the distribution of stresses in the structure andto re-
sist cracking in areas of maximum stress. Soil bearing
strength and consolidation information is of great im-
portance to minimize differential settlements that could
cause cracking.
COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)
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Environmental engineering concrete structures should
be designed to minimize leakage. Accordingly, a design
method should be used that will eliminate wide cracks
and other potential sources of leakage. Design methods
may be based on strength or working stress theories. In
environmental engineering concrete structures, service
load performance is of paramount importance.
Many current design aids are based on the strength
design method. For strength design of environmental
engineering concrete structures, this report includes the
concept of environmental durability coefficients. These
coefficients provide conservative service load stresses
using Grade 40 and Grade 60 steel and crack control
similar to that historically obtained with working stress
design.
1.3- Watertightness
Environmental engineering concrete structures for
the containment, treatment, or transmission of water,
wastewater, or other fluids should be designed and
constructed to be essentially watertight, with minimal
loss of contained volume under normal service condi-
tions (see Section 4.7 of this report for leakage testing).
In many industrial applications the United States
Environmental Protection Agency will require contain-
ment and leak detection systems.
1.3.1 The ability of a structure to retain liquids will
be reasonably assured if: .
a. The concrete mixture is well proportioned and the
concrete is well consolidated without segregation.
b. Crack width is minimized.
c. Joints are properly spaced, sized, designed; and
constructed.
d. Impervious protective coatings or barriers are used
where required.
e. Adequate reinforcing steel is provided.
Usually it is more economical and dependable to re-
sist liquid permeation through the use of quality con-
crete, proper design of joint details, and adequate re-
inforcement rather than by means of an impervious
protective barrier or coating.
Minimum permeability of the concrete will be ob-
tained by using water-cement ratios as low as possible
consistent with satisfactory workability and good com-
paction. Impermeability increases with the age of con-
crete and is improved by extended periods-of moist
curing. Surface treatment is important, and surface
troweling and use of smooth forms give good im-
permeability. Air entrainment reduces segregation and
bleeding, increases workability, and provides resistance
to the effects of freeze-thaw cycles. Because of this, use
of an air-entraining agent results in better compacted
concrete and permits use of a lower water-cement ra-
tio. Other admixtures, such as water reducing agents,
and pozzolans are useful when they lead to increased
workability and compaction with lower water-cement
ratios. Pozzolans also reduce permeability.
Cracking can be kept to a minimum by proper de-
sign, reinforcement distribution, and spacing of joints.
Cracking caused by drying shrinkage can also be mini-
 ENGINEERING-STRUCTURES
ENVIRONMENTAL 350R-3

mized by the proper use of shrinkage-compensating Authoritative texts and several ASCE manualsof en-
concrete, but for the design to be successful, the engi- gineering practice’” will be helpful in the first three
neer must recognize the characteristics and properties of phases of design, most of which can be performed be-
shrinkage-compensating concrete as described in AC1 fore undertaking the fourth phase. However, structural
223.Someshrinkagewillalwaysoccur in normalcon- advice should be provided during all phases of the de-
crete, and joints andreinforcementshouldbedesigned sign and construction of the work. Except as otherwise
to control the effects of shrinkage. Joint design should indicated in this report, structural design should con-
also consider movement resulting from thermal dimen- form with AC1318.
sional changes and differential settlements. Joints per- For the structural design of circular or rectangular
mitting movement along predetermined control planes reinforcedconcretetanks,severalhelpfulpubli-
that should form a barrier to the passage-of fluids cations& of the Portland CementAssociation are avail-
should include waterstops. Good placement opera- able. Circular prestressed tanks are addressed in AC1
tions, adequate consolidation, and proper curing also 34413.
are essential to control of cracking in environmental The recommendations in the publications just cited
engineering concrete structures. Additional informa- may require adjustments to conformwith AC1 318 and
tion on cracking is contained in AC1 224R. this report, and with the applicable local building code.
1.4 - Durability 2.2 - Principal types of structures
Durability of concrete in an environmental engineer- Environmental engineering installations generally are
ing concrete structure is the resistance of the structure water or wastewater treatment facilities composed of a
to the deteriorating effects of its environment. In par- number of separate uhitsas shown below:
ticular, the concrete should be resistant to the action of
chemicals, alternate wetting and drying, freezing and Water treatmentplants
thawing cycles, and exposure to the elements. Air en- Intake structures Filters
trainment should be used in freezing and thawing ex- Screen chambers Filter pipe galleries
posures. Resistance to chemical attack can be improved Rapid mix chambers Clear wells
by using good quality concrete with types of cement Flocculating basins Pumping stations
that improve chemical resistance and provide a smooth Settling tanks Service reservoirs
surface finish. Care should also be taken to provide Conduits Chemical storage
adequate cover for the reinforcement and to use fit- Chlorination facilities Office building and
tings and embedded items that do not corrode and Clarifiers laboratory
cause damage to the concrete. The filling and patching Industrial and domesticwastewater treatment plants
of tie holes, as recommended in Section 4.5.4.1 of this Grit chambers Pump and blower
report, is necessaryt o insure long-term durability of the Primary settling tanks stations
concrete. Improved workability, lower water-cement Final settling tanks Gas holders
ratios, corrosion resistance, and increased resistance to Sludge dewatering
Digesters
sulfate attack may bederived from the proper use of a Thickeners Sludge disposal facilities
good quality fly ash in the mix. The use of a moder- Aeration basins Chemical storage
ately sulfate-resistant cement such as Type IT, or certain
Office building and
Sludge holding tanks
Type K cements, as referred to in part 3.1.2, V should also
Trickling filters laboratory
be considered when sulfate-resistant concrete is required.
Screening facilities Tertiary filters
Most environmental engineering concrete structures
Chlorine contact chambers Composting facilities
will be exposed to the elements, and adequate provi- Channels and tunnels
sions should be made to avoid damage due to floods,
rain, snow, and freezing and thawing. In some cases, The previously listed structures generally may be
adequate durability can be obtainedonly by use of spe- classified as follows:
cial protective barriers (see Chapter 5 ) . Structures sub- Waterorliquid-containingstructures,tanks,and
ject to movement of liquids should be resistant to ero- basins
sion. Additional information on durability is contained Conduits, interconnecting channels, and cast-in-place
in AC1 201.2R. sewers
Machine and equipmentfoundations
CHAPTER 2 - STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Protective housing, floors, storage rooms, walkways,
CONSIDERATIONS
2.1 - Introduction
and stairs
2.3 - Load conditions
The design of environmental engineering concrete
structures should be executed in four consecutive or 2.3.1 Dead load - Many references are available for .
overlapping phases as follows: estimating dead loads. ANSI A58.1 is a recommended
1. Functional design reference for dead loads.
2. Physical plant layout 2.3.2 Live load - The following are conservative
3. Hydraulic design values for live loads that should be considered in
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4. Structural design
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structural design:
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 A C 1 350R 8 4 f l b b Z 4 l l 7 OOL8040 3 M

35OR-4 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE

Raw sewage ........................ 63 lb/ft3 (1010 kg/m3) Table 2.3.2 -

Weights of chemicals for
Grit excavated from grit chamber ............ 110 lb/ft3 structural design
Shipping and Weight, Ib/ft’,
(1 760 kg/m3) Chemical storage data exceDt as stated
Digested sludge, aerobic........65 Ib/ft3 (1040 kg/m3) Activated carbon* Bags 35 lb (15.9 kg) (: Powder 8 to 28 (128 to
..
Digested sludge, anaerobic.. .70 lb/ft3 (1 120 kg/m3) x 21 x 39 in.) (76.2 x
533 x 991 mm); drum!
449 kg/m’) average 12
(192 kg/m’)
Thickened or dewatered sludge depending on 5 lb (2.27 kg). 25 lb
moisture content. ..........................
.60 to 85 lb/ft3 (11.3 kg); bulk
-
(960 to 1360 kg/m3) Activated silica* About 11.6 Ib/gal.
(1390 g/])
ANSI A58.1 is the recommended reference for other
Alum, liquid* Manufactured near sit At 60 F (15.6 C)
live loads. ANSI A58.1 and local building codes set because high freight specific gravity 1.285;
forth minimum requirements, Actual weights of cost precludes distant 10.7 Iblgal. (1280 g/])
shipment; 6ooo to 800
equipment should be obtained from manufacturers. If gal. (22,700 to 30,300
I), steel tank cars; 2OC
the weights given by various manufacturers differ, the to 4000 gal. (7570 to
15,100 l), rubber linec
heaviest should be used for structural design. steel tank trucks
Live loads on catwalks, stairs, and office and Aluminum ammonium Fiber drums, kegs 100 50 to 70 (961 to 1120
laboratory floors should be a minimum of 100 lb/ft2 sulfate* to 400 lb (45.4 to 181 kg/ml)
kg); bags 100 lb (45.4
(4790 Pa). In heavy equipment rooms, where the kg); bulk
machines may be taken apart and stored on the floor, Aluminum chloride Carboys; rubber-lined Specific gravity 1.15 to
it is advisable t o design the slabs and beams for a solution tank trucks 1.16
minimum live load of 300 lb/ft2 (14,400 Pa). Actual Aluminum potassium Bags 100 lb (45.4 kg); ;O to 70
sulfate* 250 lb (113 kg); bbl ,961 to 1120 kg/ml)
weights of machines and other equipment, including 350 lb (159 kg); drums
their concrete support bases, should be used for 100 lb (45.4 kg), 350 II
(159 kg); bulk
designing floor beams, including the effect of moving
Aluminum sulfate Bags 100 lb (45.4 kg); io to 75 (961 to 1200
loads. Live loads should include the weights of large- 200 lb (90.7 kg); bbl cg/m3) (powder is
diameter piping and valves taking into account thesize, 325 lb (147 kg), 400 lb ighter). To calculate
(181 kg); drums 25 lb lopper capacities use
number, and spacing of piping, including current loads (11.3 kg), 100 lb (45.4 i0 (961 kg/ml)
kg), 250 lb (113 kg);
and allowing for planned expansion. bulk
In evaluating live loads for closed tanks the engineer Ammonia, anhydrous Steel cylinders 50 lb ipecific gravity of
should consider the internal pressures or vacuums that NHI (22.7 kg), 100 lb (45.4 iquid is 0.68 at - 28 F
kg), 150 lb (68.0 kg); - 33.3 C)
occur under normal operation for serviceability checks tank car, 50,000 lb
(22,680 kg)
of deflection. The maximum/minimum settings for the
pressure relief valves and vacuum relief valves should Ammonia, aqua Carboys 5 gal. (18.9 1) i t 60 F (15.6 C)
10 gal. (37.9 1); drums pecific gravity is
be used as the service live load for the design of 375 lb (170 kg), 750 lb 1.8974
(340 kg); SOO0 gal.
reinforcement. Care should be taken to insure that [30,300 1) tank car
vents and relief valves do not plug, freeze, or corrode Ammonia Pkgs 4 to 26.5 lb (1.81 D to 80 (1 120 to 1280
shut. In cold climates, this may require heating cables silicofluoride :o 12. kg); kegs 100 lb .g/m’)
:45.4 kg); bbl or drum!
on vents and valves. Goose-neck relief valves may 100 lb (181 kg)
require antifreeze. Ammonium sulfate’ Boxes 25 lb (11.3 kg); O (961 kg/m’)
The live load for the roofs of buried tanks should tegs 100 lb (45.4 kg);
mgs 100 lb (45.4 kg);
include the earth cover as well as a surface live load of 3bl300 lb (136 kg),
i00 lb (181 kg); bulk
at least 100 lb/ft2 (4790 Pa). Depending on the use of
Barium carbonate 3oxes 25 lb (11.3 kg); 2 to 78 (833 to 1250
the roof area, a greater surface design live load may be tegs 100 lb (45.4 kg); g/m’)
required. Pattern loading effects can be very extreme )ags 200 lb (90.7 kg)
for buried roofs. One bay may be bare (no earth or Bentonite 3ags 50 lb (22.7 kg), ‘owder 45 to 60 (721
1 0 0 lb (45.4 kg); bulk ) 961 kg/ml); granules
surface live load), while adjacent bays are subject to 5 to 75 (1040 to 1200
full earth and surface live load. These effects are dm’)
particularly significant in flat slab roof systems. The Bromine >lass bottles 6.5 lb pecific gravity 3.1 19
2.95 kg); earthenware 6 Ib/gal. (3120 g/l)
construction drawings should indicate any restrictions ~ottles
on the placing, type, or weight of equipment to be Calcium carbonate 3ags 50 lb (22.7 kg); owder 35 to 60 (561
employed, and the sequence for earth cover. Irums; bulk )961 kg/m3); granules
30 to 115 (1600 to
In electrical control rooms, it is best to estimate the 540 kg/ml)
foundation area and weight of the equipment. The Calcium hydroxide lags 50 lb (22.7 kg); 3 to 50 (320 to 801
bbl 100 lb (45.4 kg); g/m’) To calculate
weight of any unit should be assumed as being applied bulk; store m dry place opper capacityuse 40
anywhere in the controlroom, since the equipment may i41 kg/ml)
be shifted from its original location to other locations, Calcium hypochlorite tbl415 Tb (188 kg); Iranules 68 to 80
ans 5 lb (2.27 kg), 15 O90 to 1280 kg/ml)
or more equipment may be added later. An assumed b (6.8 kg), 100 lb (45.4 Dwder 32 to 50 (513
250 lb/ft2 (12,000 Pa) live load will, in most cases, .g), 300 lb (136 kg); 801 kg/m’)
lrums 800 lb (363 k d :
cover the normal equipment load. tore dry and cool; “’
void contact with
The live loads in Table 2.3.2 may be used for lrganic matter
chemical storage buildings. Special provisions, such as *Aggressive action on concrete.
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 35OR-5

