ESWA 8620 No.

of Pages 10, Model 5G

22 June 2013

Expert Systems with Applications xxx (2013) xxx–xxx

1

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Expert Systems with Applications

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/eswa

4
5

3 Intelligent power management in micro grids with EV penetration

6 Q1 Bhuvaneswari Ramachandran a,⇑, Sanjeev K. Srivastava b, David A. Cartes c
7 a
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of West Florida, Pensacola, FL 32514, USA
8 b
Siemens Corporate Research, 755 College Rd. E, Princeton, NJ 08540, USA
9 c
Institute for Energy Systems, Economics and Sustainability (IESES), Program Lead, Control and Automation, Center for Advanced Power Systems (CAPS), Florida State University,
10 2000 Levy Ave., Suite 360, Tallahassee, FL 32310, USA

11
12
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
1
2 4
4
15
16 Keywords: Large deployment of Electric Vehicles (EVs) adds new challenges in the operation of a microgrid. Assum- 25
17 Artificial immune system ing that a number of EV owners allow their batteries to charge when their cars are parked, this paper pro- 26
18 Decentralized control poses an approach that aims to find suitable individual active power set-points corresponding to the 27
19 Microgrid hourly charging rate of each EV battery connected to the microgrid. A multi agent system based controller 28
20 Multi agent system
is designed to find these active power set points for optimal power management of EVs, distributed 29
21 Electric vehicles
22 Power management
energy resources in the microgrid, and the loads. 30
23 Ó 2013 Published by Elsevier Ltd. 31

32
33
34 1. Introduction the electricity grid needs some form of energy storage devices. 61
However, our current electricity grid has a negligible amount of 62
35 Electric vehicles (EV) have received considerable attention in storage capacity, primarily associated with hydro-electric facilities. 63
36 recent years. Under existing policies, one million EVs are expected Since most vehicles are parked over 90% of the time, these EVs can 64
37 to hit the road by 2015. Since EVs run on electricity, a large pene- be used as a large distributed battery and can provide power stor- 65
38 tration of EVs in the market is likely to increase the demand for age and ancillary services to the electricity grid when they are not 66
39 electricity. Grid operators are concerned that this increased de- being driven. This concept is known as Vehicle-To-Grid power or 67
40 mand might result in an increase in the peak load, which would re- V2G power. It is an interesting, logical, and viable alternative to 68
41 quire them to add additional power generation capacity to the grid use nonpolluting energy sources to supply less polluting vehicles. 69
42 (DeForest, 2009; Fell, 2010). However by using Demand-Side Man- In addition, further scenarios characterized by increasing 70
43 agement commands or pricing signals the grid operators might be penetration levels of renewable power sources with intermittent 71
44 able to delay, reduce or switch-off the rate of charging when the nature, such as wind and photovoltaic generation, and also 72
45 demand for electricity is high and push the EVs to charge during micro-generation systems connected to Low Voltage (LV) distribu- 73
46 nonpeak hours (Vandael, Boucke, Holvoet, & Deconinck, 2010). This tion grids should be taken into account. 74
47 would not only reduce the need for new investments but also re- If EVs were to attain a market share in the automobile market, 75
48 sult in better utilization of the existing power grid. with an average battery capacity of 4 kWh, a fleet of 500 EVs city- 76
49 Electric utilities are increasingly diversifying their generation wide would potentially add an extra two megawatt load to the 77
50 portfolio by adding large quantities of renewable energy resources power grid (assuming simultaneous charge of all 500 vehicles at 78
51 in order to mitigate climate change and to reduce our dependence one-hour charge rate). If these EVs are charged and discharged 79
52 on fossil fuels. This group of intermittent generating resources in from/to the grid randomly, peak load will be high; distribution 80
53 the form of micro-generators is called as a Micro Grid (MG). MG transformers will be overloaded and overheated. The EVs energy 81
54 may either be connected to the main grid or may be operated on consumption pattern will also significantly influence the electricity 82
55 an islanded mode of operation. These resources of electricity, like market because market structure, market rules, demand levels, 83
56 wind and solar power, are intermittent in that the instantaneous market concentration and energy sources to produce electricity 84
57 power output of these resources depends on the environmental have a strong influence on market performances (Ghaderi, Azadeh, 85
58 conditions, such as wind speed, at any given time (Kamboj, Pourvalikhan Nokhanda, & Fathi, 2012). Hence to avoid worst sce- 86
59 Kempton, & Decker, 2011). To match the instantaneous power narios, an intelligent energy management system that controls and 87
60 output of these resources with the instantaneous power demand, adapts the load power consumption is needed. Presently commer- 88
cial systems have been developed that have the capability to remo- 89
tely control the charging of pilot vehicle fleets (IEEE, 2006). Several 90
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 850 474 2546.
authors have presented their research on integration of electric 91
E-mail addresses: bhuvana71@gmail.com (B. Ramachandran), sanju420@gmail.-
com (S.K. Srivastava), dave@caps.fsu.edu (D.A. Cartes).
vehicles into the grid (Bessa & Matos, 2012; Bessa, Matos, Soares, 92