Table 2.3.2, CO l. - Weights chemicals for structural design

Shipping and Weight, Ib/ftl, Shipping and Weight, Ib/ft’,
Chemical storage data exceDt as stated Chemical - data
storaae except as stated
Calcium oxide Moistureproof bags i5 to 70 (881 fo 1120 Potassium USP 25 lb (11.3 kg), 86 to 102 (1380 to 1630
100 lb (45.4 kg); wood cg/m’). To calculate permanganate 110 lb (49.9 kg), 125 lb kg/m’)
bbl, bulk; C/L; store lopper capacity use 60 (56.7 kg); steel keg;
dry, max 60 days; keep ‘961 kg/m’) tech 25 lb (11.3 kg),
container closed 110 lb (49.9 kg), 600 lb
(272 kg); steel drum
Carbon dioxide Steel cylinders for
compressed gas, 150 lb
(68.0 kg); dry ice Sodium aluminate Ground bags 50 lb High purity 50 (801
delivered as required (22.7 kg), 100 lb (45.4 kglm’); standard 60
and evaporated on site kg); liquid in drums (961 kg/ml)
in large steel cylinders
Chlorinated copperas* See chlorine and Sodium bicarbonate Bags 110 lb (45.4 kg) 59 to 62 (945 to 993
ferrous sulfate as and drums kg/m’)
reagents needed
Chlorinated lime Drums 100 lb (45.4 I5 to 50 (751 to 801 Sodium bisulfate Bags 100 lb (45.4 kg) 70 to 80 (1120 to 1280
kg); 300 lb (136 kg), rg/m’) drums 100 lb (45.4 kg), kg/m’)
800 lb (363 kg); store 400 lb (181 kg)
cool and dry
Sodium carbonate Bags 100 lb (45.4 kg) Dense 65 (1040 kg/m’);
Chlorine* Steel cylinders 100 lb Specific gravity with bbl 100 lb (45.4 kg), medium 40 (641 kg/m’)
(45.4 kg), 150 lb (68.0 ‘espect to air 2.49 drums 25 lb (11.3 kg), light 30 (481 kg/m’)
kg); ton containers, 15 I 0 0 lb (45.4 kg); bulk
ton (13.6 t ) containers;
16 (14.5 t) 30 (27.2 t),
55 (49.9 t) ton tank Sodium chloride Bags 100 lb (45.4 kg); Rock 50 to 60 (801 to
cars bbl, drums 25 lb (11.3 961 kg/m’); crystal 58
kg); bulk to 70(929 to 1120 kg/
Copper sulfate* Bags 100 lb (45.4 kg); lysta175 to90 (1200 m’)
bbl450 lb (204 kg); o 1440 kg/m’);
drums >owder60 to 68 (961 Sodium chlorite Drums 100 lb (45.4 kg) 65 to 75 (1040 to 1200
o 1090 kg/m’) kg/ml)
Diatomaceous earth Bags 50 lb (22.7 kg) Taturd5 to 18 (80.1 Sodium fluoride Bags 100 lb (45.4 kg) Powder 65 to 100 (1040
bulk o 288 kg/ml); calcined drums 25 lb (11.3 kg), to 1600 kg/m’);
i to 3 (96.1 to 48.1 125 lb (56.7 kg), 375 lb granules crystal 90 to
:g/m’); flux calcined (170 kg) I06 (1440 to 1700
O to 25 (160 to 400 kg/m’)
:g/m’)
Sodium Bag 100 lb (45.4 kg); Glass 64 to 100 (1030
Disodium phosphate Bags 100 lb (45.4 kg) :rystal hydrate 80to hexametaphosphate drums 100 lb (45.4 kg) to 1600 kg/m’);
kegs 125 lb (56.7 kg) IO (1280 to 1440 kg/ 300 lb (136 kg), 320 lb powder and granular
drums 25 lb (11.3 kg), n’); anhydrous 53 to 145 kg) 44 to 60 (705 to 961
100 lb (45.4 kg), 125 lb i2 (849 to 993 kglm’) kg/m’)
(56.7 kg), 325 lb (147
kg), 350 lb (159 kg) Sodium hydroxide Drums 25 lb (11.3 kg), Pellets 60 to 70(961 to
50 lb (22.7 kg), 350 lb 1120 kg/m’); flakes 46
Dolomitic hydrated Bags 50 lb (22.7 kg) i0 to 50 (481 to 801 (159 k d . 400 lb 1181 to 62 (737 to 993
lime bbl; bulk :g/rn’). To calculate kg) 7 G I b (318 kg); kg/m3)
lopper capacity use 40 bulk solution
641 kg/ml)
Sodium hypochlorite Carboys 5 gal. (18.9 I) 15 percent 10.2 lb per
Dolomitic lime Bags 50 lb (22.7 kg), ’ebble 60 fo 65 (961 to 13 gal. (49.2 I);drums gal. (1220 g/l)
60 lb (27.2 kg); bbl, 040 kg/m1); ground 30 gal. (1 14 1); bulk
bulk ‘O to 75(801 to 1200
:g/m’); Ìump 50 t ö 65 Sodium silicate Drums 1 gal. (3.79 I),5 Specific gravity 1.39
801 to 1040 kg/m’); gal. (18.9 I), 55 gal. 11.6 lb per gal.;
lowder 37 to 65 (593 (208 I);bulk Specific gravity 1.41
o 1040 kglm’); avg 60 11.73 Ib/gal.
961 kg/m’)
Sodium silicofluoride Bags 100 lb (45.4 kg); Granular 85 to 105
Ferric chloride Solution - carboys 5 lolution 11.2 to 12.4 lb drums 25 lb (11.3 kg), (1360 to 1680 kgh’);
gal. (18.9 I), 13 gal. 5.08 to 5.62 kg); 125 lb (56.7 kg), 375 lb powder-granular 60 to
(49.2 I), truck, tank rystal 60 to 6 4 , (961 (170 kg) 96 (961 to 1540 kg/ml)
:ar; crystal - keg 100 o 1030 kg/m’)
lb (45.4 kg), 400 lb nhydrous 45 to 60 Sodium sulfate Bags, bbl, drums, kegs 70 to 100 (1120 to 1600
(181 kg), 450 lb (204 721 to 961 kg/m’) kg/ml)
kg); drums 150 lb (68.0
kg), 350 lb (159 kg), Sodium thiosulfate Bags, bbl, drums, kegs 53 to 60 (849 to 961
530 lb (286 kg) kg/m’)
Ferric sulfate’ Bags 100 lb (45.4 kg); O to 72 (1120 to Il50 Sulfur dioxide Steel cylinders 100 lb
hums 400 lb (181 kg) dm’) (45.4 kg), 150 lb (68.0
125 lb (193 kg); bulk kg), 200 lb (90.7 kg)
Ferrous sulfate* Bags 100 lb (45.4 kg); 3 to 66 (1010 to 1060 Sulfuric acid* Bottle, carboys 5 gal. Specific gravity 1.81
hums 400 lb (181 kg); g/m’) (18.9 I), 13 gal. (49.2 15.1 Ib/gal.
bulk I); drums 55 gal. 9208
I),110 gal. (416 I);
Fluosilicic acid* Kegs 5 gal. (18.9 1); O percent is 10.5 bulk
itch-lined drums, 50 ,/gal. (1260 g/l)
:al. (189 1); rubber- Tetrasodium Bags 100 lb (45.4 kg), Crystal 50 to 70 (801 to
ined bbl420 lb (191 pyrophosphate 2 0 0 lb (97.7 kg); bbl I120 kglm’); powder
(9) 350 lb (159 kg); drums 16 to 66 (737 to 1060
25 lb (11.3 kg), 300 lb kg/m’)
Hydrofluoric acid* Drums steel 20gal. (136 kg), 350 lb (159
.75.7 l), 30 gal. (114 kg); kegs 125 lb (56.7
I); 100 gal. (379 1); kg)
Julk
Trisodium phosphate Bags 100 lb (45.4 kg),
Polyelectrolyte or 4vailable dry and in ky 7.5 to 88 (120 to 2 0 0 lb (90.7 kg); bbl
polymer iolution form. Various 410 kg/m’); liquid 62 125 lb (147 kg), 400 lb nonohydrate 65 (1040
:ontainers used J 92 (990 to 1475 :181 kg); kegs 125 lb cg/m’)
g/m’) [56.7 kg)
*Aggressive action on concrete,
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 A C 1 350R 87
35OR-6 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
curbs or barriers, should be made to isolate and prevent
spreading of spilled or leaking chemicals. The structural
engineer.should decide what is a reasonable stacking
height when designing slabs, beams, and other
supporting members. It is recommended that the
specific live load, including machines, equipment,
piping loads, and bases for which each part of the floor
is designed, be indicated on the drawings and posted in
the area inwhich it applies.
2.4 - Types of foundations
Structures covering large areas may rest on various
soils or rock, The foundationmay be:
a. Entirely on granular soil
b. Entirely on cohesive soil
c. Entirely on rock
d. On any combination of the above
The type of foundation may be:
a. Piles
.
b Caissons
c. Raft
d. Spread or continuous footings
If the foundation of a structure rests entirely on only
one kind of soil or rock, the design of the foundation
and of the structure itself is not difficult. Design prob-
lems are more complicated when the structure rests on
more than one kind of soil. Most environmental engi-
neering concrete structures, being water or liquid-con-
taining tanks and reservoirs, cannot tolerate much dif-
ferential settlement that causes cracks and leakage.
Therefore, designers of environmental engineering con-
crete structures should carefully minimize differential
settlement of the foundations and the structures. If
necessary, slabs may span between grade beams, foun-
dation walls, and piers. In general, structures should be
designed to minimize differential settlement or de-
signed to accommodate settlement as beams on elastic
supports. Adjacent structures with different loading
and function may have to be separated physically by
expansion joints and/or double wall construction.
Design of foundations ongranular or other elastic or
compressible soils should take into account not only the
3 variations in compressibility of soil materials and the
different thicknesses of the soil layers but also the vari-
ations in loading .caused by alternately filling and
draining adjoining tanks, basins, or reservoirs.
Soil conditions should be explored with test borings,
and soil samples should be analyzed to determine soil
resistivity and sulfate content. A minimum of four test
borings should be made for the first 10,000 ft2 (929 m2)
of plant area and at least two additional borings for
every additional 10,000 ft2(929 m2). In addition, it may
be desirable to locate extra test borings at major con-
centrated load locations, such as center column foun-
dations of large diameter clarifiers or heavy equipment
foundations. Investigations by, and consulation with, a
geotechnical engineer is recommended.
In cases of irregular rock foundations or unusual
bearing strata, additional test borings may be required.
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Ob62747 0 0 3 8 0 4 2 7 m
It is important to observe and record the elevation of
the groundwater table and any periodic and seasonal
variations. The maximum and minimum elevation of
the groundwater table in the plant area should be de-
termined using the 100 year flood and drought criteria
in each case. A high water table may exert uplift on the
structures, may lift and damage foundation slabs, and
may reduce the bearing capacity of the soil. If the
structures are onpiles, the use of uplift piles should be
considered. Additional substructure considerations are
included in Section 2.5.
2.5- Structural considerations
Large reinforced concrete reservoirs on compressible
soil may be considered as beams or girders on elastic
supports. Sidewalls of rectangular tanks and reservoirs
can be designed either as cantilever walls fixed at the
bottom or as walls supported at two or more edges.
Circular tanks normally resist the pressure of their con-
tents by ring tension.
Elevation of the groundwater table and flood water
conditions are basic design considerations, and these
loads should be considered in the same manner as in-
ternal liquid loads. The groundwater elevation may be
artificially raised locally by leaks from nearby tanks or
pipes. Walls supporting both interior wáter loads and
exterior earth loads should be designed to support both
the full effect of the interior water pressure and the full
effect of the maximum exterior earth pressure without
considering that one load could minimize the effect of
the other. Should the reservoir space remain sealed, the
surrounding walls and the bottomof the structure-must
withstand combined lateral or vertical water and soil
pressures, and the structure as a whole must resist flo-
tation.
The soil reaction on an elastic slab is quite different
from the soil reaction on a more rigid slab. Walls can-
tilevered from a flexible slab on yielding compressible
soils present a problem of mutual influence of soil and
structure.
Spanning a bottom mat between parallel sidewalls is
not always a simple task. Increasing the thickness of the
mat counteracts uplift with increased concrete weight
and reduces required reinforcement. However, this ap-
proach has economic limitations. Inverted beams or
crosswalls over the mat could reduce mat spans to per-
mit economically acceptable thicknesses.
All water-containing structures should be assumed to
be empty for buoyancy and external pressure stress cal-
culations. The effect of possible alternate gravity tank
loadsand uplift should be investigated. In some cases,
uplift on the bottom mat could be limited by: (1)
standpipes that automatically would bleed water into
the tank when a certain groundwater elevation is ex-
ceeded; (2) installing automatic pressure relief systems
-
in the base slab or sidewalls where applicable; or (3)
lowering the groundwater table with perforated drain
pipes and collection systems. Depending on soil condi-
 tions, upliftpiles or drilled anchors also may be used in
appropriate soilhock conditions to resist uplift pres-
sures.
When none of these methods is practical, the use of
an alarm system may be considered. The alarm system
should alert the operator when a dangerous ground-
water elevation is reached so that action may be taken
immediately to start filling the tanks to balance- the
uplift. At least two independent alarm systems should
be provided and tested at frequent intervals.
Tanks below grade normally are tested for water-
tightness before backfilling, and where appropriate, this
condition should beconsidered in the structuraldesign.
Large-diameter tanks expand and contract apprecia-
bly as they are filled and drained. The connection be-
tween wall and footing should either permit these
movements or be strongenough to resist them without
cracking. When the wall is not interconnected to other
structures or tanks and free to move, the jointdetail at
both the floor and roof should be carefully designed
and constructed.
The analysis of rectangular wall panels supported at
three or four sides is explained in detail in References 6
and 7, which contain tabulated coefficients for design.
When the wall panels are rectangular and the dimen-
sional ratios exceed those given in the coefficient ta-
bles, the tables still may be of some use. The end re-
gions of the rectangular wall panel can be designed
based on the coefficients for the closest aspect ratio in
the table. Determine end moments a t wall intersec-
tions. The remaining middle portionof the wall is then
designed as a one-way span or cantilever. As an alter-
native, an elastic analysis can be used.
Vertically reinforced walls supported at top and bot-
tom also are used frequently. These are particularly ad-
vantageous when a rectangular tank is relatively nar-
row or when the tank is supported on piles. It may be
desirable to design the side wall of a tank fortwo con-
ditions: as a cantilever wall and as one supported attop
and bottom. The reason for the double design is that
such sidewalls, when the tank is constructed in an ex-
cavated area, will often be backfilled before the top
support is constructed. It should be noted that expan-
sion joints in tank floors will eliminate the continuity
between the opposite walls. Therefore, the designer
should carefully investigate sliding, including the re-
duction of friction due to bouyancy from leakage. .
Reinforced concrete walls at least 10 f t (3.0 m) high
that arein contact with liquids should have a minimum
thickness of 12 in. (305 mm). Usually, the minimum
thickness of any minor structural member in environ-
mental engineering concrete structures is 6 in. (152
mm). A mínimum of 8 in. (203 mm) will be required
where a 2 in. (51 mm) concrete cover is desired. How-
ever, when waterstops are used and the positioning of
reinforcement might adversely affect proper place-
ment, a greater thickness should be considered. It
should be noted that theshear key problem discussed in
Section 2.8.4 is particularly severe in thin walls. For
crack control, it is preferable to use a large number of
COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)
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small-diameter bars for main reinforcement rather than
an equal area of larger bars. Maximum bar spacing
should not exceed 12 in. (305 mm). Section 10.6.4 of
AC1 318R provides guidance for limiting bar sizes.
The amount of shrinkage and temperature reinforce-
ment that should be provided is a function of the dis-
tance between the joints that will dissipate shrinkage
and temperature stresses in the direction of the rein-
forcement. In addition, the amount of shrinkage and
temperature reinforcement is a function of the particu-
lar concrete mix and other properties, the amount of
aggregate, the member thickness, its reinforcement, and
the environmental conditions of the site. These factors
have been considered in applying the analysis method
developed by Vetters to environmental engineering con-
crete structures, and the recommendations contained in
the remainder of this section are based on this
Shrinkage and temperaturereinforcement should not
be less than the ratios given in Fig. 2.5 except when
shrinkage-compensating concrete is used. Contraction
and construction joint spacings of up to 75 ft (22.9 m)
have been used successfully with shrinkage-compensat-
ing concrete and 0.3 percent reinforcement. When
shrinkage-compensating concrete is used, construction
details should bedeveloped in accordance with AC1 223
recommendations. Consideration may be given to re-
ducing the amount of shrinkage and temperature rein-
forcement shown in Figure 2.5 when.details are devel-
oped in accordance with ACÍ 223 recommendations
and non-shrinkage compensating concrete is used.
Concrete sections 24 in. (610 mm) or thicker may have
the minimum temperature andshrinkage reinforcement
at each face based on a 12 in. (305 mm) thickness.
Temperature and shrinkage reinforcement should be
spaced not greater than 12 in. (305 mm) on center, di-
vided equally between the two surfaces of the concrete
0.006
0.005
0.004
0.003
0.0028
0.002
0.001
o
O 10 20 25 30 40 50 KO
~.
. length between shrinkage-drssipating joints i n feet
Fig. 2.5-Ratio of shrinkage and temperature rein-
forcement for concretes made with ASTM C 150 and C
595 cements. The minimum temperature and shrinkage
steel should be #4 bars; maximum spacing should be
12
in. (305 mm) on center, each face
 A C 1 350R 8 7 R Ob62747 0038044 0 m
350R-8 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE

Table 2.5 -
Minimum concrete cover for
reinforcement
Slabs and joists:
Top and bottom bars for dryconditions:
#14 and
1 #18 bars
and #11 bars smaller
Formed concrete surfaces exposed to earth, water, or weather,
and over or in contact with sewage and for bottoms bearing on
work mat, or slabs supporting earth cover:
and #5 bars smaller
#6 through #18 bars
Beams and columns:
For dry conditions:
andspirals,
Stirrups, ties in.
reinforcement
Principal
Exposed to earth, water, sewage, or weather:
and Stirrups ties
PrinciDal reinforcement
Walls:
For dry conditions:
#11 bars and smaller
#14 and #18 bars
Formed concrete surfaces exposed to earth, water, sewage,
weather, or in contact with ground:
Circular tanks with ring tension
All others
' Footings and baseslabs:
At formed surfaces and bottoms bearing on
concrete work mat
At unformed surfaces and bottoms in contact
with earth
Top of footings - same as slabs
Over top of piles
section. The reinforcement in the bottom of base slabs
in contact with soil may be reduced to 50 percent of the
value given in Fig. 2.5.
Minimum concrete protective covering of reinforce-
ment should be as shown in Table 2.5.
Environmental engineering concrete structures nec-
essarily cover large areas, and thecovering of filter beds
and tanks may pose problems. In roof design the engi-
neer should take into consideration exposure to a hu-
mid, possibly corrosive, interior atmosphere and should
allow for movement joints in walls, The latter can be
accomplished by carrying the joints through the roof.
Supports designed to permit sliding of concrete on con-
crete frequently result in problems such as spalling' of
the supporting ledges on beams, walls, and slabs and
are not recommended.
Superstructures of environmental engineering struc-
tures, other than tanks, are not discussed in detail be-
cause they are frequently similar to conventional struc-
tures, In some facilities, the gases generated may be
toxic and also present an explosion hazard. Additional
ventilation, pressure venting, gas alarms, and provision
for explosion venting may be required. Where build-
ings or equipment rooms are located over the tops of
tanks or digesters, the tanks may require gas-proofing
by means of liners and/or the installation of gas detec-
tion equipment.
2.6 - Structural design
2.6.1. General - AC1 318 contains general require-
ments for reinforced concrete building structures that
are also valid for environmental engineering concrete
COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)
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structures. The design engineer should establish the de-
sign criteria for a specific concrete structure within the
limitations of the AC1 or local building codes based on
% in. the special requirements of environmental engineering
?A in. structures.
Environmental engineering concrete structures gen-
erally belong to the category of structures for which
1% in.
2 in. minimal cracking is a paramount requisite. Leakage
into potable water or out of contaminated water facili-
ties must be avoided to protect the public health.
1% Therefore, experienced designers of environmental en-
2 in.
gineering structures have established somewhat more
2 in. conservative allowable stresses for such reinforced con-
2% in.
crete structures.
The strain of the reinforcing bars understress will be
% in. transferred to the adjoining concrete. Low stress in re-
1% in.
inforcement at service loads will tend to minimize the
amount of cracking.
2 in.
2 in. The structural design recommendations herein are to
be regarded as minimum provisions for general use.
Any special structural features, unusual loading com-
2 in. binations, or unusual exposure conditions may require
3 in.
special design precautions more conservative than the
minimum provisions. In particular, thedesigner should
2 in.
consider the structural effectsof joint spacings and de-
tails, and construction sequences.
Special design considerations regarding details and
specifications should be given to the possible hazard-
ous and corrosive effect of oxygen, ozone, hydrogen
sulfide, and methane gases in closed tanks. This is es-
pecially important when habitable spaces are located
above the tank.
2.6.2 Design requirements - Reinforced environ-
mental engineering concrete structures must be de-
signed for both strength and serviceability.
2.6.3 Methods - Two methods of structural design
for reinforced concrete sections generally are accepted
in practice, and both are applicable to environmental
engineering concrete structures. These methods are
presently described in detail in AC1 318. They are (1)
strength design, using factored loads V, specified steel
and concrete strengths f , and fi , and capacity reduc-
tion factor 4; and (2)working stress design (alternate
design method, AC1 318, Appendix B), using service
loads and reduced allowable working stresses.
2.6.4 Special limitations - Both methods require
speciallimitationsforapplication to environmental
structures to assure resistance to leakage of liquids and
long life under conditions of exposure in environmen-
tal service.
For additional design information when using con-
crete made with shrinkage-compensating cement, see
Chapter 3 of AC1 223.
2.6.5 Strength design - The load factors prescribed
in AC1 318 may be directly applied to environmental
engineering concrete structures with one adjustment.
The load factors for both the lateral earth pressure N
and the lateral liquid pressure F should be taken as. 1.7.
The factored load combinations for total factored de-
sign load U, as prescribed in AC1 318, should be in-
.
 "

6.57

Allowable service load stress, f,, ksi

Fig. 2.4.7(a)-Bar spacing for flexural crack control (#3 Fig. 2.4.7(b)-Bar spacing for flexural crack control
through #5 bars) (#4 through #8 bars)

creased by sanitary durability coefficients for environ- tions and crack width are applicable to environmental
mental engineering concrete structures as follows: engineering concrete structures. For flexural reinforce-
a. In calculations for reinforcement in flexure, the ment located in one layer, the quantity 2 should not
required strength should be 1.3 U. exceed 115 kipsRn. 2 values were established for cover
b. In calculations for reinforcement in direct tension, equal to or less than 2 in.(51 mm) and should be based
including hoop tension, the required strength should be on this value when the cover exceeds 2 in. Additional
1.65 U. cover may be regarded as added protection.I0JL
c. "Therequireddesignstrengthforreinforcement in The 2 factor and crack width are a function of the
diagonal tension (shear) should be calculated by applying a concrete cover and overall thickness of a flexural mem-
sanitary durability coefficient of 1.3 to the excess shear. ber and are valid only for one-way flexural members.
Excess shear defied is as the difference between the factoredThe designer should use the basic Gergley-Lutz equa-
shear force at the section, V,,, and the shear strength provided tion, as recommended in the Commentary to Section
by the concrete, +Vc. Thus +Vs 2 1.3 (V, - +Vc), where 10.6.4 of AC1 318, for one-way flexural members.
+Vs is the design capacityof the shear reinforcement." For members subject to direct tension (hoop ten-
d. In calculations for the compressive region of flexure sion), a sanitary durability coefficient of 1.65 may be
and compressive axial loads, and for all loads carried by used for all grades of reinforcing."-" The factor 2 has
concrete, the required strength should be 1.00U. no direct bearing for this state of stress.
e. For factors to be used in seismic design, refer to The reinforcement for a two-way flexural member
AC1 318. (e.g., slabs and walls) may be proportioned in each di-
As noted previously, the durability coefficients were rection based on Section 2.6.5 since reliable crack-width
developed from crack width calculation methods. equations for such members are not available in the lit-
2.6.6 Serviceability for normal sanitary exposures* erature at this time.11J2
Except as provided in this section, serviceability re- For design by the working stress method of Section
quirements of AC1 3 18 to control calculated deflec- 2.6.7, deformed bars or wire should be spaced so that
the quantity 2 does not exceed 115 kipdin., as shown
*Normal sanitary exposures are defined as liquid retention (watertight), ex- in Fig. 2.6.7(a), 2.6.7(b), and 2.6.7(c), and the spacing
posure to liquids more alkaline than pH of 5, or exposure to sulfate solutions
COPYRIGHT ACI
of less than lS00 ppm.
International (American Concrete Institute) should not exceed 12 in. (305 mm). In all other flexural
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 A C 1 350R 87 06629L17 OCILBOY6 Y m
350R-10 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE

I Bac sires ## 9, # 10,and # 1 1 with 2 in. cover Table 2.6.7(b) -

Recommended maximum
stresses at service loadfor recommended
S I -
(Z/f,13
14.63
maximum 12-in. (305-mm) spacing of reinforcing
bars in environmental engineering concrete
structures
I
exposure condition* service
Bar and maximum 2 load, psi (kPa)
sizes value'
in Members direct 14,000
All sizes tension
Flexural members
Severe exposure 20,000
22,000
(Maximum Z = 95)(152,000)(138,000)
#3, #4,#5
Flexural members
Normal
sanitary
(Maximum 2 = 1151
1 27,000 1 20,000
(186,000)(138,000)

#8'
#6, #7',
Flexural members
Severe exposure
(Maximum Z = 95)
I 18,000
(124,000)
Flexural members
sanitary
Normal 22,000

Severe exposure 17,000

#9', #lo', #11'
tI Flexural members
Normal
sanitarv
(Maximum2 2 115) II (145;OOO)
21.000 I 20,000
I (138;000)
*Normal sanitary exposure is defined as liquid retention (watertight) expo-
sure to liquids with pH > 5 or exposure to sulfate solutions of less than 1500
ppm. Severe sanitary exposures are conditions in which the limits defining nor-
mal sanitary exposure areexceeded.
'The Z values referred to are defined in AC1 318. Derivations for crack con-
trol formulas are in the commentary to AC1 318R.
1 5 16 17 18 19 i 0 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 'Bar sizes #7 through #11, in Grade 40,have been deleted from ASTM A 615.
. ..
Allowableservfceloadstress, f, ksi For severe environmental exposures,* structural de-
Fig. 2.6.7(c)-Bar spacing for flexural crack control(#9 sign should conform to Section 2.6.6 with the quantity
through # I I bars) 2 which does not exceed 95 kipdin., and surface or
other protection or barrier should be provided suitable
Table 2.6.7(a) -
Recommended allowable
stresses* for concrete in environmental
for the particular conditionsof exposure.
2.6.1 Alternate design method, ACI 318, Appendix B
engineering concrete structures that must be (working stress design) - Except as noted below, the
water tight and resistant to chemicals alternate design method should be. in accordance with
Recommended AC1 318, Appendix B. Recommended concrete and
Description value, psi
steel stresses for design at service loads are presented in
Modulus of elasticity ratio n
Flexure:
I 29,000,000
w.533 a Tables 2.6.7(a) and 2.6.7(b). These stresses are for a
maximum bar spacing of 12 in. and have been estab-
Extreme fiber stressin compression f, lished to control crack widths for concrete surfaces ex-
Extreme fiber stress in tension in plain posed to conditions encountered in environmental en-
concrete footings and walls
Shear: gineering concrete structures, The stresses for 12 in. bar
v (as a measure of diagonal tension at d spacings should not exceed 27,000 psi (186 KPa) for
from face of support)
Beams with no web reinforcement Grade 60 reinforcement nor 20,000 psi (137 KPa) for
Joists with no webreinforcement Grade 40 reinforcement.
Members with web reinforcement or properly Fig 2.6.7(a), 2.6.7(b), and 2.6.7(c) are presented for
combined bent bars and vertical stirrups
Slabs and footings (peripheral shear) lesser bar spacings and a broader range of 2 values.
Bearing: . Development lengths and anchorages should conform
On full area
On one-third area or less to the requirements of AC1 318.
~

*Recommendedworking stresses shownaboveareintermsof fi for all

strengths of concrete. For minimum recommended fi see Section 3.5.1. Other
requirements should conform to Appendix B (alternatedesign method) of AC1
2.7 - Reinforcement splices
318.
Splices in reinforcement should conform to the re-
quirements of AC1 318. In circular tanks designed for
ring tension, the location of splices should be stag-
members, bar spacing should be limited so that calcu- gered. Adjacent hoop reinforcing splices should be
lated 2 values do not exceed 115 kips per in. Deformed
bar or wire spacings should not exceed 12 in. (305 mm). 'Severe sanitary exposures are conditions in which the limits defining nor-
Preferably. barsizes should not exceed #11. mal sanitary exposures are exceeded.
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\,
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 staggered horizontally (center of lap tocenter of lap) by
not less than one laplength nor 3 ft andshould not co-
incide in vertical arrays more frequently than every
third bar.
It should be noted that due to the unusually thick
slabs found in someliquid-retaining structures, the slab
top bar mats may require “top bar’’ lap lengths. Top
bar requirements are set forth in AC1 318.
2.8 - Joints
2.8.1 Volume changes - Volume changes in con-
crete generally are caused by expansion or contraction
in response to changes in creep, shrinkage, tempera-
ture, or moisture content. Temperature variations,
being daily and seasonal, are somewhat more regular
and predictable than moisture changes.
Contraction due to evaporation of excess water be-
gins during or after the curing period, depending on the
quality of the moisture and temperature controls.
Shrinkage may continue for several years, as is shown
in Fig. 2.8.1, unless water is added to the hardened
concrete for extended periods. However, in enviton-
mental engineering concrete structures designed to con-
tain liquids, the shrinkage may be halted when the
structures are placed in use and even reversed during
hot, humid weather.
To provide for volume changes in a manner that will
minimize damage to theconcrete, movement joints and
reinforcement should be provided for in the structure
by the design engineer. All joints should be shown on
the engineering drawings. Additional guidance on joints
is contained in AC1 504R.
Shrinkage-compensating concrete can be used to re-
duce shrinkage cracking in environmental engineering
concrete structures, but this committee is not yet in a
position to recommend detailed requirements for its
use. Additional detailed information on shrinkage-
compensating concrete is contained in AC1 223. It
should be noted that additional care and controlshould
be exercised during design and construction.
2.8.2 Movement joints
2.8.2.1 Expansion joints - Expansion joints are
movement joints used to allow for expansion and con-
traction of concrete during the curing period and dur-
ing service to permit dimensionaI changes in concrete
due to load, to separate or isolate areas or members
that could be affected by such dimensional changes,
and to allow relative movements or displacements due
to expansion,contraction,differentialfoundation
movement, or applied loads. Expansion joints also can
function as contraction joints or construction joints.
In general, expansion joints should be provided near
abrupt changes in the structureconfiguration. As stated
in the foreword of the Federal Construction Council
Technical Report No. 65 (National Academy of Sci-
ences), “Many factors affect the amount of tempera-
ture-induced movement that takes place in a building,
and also the extent to which this movement can take
place before serious damage will occur or extensive
maintenance will be required. Because of the complex-
COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)
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Tobays 28hays
90days r i r 5yr
Zyr
Time after loading (log scale)
IOyr 20yr 3’0yr
Fig. 2.8.1-Drying shrinkage-time ratio curves, based
on cylinders curedfor 28 or 90 days, then stored at 50
to 70 percent humidity ( f o m Troxell et al.13)
ity of this problem, no one has yet established nation-
ally acceptable procedures for precisely determining the
size and location of expansion joint^."'^
Historically, in environmental engineering concrete
structures, the spacing of expansion joints has been
conservative and much influenced by the restraints in-
herent in the geometry of tanks and buildings, with
spacings varying from 50 to 250 ft for walls and super-
structures. Base slabs with frequent construction joints
have been built, without expansion joints, up to 600 ft
in length.
In general, expansion joint spacing preferably should
not be spaced greater than 120 ft (36.6 m). When the
spacing of expansion joints exceeds 150 ft (46 m), a
special investigation should be made for the reinforce-
ment requirements and the expansion joint details. The
restraint exerted on the base slab by the soil should also
be investigated. It is often desirable to locate expansion
joints at abrupt changes in the structure configuration
but when so placed, the joint details must be designed
to transfer the shear caused by differential deflection of
the elements on each side of the joint or,if shear trans-
fer is not provided for, to accommodate the distortion
in the jointdetails caused by the differential deflection
such as in the waterstop.
The recommendations of the preceding paragraph are
for normal environmental engineering concrete struc-
tures partially filled with a liquid, When tanks or other
structures will remain empty for long periods of time,
particularly in hot climates, closer spacings should be
used. In this respect, particular attention should be paid
to conditions during construction.
Many satisfactory expansion joint details have been
devised and used, some of which are illustrated in Fig.
2.8.2.1. Other suggested details are found inFig. 8, 11,
and 12 of the AC1 504R. All expansion joints should
include some type of compressible preformed filler and
a joint sealant or compression seal at theliquid face. If
the member must be watertight, a suitable waterstop,
made of rubber, neoprene, or plastic, should be in-
cluded to act as the primary barrier to leakage. Water-
stops, preformed joint filler, and joint sealant should be
selecfed to allow for the movement anticipated. Reinforce-
ment should terminate 2 in. (51 mm) from the face of the
joint.
 A C 1 3SOR 87
350R-12
J o i n t sealant o n e x p o s e d s u r f a c e s
f u n l e s s otherwise n o t e d 1
W
Bond b r e a k e r
P r e f o r m e dj o i n t
u n l e s so t h e r w i s en o t e d
t o c o n c r e t e on o n e s i d e
Type 1
N o Liquld Storage
N o t e :J o i n ts e a l a n t andbondbreakershould
inaccordancewiththemanufacturers'
Fig. 2.8.2.1-Expansion joints (nor to scale)
Jotnt sealant on exposed surfaces
u n l e s s otherwisenoted
Reinforcement
Contraction j o i n t
forllquidstoraqe
F i l l withscalant to
protectremforcement
Formed.
uedqe-.
L o . z t 12' m d X l m m I
Weakened p l a n e j o i n t for slabsandpaving
Fig. 2.8.2.4-Contraction joints (not to scale)
2.8.2.2 Rubber waterstops permit the greatest joint
movement and last indefinitely when kept in a dark and
humid environment. Polyvinyl chloride waterstops per-
mit somewhat less movement than rubber and are less
sensitive to light and drying out, Polyvinyl chloride
may be spliced by applying heat. The minimum thick-
ness of either type should be % in. (9.5 mm), and they
should be at least 9 in. (230 mm) wide for expansion
joints and 6 in. (150 mm) wide for other types of joints
to provide adequate embedment in the con~rete,'~ In 2.8.2.4.
any event, the engineer should verify that the water
stop is chemically compatible with the liquid it must
contain.
The preformed joint filler has the twofold task of
serving as a form for thesecond placement of concrete
and preserving the space into which the concrete may
expand. An ideal joint filler will permit compression to
one-half its original width and will reexpand to fill the
joint when the adjacent members contract. Cork, neo-
prene, rubber, foam, and other materials conforming
to ASTM D 994, D 1056, D 1751, and D 1752 are sat-
isfactory joint fillers.
2.8.2.3 Sealants should be recommended by the
manufacturer for the intended service. Only a few non-
sag sealants have been recommended for submerged
service. For other services, nonsag and self-leveling
sealants may be used.
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m 0 b b 2 7 4 7 0038048 ¿!m
MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
Water treatment plants and reservoirs require seal-
ants approved for potable water. In addition to taste,
odor, and toxicity concerns, the sealant should be re-
sistant to chlorinated water. consideration should be
given to the effects of prolonged exposure to chlorine
at normal drinking water concentrations, as well as
fill
short-term exposure to chlorine at the high concentra-
tions required for disinfection. Sealants intended for
Type. 2
F o rL l q u l dS t o r a g e
use should be approved by agencies having jurisdiction
over the specific project or resource.
beapplied
directions 2.8.2.4 Contraction joints - Some designers use
contraction joints as a typeof movement joint to dissi-
pate shrinkage stresses. Where used, a contraction joint
should be located at intervals not exceeding 30 ft (9.1
m) unless additional reinforcement is provided, as rec-
ommended in Fig. 2.5. Two types of contraction joints
han 501
known as "full" and "partial" contraction joints are in
o f re."-
forcemant common use. In full contraction joints, all reinforce-
throuqh
)oint ment is terminated 2 in. (51 mm) clear of the joint. The
abutting ends of the concrete are coated with a bond
breaker (see Fig, 2.8.2.4). Waterstops, which may be
PartialContraction!oint metal, plastic, or rubber, should be used for water-
f o r I r q u i d storaqe
tightness. Where necessary to insure equal deflection of
each side of the joint, a method of transferring stress
such.as smooth dowels, should be provided. A sealant
Antbclpated cracklnq usually is provided along the exposed perimeter of the
joint to exclude water or foreign matter.
cnernforcement
It may be desirable to pass tension forces through the
151 ml
joint to tie portions of the structure together. In this
case a partial contraction joint may be used. This joint
is similar to the full contraction joint; however, in or-
der to weaken the joint andassure crack .formation, not
more than 50 percent of the reinforcement is passed
through the joint. Inserts which reduce the cross sec-
tion of the concrete and form a weakened plane have
been used to form partial contraction joints in slabs
and paving, If the insert is removable, the resultant
void should be filled with sealant. It is desirable to use
reduced spacing for partial contraction joints. This
spacing should be approximately % that of the full
contraction joint. If splices are used at partial contrac-
tion joints, they should be positioned as shown in Fig.
Contraction joints may not be required when using
shrinkage-compensating concrete. Typical contraction
joint details are shown in Fig. 2.8.2.4.
2.8.2.5 Additional reinforcement at joints-Move-
ment joints, particularly expansion joints, should have
the concrete ends reinforced to resist spalling and/or
splitting of the concrete due to inadvertent contact with
the concrete on the other side of the joint. The rein-
forcement should not be smaller than #3 bars spaced 12
in. on center, should be along each face of the joint,
-
and should be anchored back along the normal con-
crete reinforcement.
2.8.3 Construction joints-Construction joints,
which should not be taken as movement joints unless
designed in accordance with Section 2.8.2.4, should be
located so as to least impair the strength of the struc-
ture, to provide logical separations between segments of

the structure, and to facilitate construction. Additional
construction joints, or revised locations of joints, may
be proposed by the contractor but should be subject to
approval of the designer. Before placing new concrete
against it, the surface of the joint should be prepared
to insure a good bond, unless designed as a contraction
joint (Section 2.8.2.4).
All reinforcement should be continued across or
through construction joints, unless designed as in Sec-
tion 2.8.2.4. Where the joint must bewatertight, a wa-
terstop should beused.
2.8.4 Shear keys for movement joinfs-In some in-
stances, shear keys have proved troublesome in prac-
tice. Failure of the key can result in leakage due toby-
passing of the waterstop. When shear keys are used,
special precautions should be taken to avoid this prob-
lem. A number of techniques have been used, including
shear transfer with dowels and steel waterstops, relo-
cation of the waterstop, and redesign to avoid the ne-
cessity of shear transfer.
2.9-lmpact, vibration, torque, and seismic loads
To maintain the watertightness of a structure, it is
essential that cracking and crack widths be kept to a
minimum. Accordingly, special care is needed in de-
signing for impact and vibration, either of which can
initiate or propagate cracks. In particular, the effect of
vibration is cumulative and cracks will continue to de-
velop and grow with time. It is, therefore, important
that corrective action to reduce the vibration be taken
as early as possible in structures where vibrations have
caused cracking.
2.9.1 Impact-Impact loads are occasionally en-
countered in environmental engineering concrete struc-
tures, When they are present, a conservative design
approach is recommended to keep cracking to a mini-
mum. Design for impact should be as thorough as pos-
sible. However, where a complete shock analysis is not
practical, appropriate impact factors should be used
and design should be based on the stresses recom-
mended in Section 2.6. An appropriate impact allow-
ance, frequently in the range of 25 percent of the
weight, is used for heavy machines.
2.9.2 Vibration-Most of the mechanical equipment
associated with environmental engineering structures,
such as scrapers, clarifiers, certain types of floccula-
tors, and rotating vacuum screens, is basically slow-
moving and will not cause structural vibrations. For
such equipment, a separate design for dynamic loading
is unnecessary. Other commonly used machines, such
as centrifugal pumps, fans, centrifuges, blowers, gen-
erator engines, and compressors, have much higher ro-
tational speeds and require special considerations in the
design of their support structures and foundations.
Usually, the value of such machines is so much more
than the cost of the foundation that it is imprudent to
economize on foundation costs and run the risk of
shortened machine life, increased maintenance costs,
and breakdowns.
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350R-13
In environmental engineering structures, the ma-
chines that most often cause vibration problems are
forced-draft fans and centrifuges used for dewatering
clarifier sludge or digester sludge. These are very sensi-
tive machines and need carefully designed foundations
with no critical resonant vibration. Chemical mixers
may also serve as the source of significant dynamic
loads. The supports of such mixers are particularly
prone to vibration.
The key to successful dynamic design is to insure that
the natural frequency of the machinery support struc-
ture is significantly different from the frequency of the
disturbing force. If the two frequencies approach each
other, resonant vibrations will be set up in the support
structure. To minimize resonant vibrations, the ratioof
the natural frequency of the structure to the frequency
of the disturbing force shouldbe kept out of the range
from 0.5 to 1.5. As discussed later in this section, it is
preferable to maintain a frequency ratio above 1.5.
For spread foundations, the safe-bearing load fre-
quently is assumed as one-half of the permissible safe
load for statically loaded foundations at the same lo-
cation and on the same soil or rock.16J7 Someequip-
ment manufacturers recommend minimum founda-
tiodequipment mass ratios, generally in the range of
four to six. Adherence to this rule has not always
proved satisfactory,18and to insure that the equipment
will not be in resonance with the foundation, it is rec-
ommended that the natural frequency of the founda-
tion system be calculated. For natural frequency calcu-
lations, follow the method recommended in Reference
16. For pile-supported foundations, follow the recom-
mendations found in References 19 through 21. Often
the machine foundation is insulated or entirely sepa-
rated from the floors and other parts of the structure,
minimizing transmission of vibration to other areas of
the building. If the anticipated vibration is of a fre-
quency and amplitude that can be transmitted through
the ground, the equipment foundation also should be
insulated from the ground by shock-absorbing sup-
ports. More detailed information on the dynamic de-
sign of foundations can be found in Reference 22.
If the machine is not supported directly on a solid
foundation but oncolumns and beams, it is the natural
frequency of the support members that is of primary
importance. Needless to say, the strength of these
members also must be within acceptable limits.
The natural frequency of a structure should be cal-
culated for the vertical direction and for the two'prin-
cipal horizontal directions. To combine the effect of
several masses, such as those due to the machine and
the structure, the natural frequency can be calculated
using the following formula
FN = p"
E
'
-+-+-+-
E G E
where
 A C 1 350R 87 W 0 b b 2 7 4 7 0 0 1 8 0 5 0 b W
350R-14 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE

FN = combinednatural frequency machine and thus avoid resonant vibration. In this

F, = natural frequency due to Mass 1
F2 = natural frequency due to Mass 2
F3 = natural frequency due to Mass 3
F4 = natural frequency due to Mass 4
The individual frequencies, in cycles per min, can be
calculated using the expressions given in Table 2.9.2(a),
in which D is the immediate deflection due to the mass
being considered. Gravity should be assumed to act in
the direction of vibration, and in lieu of a comprehen-
siveanalysis, D canbecalculatedusingthemethod
optlined in Section 9.5.2.3 of AC1 318.
The preceding equations provide a simple method of
computing the natural frequency of a structure from its
static deflection. For the case of a concentrated load
only, Table 2.9.2(b) relates the static deflection of a
structufe supporting an item of equipment to the natu-
ral frequency of that structure as calculated using the
equations. A similar table can be developed for struc-
tures in which the uniform loads or other loads are sig-
nificant. As stated, the ratioof natural frequency of the
structure to frequency of the machinery or other dis-
turbing force should be either less than 0.5 or greater
than 1.5, preferably the latter. Table 2.9.2(b) shows
recommended maximum structural deflections for given
equipment operating speeds.
Theoretically, the natural frequency of the structure
also could be lower than the operating rotation of the
Table 2.9.2(a) - Natural frequencies of beams
Natural frequency,
cvcles Der minute
case, the natural frequency of the support should be at
least 50 percent below the operating frequency of the
machinery. A disadvantage is that the machine would
pass through the critical cycle at startup and shutdown.
It is not likely that the shortcoincidence of time would
cause damage to the machine, but generally it is pref-
erable to keep the deflection low and the natural fre-
quency of the structure well above operating speed. It
is also possible that the machine will be operated at a
lower speed for some time, and this lower speed could
coincide with, or be close to, the critical frequency of
resonant vibration.
If the machinery is installed on an upper floor, the
use of vibration isolators is recommended, but this
should not be considered a substitute for dynamic
structural design, since all isolators transmit some vi-
bration.
A more complete discussion of dynamic analysis
methods is given in References 23 through 26.
2.9.3 Torque-In some cases, it may be necessary to
consider torque in the design of the structure. Large
circular clarifiers frequently fall into this category.
Most clarifiers support the entire mechanism on a
center column. The diameters of clarifiers are steadily
increasing, and there are now clarifiers of 500 ft (152
m) diameter in operation. These clarifiers have cantile-
ver scrapers close to 250 ft (76 m) in length. Stalling
torques of up to 5,000,000 Ib-ft (6,780,000 N-m)are
specified, and the foundationmust be able to resist this
load. There have been cases where the center column
has sheared off from the foundation. Often, a limit
switch is included in the mechanism to prevent over-
load of the structure.