0957-4174/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2013.06.007

Please cite this article in press as: Ramachandran, B., et al. Intelligent power management in micro grids with EV penetration. Expert Systems with Applica-
tions (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2013.06.007
 ESWA 8620 No. of Pages 10, Model 5G
22 June 2013

2 B. Ramachandran et al. / Expert Systems with Applications xxx (2013) xxx–xxx

93 & Lopes, 2012; Lingwen et al., 2011; Sortomme & El-Sharkawi, & Almeida, 2011) (Pecas Lopes et al., 2009a) (Peças Lopes, Soares, 156
94 2012; Sundstrom & Binding, 2012; Wencong et al., 2012).However Da Silva, & Almeida, 2009b), so that charging can be distributed 157
95 there is a need for a more detailed study into the problem, which during valley hour periods and at times when there is large renew- 158
96 takes into account of the charging patterns and consumer behavior. able power generation. 159
97 This paper proposes an intelligent power management scheme Multi Agent Systems (MAS) has been identified by the IEEE 160
98 using multi agent systems for power management in the MG to Power Engineering Society’s MAS Working Group as a promising 161
99 meet the rising demand of EVs. The objective of this research is control approach in power engineering. The working group identi- 162
100 to develop a distributed energy management system for the MG fied the key benefits MAS can bring about: 163
101 with EV penetration so that the loads are met in an economical
102 manner. The energy market of MG with EVs is analyzed and some - Flexibility: the ability to respond to dynamic situations. 164
103 possible demand management strategies are investigated. In the - Extensibility: the ability to easily add new functionality and 165
104 MG being considered for the test case, generators are in the form augmenting or upgrading existing functionality. 166
105 of several renewable energy resources and loads are in the form - Fault tolerance: the ability of the system to meet its design 167
106 of consumers who own EVs in addition to the domestic loads. objectives in case of failure. 168
107 The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 will first describe
108 the system architecture that will enable effective energy manage- MAS are further explained in the next section 169
109 ment of multiple EVs connected to a MG. The functions, attributes
110 and interactions of the system will be described. The system con-
111 sists of a decentralized controller that will dynamically sample 3. Multi agent systems for power management of MG with EVs 170
112 the market price, consumers need and SOC of the battery to make
113 a real time decision on the power allocation. Section 3 will present The distributed control is achieved by designing a decentralized 171
114 a brief introduction to application of Multi Agent Systems (MAS) agent based system that can intelligently and autonomously make 172
115 for power management of MG with EVs. Section 4 will describe decisions based on the need of the hour. Agent based systems are 173
116 how power management is performed in MG with EVs. Section 5 systems composed of many interacting autonomous, artificial 174
117 gives a brief overview of artificial immune system. Section 6 details intelligent agents. Complex agent-based systems (CAS) composed 175
118 how the proposed approach is implemented using MAS. Section 7 of simple agents that demonstrate complex collective behavior of- 176
119 presents simulation results on a test case. Two types of charging fer several advantages over traditional multi agent systems that 177
120 viz., uncontrolled charging and economical charging have been rely on deliberative agents. Though some problems are best suited 178
121 considered for simulation purposes. Section 8 presents the for knowledgeable and able agents, traditional multi-agent sys- 179
122 conclusions. tems (MAS) that utilize them have significant shortcomings in at 180
least one of the following areas: robustness, adaptability, stability 181
and scalability. Systems in which agents change their strategies in 182
123 2. The Micro Grid architecture with EVs response to actions by other agents can quickly adapt to environ- 183
mental changes; however, this feature is usually achieved at the 184
124 A MG is a LV distribution system with several comprising small expense of global stability (Rash, Rouff, Truszkowski, Gordon, & Q3 185
125 modular generation units connected to the LV network through Hinchey, 2009). The high communication and computational cost 186
126 power electronic interfaces, electrical loads, storage devices and a required to coordinate agent behavior constrain the size of the tra- 187
127 hierarchical control and management system supported by a suit- ditional MAS to at most a few dozen agents. Yet another disadvan- 188
128 able communication infrastructure, such that the MG can be oper- tage is that the complexity of the agent’s internal states and its 189
129 ated either in islanded mode or connected to the MV system (Yang, interactions with other agents make these systems ill-suited for 190
130 2012), (Kukandeh, Kukandeh, & Kazemi, 2009). The MG is centrally rigorous quantitative analysis. A well-designed CAS, on the other 191
131 controlled and managed by the MGCC installed at the MV/LV sec- hand, is an efficient, robust, adaptive and stable agent-based sys- 192
132 ondary substation, which is responsible to head the MG hierarchi- tem. It lacks central control, meaning that the system can recover 193
133 cal control system. The control of the power flow is especially a quickly from mistakes, agent failure and environmental change. 194
134 major concern for the EVs since they have several charging options. Because it has very low communication and computational 195
135 They can be charged at their maximum power using the fast charg- requirements, there are virtually no constraints on system size. 196
136 ing option, or they can be plugged in for longer times and charge by Moreover software agents serve as basic components for synthe- 197
137 drawing less power. When they are fast charging they may endan- sizing collective behavior. 198
138 ger the grid resilience. Another issue to consider for EV charging is Power management in MGs with EVs fall under the category of 199
139 the source of power. As these vehicles are aiming to go green, their applications which requires collective behavior (and hence a agent 200
140 best option should be charging from the renewable energy based system) from all sources and loads connected to the overall 201
141 resources. system. Management and control of power in a MG with EVs de- 202
142 The MG considered for this study consists of a micro turbine, a pends on the grid power pricing and also on the customer prefer- 203
143 fuel cell, a wind turbine and five PV arrays. The number of EVs con- ences (demand side management) and charging options chosen by 204
144 nected in the MG is determined based on the maximum capacity of the domestic load consumers and EV owners respectively. More- 205
145 the MG. The MG architecture to which EVs are to be connected is over, agent based systems have been commonly used to study 206
146 represented in Fig. 1. EVs can be considered as simple loads when the electricity market for operating a power system because of 207
147 their owners simply define that batteries must be charged with a its ability to model the complex behaviors of various participants 208
148 fixed rate, which corresponds to a dumb charging or as dynamic in a large scale energy market. Thus in our research, power man- 209
149 loads. If the EV owners define a time interval for the charging to agement, energy/power market and agents are all interrelated. 210
150 take place, allowing some EV management structure to control An agent can be as simple as a single variable within a computer 211
151 the charging rate, then that is called as a smart charging frame- program or as complex as an intelligent object such as a human 212
152 work. From the grid point of view, the second approach yields being involving possibly an infinite number of states, decisions, 213
153 more benefits since the EV management structure will control and actions/reactions. Therefore, the precise definition of ‘‘agents’’ 214
154 the charging process by reducing/increasing the charging rate is domain dependent. From the electric power market standpoint, 215
155 according to the system operating conditions (Peças Lopes, Soares, we consider agents to have the following features: autonomy, het- 216