l
End condition Where D Where D
is In a few types of clarifiers, the radial scrapers are
deflection,
Load mm supported on a center column but driven by a carriage
1174
- that rides on the periphery of the clarifier. With this
Uniform End 2
JD type, horizontal reactions occur at both the center col-
umn and the periphery, and there is no torque.
1073
-
or Uniform Midspan The sludge accumulation, which produces the speci-
Fixed I Fixed a fied stalling torque, is assumed to be a triangular hori-

i
zontal load on the cantilever arms, the maximum being
or at the center and tapering off to zero at the circumfer-
:oncentrated 947
Fixed Free any position)
~
ence. This corresponds with the probable patternof the
JD sludge accumulation,
or
[Pin
Pin From the viewpoint of the foundation, the load dis-
tribution of the steel structure is immaterial. However,
the magnitude of the stalling torque is important, and
Table 2.9.2(b) -
Recommended maximum
structural deflectionfor given equipment
the foundation and the center column usually are de-
operating speeds signed to resist a torque of 50 percent in excess of the
Recommended
stalling torque. The resisting earth friction and passive
minimum natural earth pressure have small lever arms about thecenter of
frequency of Maximum static deflection the torque, and it is possible, if the foundation is small
Operating speed strucfure, cycles pel of structure due to dead
of machinery, min from formula load and machinery load, or in loose fills or slippery silts, for the clarifier drive
cycles per min (Hz) (Hz) in. (mm) mechanism to start turning the center column founda-
600 (10.0) (2.54)
0.10 . tion. However, the concrete center column may be
600 (10.0) 900 (15.0) 0.044
(1.12)
(20.0)
1200
(13.3)
800 0.025
(0.635) keyed and doweled into the clarifier base slab to resist
(25.0)
1500
(16.7)
1000 0.016
(0.406) this torque.
(30.0)
1800
(20.0)
1200 0.011(0.279)
3000
(33.3)
2000 (50.0) 0.0040 (0.102) The torque resistance of the foundation can be in-
0.0027 10.069) creased by the use of batter piles at theperiphery of the
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foundation. Increasing the friction by increasing the
foundation weight and/or increasing the area of the
foundation to give a bigger lever arm also will provide
greater torque resistance.
2.9.4 Design of tanks to resist seismic loads-In de-
sign of tanks to resist seismic loads, the hydrodynamic
mass of the contained fluid should be considered in the
seismic load determination. This applies to both open
and enclosed tanks and all sizes and shapes, e.g.,
square, rectangular, and circular.
Hydrodynamic pressures should include both impul-
sive and convective components. Impulsive pressures
are developed by accelerations of the tank walls acting
against the mass of the contained liquid. Convective
pressures are those produced by oscillations (sloshing)
of the liquid within the tanks.
In addition to the preceding, the tanks should also be
designed to include seismic effects of external earth
pressures and dead loads of the structure.
Methodology for developing hydrodynamic pres-
sures has been developed by G. W. Housner and is
contained in Reference 27. Additional information on
seismic-induced loadings of environmental facilities is
contained in Reference 28. Other rational methods for
determining the seismic resistance of tanks, such as the
energy method described in References 29 and 30, may
be used.
Seismic action can induce large horizontal and over-
turning forces on environmental engineering concrete
structures. Special provisions may be required when
joints at the base of tanks are required to resist high
shear forces and tension loads and, at the same time,
fulfill the movement requirements outlined in Section
2.8.
CHAPTER 3"MATERIALS, MIXTURE
PROPORTIONING, AND TESTING
Selection and storage of materials and mixture pro-
portioning for environmental engineering concrete
structures should be in conformance with AC1 301,ex-
cept as specifically recommended in this report.
3.1 "Cementitious materials
3.1.1 Cernent-Except for the limitations of Sections
3.1.2 and 3.1.3, cement should conform to one of the
following specifications.
1. Portland cement ASTM C 150, Types I, IA, II,
IIA, III, IIIA, or V.
2. BlendedhydrauliccementASTM C 595 Types
I(PM), I(SM), IP, and their air-entrained modifications, as
denoted by Suffix A,
3. Expansive hydraulic cement ASTM C 845, Type
E-IK.
If air-entrained concrete is required, an air-entrain-
ing admixture as noted in Section 3.2 should be used.
These different cements should not be used inter-
changeably in the sameelement or portionof the work.
Additional guidance on cement may be found in AC1
225R.
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3.1.2 Sulfate-resistant cement-The C3A content of
the cementitious material should not exceed 8 percent in
any concrete exposed to moderate sulfate attack(150to
1000 ppm). Portland blast furnance slag cement
(ASTM C 599,Types IS (MS) or IS-A (MS), also may
be used for such exposures as well as portland pozzo-
lan cement (ASTM C 595), Types IP or IPA, provided
the pozzolan content does not exceed 25 percent by
weight of the cementitious materials,
For severe sulfate exposure (1000 ppm or more), a
cementitious material with not more than 5 percent C,A
should be used. If this type is not available, a cement
with a C,A content between 5 and 8 percent may be
used with a 10 percent reduction in water-cement ratio.
Alternatively, substituting a pozzolan such as fly ash
for cement by weight so that the total C3A content of
the resulting cement plus pozzolan is not greater than 5
percent may be done. In this case, the pozzolan should
not exceed 25 percent by weight of the cement plus
pozzolan. Higher alkali could be permitted if a suitable
fly ash or other pozzolan, or ground granulated blast-
furnace slag, can be used as an inhibitor of the reac- .
tion.
Some expansive hydraulic cements (shrinkage-com-
pensating) made with Type II or Type V portland ce-
ment clinker and adequately sulfated can provide ade-
quate sulfate resistance. (See Section 2.5.7 of AC1 223.)
3.1.3 Low alkali cement-Where aggregates are al-
kali reactive, a cement containing less than 0.60 per-
cent alkalies should be used.
3.1.4 Pozzolans-Pozzolans should conform to
ASTM C 618 and should have a loss on ignition of less
than 3 percent. Not all pozzolans are beneficial to sul-
fate resistance. Pozzolans should not exceed 25 percent
by weight of the cement plus pozzolans to avoid erratic
absorption of admixtures.
3.2-Admixtures
An air-entraining admixture should conform to
ASTM C 260. It has been found that this type of ad-
mixture has a number of beneficial'effects, in addition
to improving resistance t o t h e effect of freeze-thaw
cycles. These include improved workability (with con-
stant slump), less bleeding, better paste structure, and
less shrinkage. As a result, their use contributes to a
dense watertight structure, and they should be used in
all concrete covered by Section 3.5. l.
If chemical admixtures are used, they should meet
the requirements of ASTM C 494. Pozzolans should
meet the requirements of ASTM C 618.The use of all
admixtures should be in accordance with AC1 212.2R
and should be acceptable to the engineer. The use of
water-reducing admixtures is recommended. Addi-
tional guidance may be found in AC1 226R.
Admixtures intended for use with shrinkage-com-
pensating cement should be used only with the prior
knowledge and approval of the cement manufacturer.
3.2.1 Chloride content-The maximum water-solu-
ble chloride ion content, expressed as a percent of the
cement, contributed from all ingredients of the con-
crete mix, including water, aggregates, cementitious
 A C 1 350R 8 7 W 0bb271.17 0018052 T
35OR-16 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
materials, and admixtures, should not exceed 0.06 per-
cent for prestressed concrete or 0.10 percent for all
other concrete. If the structure is exposed to chloride,
the maximum water-soluble chloride content should be
0.10 percent similarly expressed and measured. Only
those admixtures expressly stated by the manufacturer
as being chloride-free should be used. Determination of
water-soluble chloride ion content shouldbe in accord-
ance with Federal Highway Administration Report No.
FHWA-RD-77-85, “Sampling & Testing for Chloride
Ion in Concrete.” No calcium chloride or admixture
containing chloride from other than incidental impuri-
ties should be used.
3.3-Water
Mixing water should be potable, except that fresh
nonpotable water may be used if mortar cubes made
with the water in question have 7- and 28-day strengths
equal to at least 90 percent of the strength of similar
specimens made with potable water when tested in ac-
cordance with ASTM C 109.
3.4-Aggregates
3.4.1 Aggregates for watertight, chemical resistant
concrete-Fine aggregates should conform to the pro-
visions of ASTM C 33.
Coarse aggregates should be sized to be as large as
practical, consistent with the placing constraints, as re-
quired by the engineer and as described in ASTM C 33,
and should conform to all quality requirements noted
therein.
The nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate
should not be larger than one-fifth of the narrowest di-
mension between sides of the forms, one-third of the
depth of slabs, or three-fourths of the minimum clear
spacingbetweenreinforcingbars.Theselimitations
may be waived if, in the judgment of the engineer,
workability and methods of consolidation are such that
the concrete can be placed without honeycomb or void.
3.4.2 Aggregates for ordinary structural concrete-In
general, aggregates for all concrete other than that re-
ferred to in Sections 3.4.1 and 3.5.1 should be in ac-
cordance with Section 2.4 of AC1 301. For further in-
formation, refer to AC1 221R.
3.5-Mix proportioning
3.5.1 Watertight, chemical resistant concrete-All
concrete that must be watertight and resistant to freeze-
thaw cycles and to naturally occurring or commonly
used chemicals should be air entrained. All materials
should be proportioned to produce a well-graded mix-
ture of high density and maximum workability, with a
minimum specified 28 day compressive strength of 3500
psi (24 MPa) where the concrete is not exposed to se-
vere and frequent freezing and thawing, or 4000 psi (28
MPa) where the concrete is exposed to severe and fre-
quent freezing and thawing, except where special struc-
tural or other considerations require concrete of greater
strength. The concrete should be proportioned in ac-
cordance with AC1 211.1, subject to the following re-
quirements.
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1. Type of cement: See Section 3.1.
2. Maximum water-cement ratio: 0.45. If a pozzolan
is used in the concrete, the maximum water-cement plus
pozzolan ratio should be 0.45.
3. Minimum cementitious materials content:
Coarse aggregate sizeno. Ib/ydl
467 [l fi in. (38.1 mm) maximum] 517 (307 kg/m’)
57 [l i?. (25.4 mm) maximum] 536 (318 kg/ml)
67 [JA In. (19 mm) maximuml 564 (335 kg/ml)
Concrete mixtures with less cement than shown in the
preceding table may be used when it is demonstrated to
the engineer that the proposed mixtures will produce
concrete that will meet the other requirements of Sec-
tion 3.5.1 and will have acceptable durability, im-
permeability, workability, compactability,and finish-
ability,. as listed in Section l . l .
4. Air content (as determined in accordance with
ASTM C 173 or C 23 1): 5 ?hk 1 percent for coarse ag-
gregate size No. 467; 6 k 1 percent for coarse aggre-
gate size No. 57 or No. 67.
5. Slump (as determined in accordance with ASTM
C 143), measured at the point of placement into the
structure: 1 in. (25 mm) minimum; 3 in. (75 mm) max-
imum for footings, caissons, substructure walls; 4 in.
(100 mm) maximum for slabs, beams reinforced walls,
columns.
Note: Because of the high slump loss associated with
shrinkage-compensatingcement-concrete,itrequires
higher slumps at the batch plant than those just given.
(See Section 4.3 of AC1 223.) These slump numbers do
not apply when an acceptable high-range water reducer
is used.
3.5.2 Ordinary structural concrete-In general, all
concrete other than that referred to in Section 3.5.1
should be proportioned in accordance with Chapter 3
of AC1 301 and AC1 211.1.
3.5.3 Acceptance of proportions-The contractor
should furnish for the engineer’s review mixture pro-
portions prepared by a testing laboratory acceptable to
the engineer, in accordance with AC1 301 and AC1 318.
3.6-Evaluation and acceptance
3.6.1-During construction, 7 day compressive
strength tests should be used to supplement the 28-day
tests by comparing the average relative 7- and 28-day
strengths as determined by the laboratory. At least two
test cylinders should be made for testing at each age
during each concreting operation for each 100 yd3
(76.45 m’)of concrete or fraction thereof. All test cyl-
inders should be cured under laboratory conditions,
except that the engineer may require an equal number
of field control cylinders cured under job conditions.
For details, see ASTM C 31, C 39, C 172, and AC1
214.
3.6.2-If the concrete fails to meet the specified 28-
day strength, the engineer may order tests on the hard-
ened concrete, as described in Section 17.3 of AC1 301.
If the concrete is cored and the cores fail to meet the
requirements of Section 17.3.2.3 of AC1 301 or Section
 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES
4.7.4.4of AC1 318, the engineer should have the right
to reject the concrete, change the mix proportions, or
both, at theexpense of the contractor.
CHAPTER 4-CONSTRUCTION
Construction of environmental engineering concrete
structures generally should be in conformance with AC1
301, particularly Chapters 4 through 13, except as spe-
cifically recommended in this report.
4.1 -Concrete
4.1.1 Concrete mixture design-In addition to the
mixture design parameters established pursuant to
structural characteristics, chemical resistance, and du-
rability requirements, the concrete mixtures should be
suitable for the placing systems to be employed.
Generally,well-proportionedmixturesleaningto-
ward the coarse range in coarse-to-fine proportioning
with good cohesive qualities will be able to be placed
well with all placing systems. Loose, sandy, or bleeding
mixes should be avoided.
Mix proportions should be prepared in accordance
with AC1 301 and AC1 211.1.
4.1.2 Mixing concrete-Because uniformity is partic-
ularly important in obtaining watertight concrete, the
concrete materials should be mixed sufficiently to pro-
duce concrete uniform in color and consistency with the
required slump and air content. Concretemay be either
ready-mixed or mixed at the jobsite, as recommended
in Chapter 7 of AC1 301.
4.2-Placement of concrete
Detailedrecommendationsforacceptable placing
practices to obtain durable and watertight concrete,
which is absolutely necessary in environmental engi-
neering concrete structures, are given in AC1 304R.The
contractor should provide for the continuation of con-
crete placements in the event of plant or equipment
breakdowns. Backup concrete placing equipment
should be available for use within 30 min in the event
the primary placing equipment breaks down. An alter-
nate concrete source with acceptable materials and
mixtures on hand will assure the continuation of con-
crete placements without unplanned and frequently un-
acceptable, irregular construction joints.
I To prevent segregation, the concrete should be de-
posited in approximately 12 to 24 in. (305 to 610 mm)
deep horizontal layers as near as possible to its final
position (see AC1 309R). It should not be allowed to
drop freely more than 4 ft (1.2m) or through a cage of
reinforcing steel (see Section 4.2.3).
4.2.1 Buckets-Bottom-dump buckets may be used
for transporting mixed concrete to the desired location.
Particular care should be taken to avoid jarring or
bumping that may cause segregation.
4.2.2 Chutes-Chutes used to transport concrete
should be of metal, except aluminum, or wood with
metal lining and should have a slope not exceeding one
vertical to two horizontal and not less than onevertical
to three horizontal so that the concrete will travel fast
COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)
Licensed by Information Handling Services
350R-17
enough to keep the chute clean but slow enough to
avoid segregation of materials. The end of each chute
should be provided with a baffle to help prevent segre-
gation, or the concrete should be discharged through a
drop chute, tremie, or elephant trunk directly into the
form.
4.2.3 Drop chutes, elephant trunks, and tremies-
Drop chutes, elephant trunks, and/or tremies should be
used in walls and columns to prevent free-fall of the
concrete and to allow the concrete to be placed through
the cage of reinforcing steel. They should be moved at
short intervals to prevent stacking of concrete. Vibra-
tors should not be used to move the mass of concrete
through the forms. Tremies should be used to place
concrete under water and to avoid segregation.
4.2.4 Pumping-Pumping equipment should be a
suitable type with adequate pumping capacity for the
required slump and maximum size aggregate to be used.
Pumplines should not contain aluminum. Loss of
slump in pumping from pump hopper to point of
placement should not exceed 1 !4 in. (38.1 mm).
4.2.5 Conveying-Concrete conveying equipment
should be designed specifically to place concrete with-
out segregation. Conveyor systems should not impair
the strength, slump, or air content of the concrete
placed. The placement system should be capable of de-
livering concrete continuously over the entire place-
ment area without delays for equipment relocation.
4.2.6 Back-up placement systems-Alternate placing
equipment should be immediately available for use in
the event that the primary placing equipment or system
breaks down during a placement. Such equipment
should be able to commence placing operations with 30
min notice to avoid cold joints in the structuralelement
being placed. Provisions should be made for the use of
retarders.
4.2.1 Portholes in wall and column forms-Limita-
tions-Temporary openings or portholes in wall or col-
umn forms may be used to limit the free-fall of the
concrete to less than 4 f t (1.2m) and should be so lo-
cated to facilitate the placing and consolidation of the
concrete. The ports shouldbe spaced no more than6 to
8 ft (1.8 to 2.4 m) apart to limit the horizonta1 flow of
concrete and to prevent segregation.
4.2.8 Placing in forms-Sections of walls between
joints should be placed continuously to produce a
monolithic unit. At least 48 hr should elapse between
casting of adjoining units.
Placing of concrete in beams or slabs should not be-
gin until the concrete previously placed in walls or col-
umns has attained initial set. As soon as possible after
concrete has been deposited, it should be consolidated
in an acceptable manner to work the concrete around
the reinforcement and inserts and to prevent formation
of voids. Each horizontal layer should be consolidated
by the use of acceptable mechanical vibratory equip-
ment. The vibrator should extend into the underlying
layer to bond the two layers together. To avoid exces-
sive pressure on the forms, the vibrator should pene-
trate no more than 2 ft (610 mm) into the underlying
 A C 1 350R 87 m 0 b b 2 7 4 7 OOL8054 3 W
350R-18 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
layer. The use of vibrators to move concrete horizon-
tally within the forms should not be allowed. Mechan-
ical high frequency vibrators with a minimum fre-
quency of 8000 revolutions per min are preferred for
consolidation of the concrete within the forms. The
concrete should be vibratedin accordance with the rec-
ommendations contained in AC1 309R. Vibration
should be continued untilthe escape of large bubbles at
the surface stops and before the onset of any segrega-
tion.
Vibrators attached to the forms provide an excellent
means of vibrating high walls and columns. The forms
must be designed to allow for the full liquid head pres-
sure produced by the use of form vibrators.
For more information on vibration and consolida-
tion of concrete, refer to AC1 309R.
4.2.9 Temperature limitations
4r2.9.1 Cold weather-Unless the temperature is at
least 40 F (4.4 C) and rising, water and/or aggregates
should be heated so that the temperature of the con-
crete, when placed, is not less than 55 F (13 C). Provi-
sion should be madefor maintaining the concrete moist
and at a minimum temperature of not less than 50 F (10
C) for a period of at least 7 days.
Insulated tarpaulins and blankets may be used to
cover concrete slabs or draped over and around walls,
columns, and beams to retain the heatgenerated by hy-
dration of the cement. Forms may be insulated or
heated. Atmospheric steam curing may be utilized to
accelerate curing and strength gain. Detailed recom-
mendations are given in AC1 306R.
Because of potential dangers, form removal should
be governed by attainment of adequate strength in the
field-placed concrete.
4.2.9.2 Hot weather-When the ambient tempera-
ture is 90 F (32 C) or above, special precautions should
be taken during batching, mixing, placing, and curing,
Aggregate and cement should be kept cool. The use of
a set-retarding admixture may be beneficial, particu-
larly with shrinkage-compensating concrete.
Sometimes it is desirable to cool the mixing water by
the use of liquid nitrogen, by refrigeration, or by re-
placing part of the water with shaved or crushed ice.
Wall.forms should be removed as soon as the con-
crete has hardened sufficiently to prevent damage to the
concrete. Curing should be commenced immediately
with water and burlap covers or with the application of
a nonstaining, nontoxic white-pigmented curing com-
pound acceptable to the engineer.
Curing of concrete slabs should be started as soon as
possible, when finishing has been completed and/or the
.water sheen has disappeared. If liquid membrane-cur-
ingisused(seeSection 4.6), thecompoundshouldbe
nonstaining, nontoxic, and white-pigmented. Detailed rec-
ommendations are given in AC1 305R.
4.3-Joints
4.3.1 Construction joints-Vertical construction
joints should be prepared and bonded as provided in
Chapter 6 of AC1 301. This practice also may be used
for horizontal joints. When the wall height exceeds 8 ft,
COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)
Licensed by Information Handling Services
new concrete should be placed on a layer of cement
mortar evenly spread over the previously placed con-
crete. This mortar should bea mixture of cement, sand,
and water in the same proportions used in the concrete
but with all coarse aggregate omitted.
4.3.2 Movement joints-Concrete surfaces must be
clean and dry; free fromgrease, oil, bitumen, or curing
compound; and should beprimed, according to the rec-
ommendation of the manufacturer of the sealant.
When a joint sealant is used, it should be investigated
for compatibility with the liquid being retained. For
detailed recommendations on sealants, see AC1 504R.
4.3.3 Waterstops
4.3.3.1 Steel - Steel waterstops have been used
successfully in construction joints. This type of water-
stop is usually a 6 x % in. (152 x 6 mm) steel plate
embedded 3 in. (76 mm) into the concrete on each side
of the joint. To facilitate bonding to the concrete, the
surfaces of steel waterstops should be free of all mud,
oil, loose rust, or other material that would inhibit
bond. Splices should be made by butt-welding the ends
of the plates together.
4.3.3.2 Flexible waterstops - Waterstops fabri-
cated of rubber, vinyl, metal, or other acceptable ma-
terial should be of shapes and patterns to accomplish
the required function. Where movement is anticipated
as in expansion joints, a bulb or U-shaped center sec-
tion with “tear-away” closure should be provided of
such size and pattern as required to accommodate an-
ticipated movement.
When a flexible-type waterstop is used, all portions
including ends and edges should be firmly tied and/or
fixed in position to prevent movement during place-
ment of the concrete. See Fig. 12 and 16 of AC1 504R
for installation recommendations.
4.4- Formwork
4.4.1 General - Formwork should be designed, fab-
ricated, erected, used, and removed in accordance with
the recommendations and guidelines of AC1 347 and
SP-4.
4.4.2 Form design - Formwork should be designed
so that all components and members of the structure
will be cast to the correct dimensions, shape, align-
ment, elevation, and position, without excessive deflec-
tion. Formwork also should be designed to be erected,
supported, braced, and maintained so that it will sup-
port safely all vertical and lateral loads that might be
applied until such loads can be supported by the con-
crete structure.
The form panels for liquid-containing structures and
conduits should be constructed in the largest size con-
sistent with the lifting equipment available to handle
them. Form surfaces should be constructed of sheet
.steel, smooth-dressedwood or plastic-faced plywood,
or fiberglass. Assemblies should provide for ease of
stripping with miminmum damage to the formed sur-
faces.
Vertical or lateral loads should be carried to the
A.
ground b he formwork and shoring system or by the
 in-place construction that has adequate capacity for
that purpose. . the surface by the strike-off or rough floating should be
Formwork and falsework vertical and lateral loads
should also include live loads, wind loads, and con-
structionloads,togetherwithappropriatesafety fac-
tors and load multipliers as recommendedby AC1 347.
All formwork should be mortar tight. Tie systems
should provide for positive pressure at all joints to pre-
clude grout leakage.
4.4.3 Form ties - Form tie assemblies for environ-
mental engineering concrete structures should permit
tightening of the forms and should leave no metal or
other material within 1% in. (38 mm) of the surface.
The assembly should provide cone-shaped depressions
at the forms at thesurface at least 1 in. indiameter and
1% in. deep to allow filling and patching.
Ties should be tight fitting, or tie holes in forms
should be sealed to prevent leakage where ties pene-
trate the form.
When a portion of single rod ties are to remain in a
liquid-retaining structure, the portion that is to remain
should be provided with a tightly fitted washer at mid-
point. Multi-rod ties do not require washers. Through
ties that are to be entirely removed from the structure
should be tapered over the portion that passes through
the concrete. The large end of tapered ties should be on
the liquid side of the wall. The contractor should be re-
quired to demonstrate the methods and materials to be
used to fill the void thus formed.
4.4.4 Form coating or release agents - Form sur-
faces that will be in contact with concrete should be
coated with an effective bond-breaking form coating in
accordance with Section 4.4 of AC1 347. For water
treatment plants, the form coating should be nontoxic
after a specified period, usualIy 30 days.
4.4.5 Inspection before concreting - Prior to plac-
ing concrete, forms should be inspected for cleanliness,
accuracy of alignment, and reinforcing steel clearances.
Inspection ports should be provided if, in the opinion
of the inspector, they are necessary to clean and inspect
properly the interior of the formed element,
4.4.6 Removal of forms - Removal of forms should
be in accordance with AC1 347-78 (Reaffirmed 1984).
In hot, dry climates, wood forms remaining in place
may not provide adequate curing and should be kept
wet or removed or loosened so that the cöncrete sur-
faces can be kept moist or coated with a curing mem-
I brane. In cold weather, removal of formwork should be
deferred and insulat.ed until concrete has attained ade-
quate strength, or formwork should be replaced with
I insulation blankets to avoid thermal shock and conse-
quent crazing of the concrete surface.
4.4.7 Reshoring - Reshoring, if permitted, should
be in accordance with AC1 347-78 (Reaffirmed 1984).
4.5 - Finishes for exposed surfaces
4.5.1 Finishing unformed surfaces - Detailed rec-
ommendations are given in Section 6.4.4 and Chapter 7
of AC1 302.1R. Concrete should be spread evenly
ahead of the strike-off and worked as little as possible
COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)
Licensed by Information Handling Services
during early finishing operations. Any water brought to
allowed to evaporate. If the amount of water or lait-
ance is excessive, it should be removed before the sur-
face is floated or troweled again. If a smooth surfaceis
required, final troweling should be delayed as long as
possible. Generally, the proper time for final troweling
is after the surfacewater has disappeared and when the
surface cannot be dented easily with the finger. Final
troweling should be only as required to produce the
specified finish and close any surface cracks that may
have developed.
4.5.2 Nonslip finish - All exposed floor areas, side-
walks, and steps subject to foot traffic andlikely to be
wet should have a nonslip finish, as described in Sec-
tion 7.11 of AC1 302.1R.
4.5.3 Finishing formed surfaces - Requirements
vary from merely removing fins and repairing obvious
imperfections to finishing, which involves grinding,
rubbing, floating, or brushing. Such work should be
done as soon as forms can be removed. If surfaces are
to be finished by grinding, chipping, bushhammering,
or sandlbasting, the concrete must first be cured thor-
oughly. Chapter 10 of AC1 301 adequately covers these
and other types of concrete finishes.
4.5.4 Repair of surface defects - Repair of surface
defects should be in accordance with Chapter 9 of AC1
301 and with AC1 309.2R.
4.5.4.1 Tie holes- After being thoroughly cleaned
and dampened, the tie holes should be grouted solid
with a nonmetallic, nonshrinking grout. The tie hole
should be filled from the large end of the cone-shaped
hole and packed solid by rodding. The use of rubber of
plastic plugs wedged deep in the wall prior to filling
with grout is. recommended. The groutmaterial and the
entire tiehole filling process should be acceptable to the
engineer prior to the startof the work,
4.5.4.2 Patching minor defects - Surfaces to be
patched or repaired after removal of forms should be
corrected by acceptable methods and not by plastering
over them. Patching of defective areas should be done
as soon as the forms can be removed and before curing
compound is applied.
A good patch well-bonded to adjacent concrete is es-
sential. Nonshrink, nonstaining grout should be used
where appearance is important. Curing requirements
for patches should be the same as for the mass of the
concrete.
4.5.4.3 Honeycombed areas - Honeycombed sec-
tions may result from improper placement and inade-
quate vibration. Whether patching of honeycombed
areas is permissible depends on the extent and depth of
the defective concrete and its location.. If patching is
allowed, all unsound material should be chipped out
back to sound, solid concrete and inspected prior to the
start of filling and patching operations.
4.6 - Curing
Proper curing of fresh concrete requires that mois-
ture be retained to promote additional hydration of ce-
 A C 1 350R 8 7 m 0 6 6 2 7 4 7 0018056 7
350R-20 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
ment during the curing period and to prevent forma-
tion of surface cracks due to rapid loss of water while
the concrete is plastic. Detailed recommendations are
given in AGI 308.
When surfaces are cured with membrane curing
compound, all finishing operations, except grinding,
chipping, bushhammering, and sandblasting, should be
completed prior to application of the membrane.
Curing should commence as soon as possible follow-
ing initial set or completion of surface finishing, and as
soon as marringof the concrete surface will not occur,
Various methods commonly used include sprinkling,
ponding, using moisture retaining covers, or applying a
liquid membrane-forming curing compound seal coat to
form a thin water-impervious membrane.
Leaving wall forms in place provides an excellent
means of retaining moisture. However, in hot, dry
weather, the dry forms tend to absorb moisture from
the concrete and inhibit dissipation of the heat of hy-
dration. Therefore, in hot, dry weather, the forms
should be kept moist or removed as soon as the con-
crete has hardened sufficiently to prevent damage to the
concrete. Moist or membrane curing should be com-
menced immediately after removal of the forms.
The membrane curing compound should cover the
entire surface to be cured with a uniform film that will
remain in place without gaps or omissions for the full
duration of the curing period. Exposed steel, keyways,
or concrete to be surfaced should be protected from the
curing compound unless tests show that satisfactory
adherence of the surface is obtained.
Membrane curing compounds should conform to
ASTM C 309 and should have a minimum of 18 per-
cent solids, be nonyellowing, and have a unit moisture
loss of less than 0.039 gm/cm2 maximum at 72 hr. Rate
of application of curing compounds should follow
manufacturer's recommendation or be in the range of
150 to 200 ft2/gal. [See Section 2.3.3 of AC1 308-81
(Revised 1986)l. Polyethylene film for curing concrete
should conform to ASTM C 171. Curing compounds
used in water 'treatment plant construction must be
nontoxic and free of taste and odor.
4.7 - Leakage testing
It is normal practice to test liquid-retaining struc-
tures for water tightness. The leakage test should be
performed while the tank walls are exposed so that
leaks can be easily found and repaired. Thus, leakage
tests usually are performed prior to backfilling or clad-
ding the tank. For potable water facilities, the leakage
test is often done inconjunction with the disinfection in
order to save water.
The acceptance leakage criteria and method of test
should be specified in the construction contract. Tanks
generally are filled to -full overflow level. If the struc-
ture has dried out, the water should be left standing for
a period to allow for absorption. Tanks are usually
considered acceptable if:
a. There are no visible leakage or visible damp areas,
and
COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)
Licensed by Information Handling Services
- ,..-
m
b. The volume of leakage in a given time period (af-
ter correcting for evaporation losses) is less than a
specified amount.
Acceptable leakage volumes will vary depending on
the specific application. Leakage rates of %o of 1 per-
cent of the tank volume in any 24 hr period (after ab-
sorption and stabilization) would be generally accept-
able for a water reservoir where the consequences of
leakage would not be significant.
CHAPTER 5 - PROTECTION AGAINST
CHEMICALS
5.1 - Resistance of concrete and
reinforcing steel
Concrete made with the proper type of cement,
which has been properly proportioned, batched, mixed,
placed, consolidated, and cured, will be dense, strong,
watertight, and resistant to most chemical attack;
therefore, under ordinary service conditions, quality
concrete does not require protection against chemical
deteriorationorcorrosion. Likewise, reinforcement
embedded in quality concrete normally is well-pro-
tected against corrosive chemicals.
Quality concrete, properly air entrained, is also resis-
tant to freeze-thaw deterioration, which in many loca-
tions may be more severe than chemical action.
5.2 - Need for protection
The corrosive conditions that require concrete sur-
face protection can range from comparatively mild to
very severe, depending on the chemicals used and the
domestic and industrial wastes encountered.
The type of protection employed against chemical
attack will also vary according to the kind and concen-
tration of the chemical, frequency of contact, and
physical conditions such as temperature, pressure, me-
chanical wear or abrasion, and freeze-thaw cycles.
Where conditions exist that may be expected to de-
teriorate, remove, or otherwise destroy the concrete
immediately around the reinforcing steel, direct protec-
tion of the reinforcing steel, such as epoxy coating as
specified in ASTM A 775, may be desirable.
5.3 - Types of protection
Many types of protective coatings or barriers will
prevent contact with the concrete surfaces. To be suc-
cessful, such coatings should exhibit good adhesion to
the concrete and be completely impervious.
Among these are various coatings of thermoplastic
and thermosetting types, ceramics, chemical-resistant
mortars, sheet or linear materials, and composite bar-
riers.
If conditions are severe enough to deteriorate good-
quality concrete, it is difficult to provide complete and
lasting protection, even with the best of these types of
protection. Consideration should be given to neutraliz-
ing severely aggressive liquid wastes.
When special protection is required for the reinforc-
ing bars, epoxy-coated bars are preferable. Specifica-
tions for such coatings should be patterned upon
ASTM A 775.
 5.4 - Recommended coatings Group 1
5.4.1 Water treatment plants - In general, normal These chemicals are not considered harmful to con-
concentrations of the chemicals used in water treat- crete but arelisted because in some instances treatment
ment plants for coagulation, taste and color control, is desired to prevent staining or the absorption of liq-
and disinfection do not affect concrete, except for liq- uid into the concrete which may react with other chem-
uid alum, which requires a continuous, inert barrier, icals in the future.
such as PVC or rubber, at least 20 mils (0.508 mm) in Activated carbon (except when agitated, then in
thickness. Group 3)
5.4.2 Domestic sewage plants - Concrete in domes- Activated silica (except when agitated, then in Group
tic sewage treatment plants seldom requires special 3)
protection, although themechanical equipment in such Calcium hydroxide
environments generally is provided with a protective Calcium oxide
coating of coal-tar-based paint or some type of epoxy Potassium permanganate
due to its much greater susceptibility to damage from Sodium bicarbonate*
mildly corrosive conditions. Sodium carbonate
In exceptional cases, for example, where hydrogen Sodium fluoride
sulfide evolves in a stagnant, unventilated environment Sodium hydroxide (except over 20 percent concen-
that is difficult or uneconomical to correct or clean tration, then in Group 3)
regularly, a coating such as that normally provided for Sodium silicate
metal may be necessary. Care should be exercised in Sodium siliconfluoride
using such coatings, and they should be fully tested to Trisodium phosphate
insure their suitabilityfor the proposed application.
5.4.3 Industrial wastewater treatment plants - In- Group 2
dustrial wastewater treatment may at times involve acid Concrete exposed to the chemicals listed inthis group
waste with pH as low as 1.0. The type of protection should be made with sulfate-resistant cement (see Sec-
generally used is chemical-resistant mortar, acid proof tion 3.1) or should be given a protective coating, as de-
brick or tile, thick bituminous coatings, epoxies, and scribed in Section 5.4.
heavy sheets or liners of rubber or plastic. Copper sulfate
5.4.4 Protection of floors in treatment plants - Ferric sulfate
Concrete floors, where occasional spillage of acids may
occur, should be protected with vinyl lacquer, epoxy, Group 3
chlorinated rubber, or phenolic coatings. Concrete should be protected against these chemicals
5.5 - Selection of protection system with a protective coating, asdescribed in Section 5.4.
Activated carbon (when not agitated, then in Group
Each project should be considered individuallybe-
cause various materials and techniques used from time 1)
to time cause new problems of chemical attack. De- Activated silica (when not agitated, then in Group1)
tailed recommendations aregiven in AC1 515.1R. Alum, liquid
Manufacturers of protective materials should be Aluminum ammonium sulfate
consulted for information on the best preparation of Aluminum chloride solution
concrete surfaces and the proper mixing and applica- Aluminum potassium sulfate
tion of their coating products. It isimportant that the Aluminum sulfate
surfaces be clean, dry, and sound in order to obtain Ammonium sulfate
proper coverage and bond. Generally, muriatic acid Calcium hypochloride
washing and/or sandblasting are recommended for Chlorine
cleaning. Ferric chloride
Fluosilicic acid
5.6 -Safety precautions Sodium bisulfite
Sodium hydroxide (except less than 20 percent con-
The toxicity of any product should be investigated.
When applying coatings, the need for ventilation centration, then in Group1)
should be checked. Required protective equipment such Sulfuric acid
as gloves, goggles, and masks should also be checked
before application. CHAPTER 6 -
REFERENCES
5.7 - Chemicals used in treatment plants
6.1 -
Recommended references
The documents of the various standards-producing
Chemicals sometimes encountered in water and
organizations referred to in this document are listed
wastewater treatment were previously listed in Table
2.3.2. Some type of protection may be required where below with their serial designation, including year of
some of these materials contact concrete surfaces. Ta- adoption or revision. The documents listed were the
ble 2.5.2 of AC1 515.1R provides additional informa-
COPYRIGHT ACItion on theeffect
International of chemicals
(American on concrete.
Concrete Institute) *Caution with respect to alkali-reactive aggregate,
Licensed by Information Handling Services
 35OR-22 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE

latest effort at the time this document was.revised. Recommended

347-78 Practice
Con-for
Since some of these documents are revised frequently, (Reapproved 1984) creteFormwork
generally in minor detail only, the user of this docu- 504R-77 GuideJoint
to SealantsCon-
for
ment should check directly with the sponsoring group crete Structures
if it is desired to refer to the latest revision. 515.1R-79 Guide
the
to Use
of Waterproof-
(Revised
1985) ing,
Dampproofing,
Protective,
and Decorative Barrier Systems
American Association of State Highway for Concrete
and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) SP-4 Concrete,
Formwork
4th
for
T 260-84 Sampling and
Testing
Total
for Edition,1981,Revised2nd
Chloride Ion in Concrete and Printing
Concrete Raw Materials

American Concrete Institute (ACI) American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

201.2R-77 Guide to Durable Concrete
(Reapproved 1982)
ACI. 211.1-81 Standard Practice .for Selecting
(Revised 1985) Proportions for Normal, Heavy-
weight, and Mass Concrete
212.2R-81 Guide for Use of Admixtures in
(Revised 1986) Concrete
214-77 Recommended Practice for Eval-
(Reapproved 1983) uation of Strength Test
Results o f Concrete
221R-84 Guide for use of Normal Weight
Aggregate in Concrete
223-83 Standard Practice for the Use of
Shrinkage-CompensatingCon-
crete
224R-80 Control of Cracking in Concrete
(Revised 1984) Structures
224.1R-84 Causes, Evaluations, and Repair
of Cracks in Concrete Structures
225R-85 Guide to the Selection and Use
of Hydraulic Cements
301-84 Specifications for Structural
(Revised 1988) Concrete for Buildings
302.1R-80 Guide for Concrete Floor and
Slab Construction
304R-85 Guide for Measuring, Mixing,
Transporting,and Placing Con-
crete
305R-77 Hot Weather Concreting
(Revised 1982)
306R-88 Cold Weather Concreting
308-81 Standard Practice for Curing
(Revised 1986) Concrete
309R-87 Guide for Consolidation of Con-
crete
309.2R-82 Identification and Control of
Consolidation-RelatedSurface
Defects in Formed Concrete
318-83 Building Code Requirements for
(Revised 1986) Reinforced Concrete
318R-83 Commentary on Building Code
(Supplement 1986) RequirementsforReinforced
Concrete
344R-70 Design and Construction of Cir-
(Reapproved 198 1) cular Prestressed Concrete Struc-
- p r (American
COPYRIGHT ACI International es Concrete Institute)
Licensed by Information Handling Services
A58.1-1982 American National Standard
Minimum, Design Loads for
Buildings and Other Structures
ASTM
A 615-86 Standard Specification for De-
formed and Plain Billet-Steel
Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
A 6 16-86 Standard Specification for Rail-
Steel Deformed and Plain Bars
for Concrete Reinforcement
A 6 17-86 Standard Specification for Axle-
Steel Deformed and Plain Bars
for Concrete Reinforcement
A 706-86 Standard Specification for Low-
Alloy Steel Deformed Bars for
Concrete Reinforcement
A 767-85 Standard Specification €or Zinc-
Coated (Galvanized) Steel Bars
for Concrete Reinforcement
A 775-86 S t a n d a r dS p e c i f i c a t i o nf o r
Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing Steel
Bars
C 31-87 Standard Practices for Making
and Curing Concrete Test Speci-
mens in the Field
C 33-86 Standard Specification for Con-
crete Aggregates
C 39-86 Standard Test Method for Com-
pressive Strength of Cylindrical
Concrete Specimens
C 109-86 Standard Test Method for Com-
pressive Strength of Hydraulic
Cement Mortars (Using 2-in. or
50-mm Cube Specimens)
C 143-78 Standard Test Method for Slump
of Portland Cement Concrete
C 150-86 Standard Specification for Port-
land Cement
C 171-69 Standard Specification for Sheet
(Reapproved 1986) Materials for Curing Concrete
C 172-82 Standard Method of Sampling
Freshly Mixed Concrete
C 173-78 Standard Test Method for Air
Content of Freshly Mixed Con-
crete by the Volumetric Method

C 23 1-82 Standard Test Method for Air
Content of Freshly Mixed Con-
crete by the Pressure Method
C 260-86 Standard Specification for Air-
Entraining Admixtures for Con-
crete
C 309-81 Standard Specification for Liq-
uidMembrane-FormingCom-
pounds for Curing Concrete
C 494-86 S t a n d a r dS p e c i f i c a t i o nf o r
Chemical Admixtures for Con-
crete
C 595-86 S t a n d a r dS p e c i f i c a t i o nf o r
Blended Hydraulic Cements
C 618-85 Standard Specification for Fly
Ash and Raw or Calcined Natu-
ral Pozzolan for Use as a Min-
eral Admixture in Portland Ce-
ment Concrete
C 806-75 Standard Test Method for Re-
strained Expansions of Expan-
sive Cement Mortar
C 845-80 Standard Specification for Ex-
pansive Hydraulic Cement
C 878-80 Standard Test Method for Re-
strained Expansion of Shrink-
age-Compensating Concrete
D 994-71 Standard Specification for Pre-
(Reapproved 1982) formed Expansion Joint Filler
for Concrete (BituminousType)
D 1056-85 Standard Specification for Flexi-
bleCellularMaterials-Sponge
or Expanded Rubber
D 1751-83 Standard Specification for Pre-
formed Expansion Joint Fillers
for Concrete Paving and Struc-
tural Construction (Nonextrud-
ingandResilientBituminous
Types)
D 1752-84 Standard Specification for Pre-
formed Sponge Rubber and Cork
Expansion Joint Fillers for Con-
crete Paving and Structural Con-
struction
The previously mentioned publications may be ob-
tained from the following organizations:
American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials(AASHTO)
444 N. Capitol StreetNW, Suite 225
Washington, DC 2001
American Concrete Institute(ACI)
P. O. Box 19150
Detroit, MI 48219-0150
American National Standards Institute(ANSI)
1430 Broadway
COPYRIGHT New
ACI International 10018
York, NY (American Concrete Institute)
Licensed by Information Handling Services
35OR-23
ASTM
1916 Race St.
Philadelphia, PA 19103
6.2-Cited references
1. “Water Treatment Plant Design,” Manual of Engineering
Practice No. 19, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York,
1969,353 pp.
2. “Wastewater Treatment Plant Design,” Manual of Engineer-
ing Practice No. 36, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York,
1977, 574 pp.
3. “Design and Construction of Sanitary and Storm Sewers,”
Manual of Engineering Practice No. 37, American Society of Civil
Engineers, New York, 1969, 332 pp.
4 . “Underground Concrete Tanks,” Information Sheet No.
ISO71D, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1973, 4 pp.
5. “Circular Concrete Tanks Without Prestressing,” Information
Sheet No. IS072D, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1942, 32
PP.
6. “Rectangular Concrete Tanks,” Information Sheet No.
ISQ03.03D, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1969 (Revised
1981), 16 pp.
- 7. Moody, W. T., “Momentsand Reactions for Rectangular
Plates,” Engineering Monograph No. 27, U.S. Bureau of Reclama-
tion, Denver, 1960 (Revised 1963), 74 pp.
8. Vetter, C. P., “Stresses in Reinforced Concrete Due to Vol-
ume Changes,” Transactions, ASCE, V. 98, 1933, pp. 1039-1053.
9. Klein, Frank; Hoffman, Edward S . ; and Rice, Paul F., “Ap-
plication of Strength Design Methods to Sanitary Structures,’’ Con-
crete International: Design & Construction, V. 3, No. 4, Apr. 1981,
PP. 35-40.
10. Gogate, Anand B., “Structural Design Considerations for Set-
tling Tanks and Similar Structures,” AC1 JOURNAL,Proceedings V.
65, No. 12, Dec. 1968, pp. 1017-1020.
11. Gogate, Anand B., “Structural Design of Reinforced Concrete
Sanitary Structures-Past, Present, and Future,” Concrete Interna-
tional: Design & Construction, V. 3, No. 4, Apr. 1981, pp. 24-28.
12. Gogate, Anand B., “An Analysis of AC1 Committee 350’s
Recommended Design Standards,” Concrete International: Design &
Construction, V. 6, No. 10,Oct. 1984, pp; 17-19.
13. Troxell, G. E.; Raphael, J . M.; and Davis, R. E., “Long-Time
Creep and Shrinkage Tests of Plain and Reinforced Concrete,” Pro-
ceedings, ASTM, V. 58, 1958, pp. 1101-1120.
14. “Expansion Joints in Buildings,” Technical Report No. 65,
Federal Construction Council, National Academy of Sciences, Na-
tional Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1974, 43 pp.
15. Allen, E. A., and Higginson, E. C., “Waterstops in Articu-
lated Concrete Construction,” AC1 JOURNAL,Proceedings V. 52, No.
1, Sept. 1955, pp. 83-91. Also, Discussion, Part 2, Dec. 1956, pp.
1149-1152.
16. Whitman, Robert V., and Richart, Frank E., “Design Proce-
dures for Dynamically Loaded Foundations,” Proceedings, ASCE,
V. 93, SM6, NOV.1967, PP. 169-193.
17. Irish, K.,and Walker, W. P., Foundations for Reciprocating
Machines, Concrete Publications Ltd., London, 1969, 103 pp.
18. Karabinis, A. Harry, and Fowler, Timothy J., “Design Con-
siderations for Dynamically Loaded Equipment Foundations,”
Foundations for Equipment & Machinery, SP-78, American Con-
crete hstitute, Detroit, 1982, pp. 61-78.
19. Novak, Milos, “Vertical Vibration of Floating Piles,” Pro-
ceedings, ASCE, V. 103, EM1, Feb. 1977, pp. 153-168.
20. Novak, Milos, and Howell, John F., “Torsional Vibration of
Pile Foundations,” Proceedings, ASCE, V. 103, GT4, Apr. 1977, pp.
272-285.
21. Singh, Jogeshwar P.; Donovan, Neville C.; and Jobsis, Adri-
anus C., “Design of Machine Foundations on Piles,” Proceedings,
ASCE, V. 102, GT8, AUg. 1977, PP. 863-877.
22. Barkan, D. D., Dynamics of Basesand Founcations, McGraw-
Hill Book Co., New York, 1962, 496 pp.
23. Biggs, J. M., Introduction to Sfructural Dynamics, McGraw-
Hill Book Co., New York, 1964, 341 pp.
 A C 1 350R 87 W 06627LI7 O O L A O b O 7 W
35OR-24 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
24. Church, A. H., Mechanical Vibrations, John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 1963, 432 pp.
25. Skipp, B. O . , Editor, Vibration in Civil Engineering, Butter-
worhts, London, 1966, 298 pp.
26. Major, A., Vibration Analysis and Design of Foundations for
Machines and Turbines, Collets, London, 1962, 828 pp.
27. Housner, G. W., “The Dynamic Behavior of Water Tanks,”
Bulletin, Seismic Society of America, V. 53, No. 2, Feb. 1963, pp.
381-387.
28. Ballantyne, D. B.; Pinkham, C. W.; and Weinberger, L. W.,
“Seismic Induced Loadings on Sanitary Facilities,” ASCE Specialty
Conference on Llfeline Earthquake Engineering (Oakland, Aug.
1981), American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1981.
29. Housner, George W., “Limit Design of Structures to Resist
Earthquakes,” Proceedings, World Conference on Earthquake En-
gineering, University of California, Berkeley, 1956, pp. 5-1 - 5-13.
30. Medearis, Kenneth, “Energy Absorption of Structures under
Cyclic Loading,” Proceedings, ASCE, V. 90, STl, Feb. 1964, pp. 61-
69.
31. Stark, David, “Longtime Study of Concrete Durability in Sul-
fate Soils,” George Verbeck Symposium on Sulfate Resistance of
Concrete, SP-77, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1982, pp. 21-
40.
32. Lamond, Joseph F., “Twenty-Five Years’ Experience Using Fly
Ash in Concrete,”Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag and Other Mineral By-
Products in Concrete, SP-79, American Concrete Institute, Detroit,
1983, PP. 47-69.
6.3 Additional references
1. Biczok, Imre, Concrete Corrosion and Concrete Protection, 5th
Edition, Chemical Publishing Co., New York, 1967, 543 pp.
COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)
Licensed by Information Handling Services
2. “Code of Practice for the Design of Concrete Structures for
Retaining AqueousLiquids,” (BS8007:1987), BritishStandardsIn-
stitution, London, 1987.
3. Critchell, Peter L., Joints and Cracks in Concrete, Contractors
Record Ltd., London, 1958, 232 pp.
4. Davies, John Duncan, and Long, John Edward, “Behavior of
Square Tanks on Elastic Foundations,” Proceedings, ASCE, V. 94,
EM3, June 1968, pp. 753-772.
5. Manning, G. P., Concrete Reservoirs and Tanks, Concrete
Publications Ltd., London, 1967,384 pp.
6. Kleinlogel, Adolf, Influences on Concrete, translated from the
German by F. S. Morgenroth, Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., New
York,1950,281 pp.
7. Concrete Manual, 8th Edition, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation,
Denver, 1975, 627 pp.
8. “Concrete for Massive Structures,” Information Sheet No.
ISOW128T, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1987, 24 pp.
9. “Concrete for Wastewater Treatment Works,” Information
Sheet No. IS182W, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1976, 15
PP.
10. “ConcreteforWaterTreatmentWorks,” Publication No.
PAO69W, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1963, 24 pp.
11. “Effect of Various Substances on Concrete and Protective
Treatments,” Information Sheet No. ISOOlT, Portland Cement As-
sociation, Skokie, 1986, 24 pp.
12. “Volume Changes of Concrete,” Information Sheet No.
IS018T, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1969, 4 pp.
13. “Design of Circular Domes,” Information Sheet No. IS076D,
Portland Cement Association, Skokie, 1942, 8 pp.
This report was submitted to letter ballot of the committee and was ap-
proved in accordance with AC1 balloting procedures.
 THE FOLLOWING DISCUSSIONS, WHICH WERE PUBLISHEDIN THE MARCH-APRIL 1990 AC1 Structural
ARENOTPART OF THE REPORTAC1 35OR-89, BUT ARE PROVIDEDAS
TO THE READER.
Environmental Engineering ConcreteStructures. Report by AC1 Committee 350
Discussion by Himat Solanki and Committee 350
By HlMAT SOLANKl
Member American ConcmIt Instihrle, Senior Design Enginm. Szmmta.
norida
AC1 Committee 350 should be congratulated for its
fine work in preparing the proposed report. The report
should facilitate the design of environmental engineer-
ing concrete structures. However, the discusser has
some questions regarding Section2.4 - Structural De-
sign. This section does not address the design criteria
that are required for the designof the structures. In this
section, the committee states in Section 2.6.1 - Gen-
eral: “AC1 318 contains general requirements . . . [for]
environmental engineering concrete structures.’’ This
statement may not be true in all cases, because neither
AC1 Committees 350 nor 318 address adequately
several design parametersJ3“’ such as the minimum
reinforcement ratio to control the cracks where the
structure requires a leakproof condition; loading con-
ditions/combination where an impact due to tornado-
tossed objects hit on the structure and the effective
ratio of reinforcement; temperature gradient (¡.e.. tem-
perature of liquid in the structure versus the outside
temperature); pressure gradient with respect to time
(pressure increaseddecreases in the structure in a timely
manner); and tensile strength of concrete, etc., in the
crack widths and crack spacing computations of the
structures.
Also Fig. 2.6.7 (a), (b), and (c) are primarily devel-
oped from the Gergley-Lutz equation for one-way flex-
ural members. These figures cannot be applied to envi-
ronmental engineering concrete structures because the
figures do not take into account the previously men-
tioned parameters.
The discusser had an opportunity to review and de-
sign an environmental engineering concrete structure
(sewage treatment plant). The consideration of the pre-
viously mentioned parameters was given to the design,
and it was found that secondary-type crack widths and
spacings were developed so far.
REFERENCES
33.Langhout.M. S., “Dikwandigebetonconstructies;scheur-
wijdtebeheersing en minimum wapeningspercentage;afstudeerver-
slag,” TU Delft. 1988.
34. Henning, W., and Rostasy. F. S., “Zwang und Oberflächen-
bewehrung dicker wände,” Beron und Sruhlberonbuu (Berlin). No. 4.
Apr. 1985. pp. 108-1 13. and No. 5 , May 1985, pp. 134-136.
35. Braam, C. R . , andLanghout.M. S., “Berkeningvande
Scheurwijdte bij dikwandige betonconstructies.”PT/Civiele Technik
(The Netherlands), No. 3. 1988.
36. Jaccoud, J.-P., “Armature minimale pour le contrdle dela fis-
surationdesStructures en beton,” These No. 666. EPFL-IBAP,
Lausanne,1987.
37. Jaccoud. J.-P, et al., “Armature minimale pour le contrale de
la fissuration,” Rupporrs d’essuis, EPFL-IBAP, LauSam. May
1984, Sept. 1985, and July 1986.
38. Konig. Gert, “Restraint, Crack-Width Control and Minimum
Reinforcement in ThickConcrete Members,” Durmmdr Concrefe
COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)
Licensed by Information Handling Services
I
(DPrmstadt). V. l . 1986, pp. 9-22.
39. Helmus. Manfred. “Experimental Approach to the Minimum
Reinforcement in Thick Concrete Elements,” Durmrudf Concrefe
(Darmrtadt). V. 2. 1987. PP. 115-122.
40. Schied. P., “Bachrilnkung der Rissbreiten bei Zwanpbean-
rpruchung.” Betonwerk & Fertigteil-Technik (Wiesbaden). No. 6,
1976. pp. 269-274.
41. Dimitriev and Birulin “Opening of Cracks in Prestressed Con-
crete Membm.” Beron i Zhelnobeton (Moscow), V. 16, May 1970.
pp- 18-22. (in Russian)
42.Holmberg.Ake. and Lindgren,Sten.“Cracks in Concrete
Walls.” Documenr D7:1972. National Swedish Building Research,
Stockholm. 1972.70 pp.
43. “La fssurations d a betons.” Anndes, Institut Technique du
Bgtiment et d a Travaux Publia (Paris). serie Won No. Un. Oct.
1981.99 pp.
44.Clarke, J. L., ‘Tompartement des elements en M o n prkon-
traint sous I’effcct de gradients de tempanures cycliques,” scminaire
effets cyclique et transitoires dans les structura, Saint-Remy-les-
Chevreuse. Oct. 1979.
45. Breugel.Van K., “Kanhet scheurgedrag van cirkelvormige
constructics worden voorspeld?.” Cemenf (‘s-Hertogenborh), V. 40.
No. 1. JM. 1988, pp. 47-51.
COMMITTEE CLOSURE
The committee thanks Mr. Solanki for his helpful
comments and corrections, which have been carefully
reviewed and answered as follows.
Mr. Solanki had essentially six comments that were
related to his belief that Section 2.6-Structural Design
does not address the design criteria that are required for
the design of the structures. In the same vein, he ques-
tions the committee’s statement in Section 2.6.1 of the
report which says, “AC1 318 contains general require-
ments for reinforced concrete building structures that
are also for environmental engineering concrete struc-
tures. The design engineer should establish the design
criteria for a specific concrete structure within the lim-
itations of the AC1or local building codes basedon the
specialrequirementsof environmental engineering
structures.” Mr. Solankibelieves that “these state-
ments may not be true in all cases because neither AC1
Committees 350 nor 318 address adequately several de-
sign parameters.” including
a. Minimum reinforcement ratio to control the
cracks where the structure requires a leakproof condi-
tion.
b. Loading conditions where an impact due to tor-
nado-tossed objects hit the structure.
c. The effective ratio of reinforcement to withstand
loading conditions where an impact due to tornado-
tossed objects hit the structure.
d. Temperature gradient (¡.e., of liquid in the struc-
ture versus the outside).
e. Pressure gradient with respect to time (pressure
increases or decreases in the structure in a timely man-
ner).
f. Tensile strength of concrete, etc., in crack widths
and crack spacing computations of the structure.
 350R-DP MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
g. Also, “Fig. 2.6.7 (a), (b), and (c) are primarily
developed from the Gergely-Lutz equation for one-way
flexural members. These figures cannot be applied to
the environmental engineering concrete structures be-
cause the figures do not take into account the previ-
ously mentioned parameters.”
In answer to Mr. Solanki’s general objection, the
committee believes that the report was not intended to
be a workbook of design aids or a handbook of design.
The tables and curves are intended to be illustrative of
the committee’s recommendations. The design engineer
should consider devisingappropriate design aids for the
various grades of steel and values of concrete strength,
concrete cover, bar sizes and sanitary exposure.
It is the committee’s opinion that Section 10.6 in the
Commentary to ACI 318, and the figures and text of
Section 2.6 in AC1 350, do address and illustrate the
design criteria referred to by Mr. Solanki (Points a and
b previously mentioned). They do, however, require
some effort by the designer to develop a complete de-
sign criteria for each project.
In answer to Points b and c of Mr. Solanki’s com-
ments, the committee has not found it necessary to de-
signmost environmental engineering concrete struc-
tures, such as tanks, for tornado loads caused by flying
objects. The buildings in treatment plants would ordi-
narily be designed to resist wind loads and seismic loads
set by local codes, AC1 318, or ANSI.
COPYRIGHT ACI International (American Concrete Institute)
Licensed by Information Handling Services
We do not understand Mr. Solanki’s concern over
temperature gradients. Temperature gradients in envi-
ronmental engineering concrete structures are limited in
their effects on the structure by details of design, in-
cluding reinforcement, which limit deterioration of the
structure. Examples of structures affected by tempera-
ture gradients are sludge digestion tanks and blower
buildings, with their galleries. The temperature gra-
dients in sludge digestion tanks are not extreme, and
their effects are limited by details of design, including
reinforcement and insulation. The effects of high tem-
perature in blower buildings and air main galleries are
also dealt with, by details of design, including expan-
sion joints and expansion couplings.
Mr. Solanki’s concern with regard to “pressure gra-
dients” has not been a problem. The committee does
not understand his concern. Changes in pressure usu-
ally do occur associated with basically slowmoving
equipment and do not cause serious structural vibra-
tions or impact loads.
In response to Mr. Solanki’s comment concerning the
GergleyILutz equation governing one-way flexural
members but not two-way slabs, Section 13.4, AC1 3 18-
83, states, “Area of reinforcement in each direction for
two-way slab systems shall be determined from mo-
ments at critical sections but shall not be l e s than re-
quired by Section 7.12” (shrinkage and temperature re-
inforcement).