Please cite this article in press as: Ramachandran, B., et al. Intelligent power management in micro grids with EV penetration. Expert Systems with Applica-
tions (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2013.06.007
 ESWA 8620 No. of Pages 10, Model 5G
22 June 2013

B. Ramachandran et al. / Expert Systems with Applications xxx (2013) xxx–xxx 3

Fig. 1. MG architecture.

217 erogeneity, adaptation and social ability. In addition to the above tion between all the domestic loads and EVs. In this work, we have 257
218 main features, other desirable features include interactivity, com- designed a decentralized controller using a multi-objective optimi- 258
219 municability, mobility, flexibility, and concurrence. Finally, although zation approach, which can intelligently manage the power con- 259
220 each agent is an autonomous unit, both individual agents and the sumed by the domestic loads and the EVs in a MG. Distributed 260
221 agent-based system are goal oriented; their goals direct their control is achieved by designing a decentralized agent-based sys- 261
222 behavior and decisions. tem that can intelligently and autonomously make decisions based 262
223 In the proposed multi agent system for power management in a on the need of the hour. The overall architecture of the agent sys- 263
224 MG with EVs, distributed control is achieved by designing a decen- tem consists of EV agents, a main grid agent, several DER agents, 264
225 tralized agent based system that can intelligently and autono- household domestic load agents and an optimizing agent. The 265
226 mously make decisions based on the need of the hour. The function of a EV agent is to charge the battery of its EV in time. 266
227 implementation of MAS is done using the JADE (Java Agent The function of a generator agent is to make sure that it delivers 267
228 Development framework) agent management platform. JADE power to the required loads and EVs at the right time economi- 268
229 (Bellifemine, Caire, Trucco, & Rimassa, 2010) is a software develop- cally. The function of a domestic load agent is to communicate 269
230 ment framework for developing MAS and applications conforming with the generator agent about the total load and self -adjust the 270
231 to FIPA (Foundation for Intelligent Physical Agents) (Odell & Huget, loads in such a manner that the vital domestic loads are supplied 271
232 2003) standards for intelligent agents. with uninterrupted power. The domestic load agents have to per- 272
233 The proposed multi agent system (MAS) consists of EV agents, form load shedding under emergency conditions when the gener- 273
234 generator agents and load agents, main grid agent and optimizing ated power is not sufficient enough to supply all the loads. These 274
235 agent. A mathematical model was developed for the EV in Java. functions are not independent of each other. To perform all the 275
236 This model is made to represent a EV agent using JADE. The load functions, the agents have to coordinate with each other through 276
237 agents are categorized based on their priority according to the cus- communication. 277
238 tomer’s needs. Thus there are three load agents for each consumer, The domestic load agents are categorized based on their priority 278
239 first being the vital loads which are of utmost importance to the according to the customer’s needs. In addition, the load agents are 279
240 consumer, non-vital loads–loads that are not as important as the included in the Demand Response (DR) program. Thus there are 280
241 vital loads meaning that non vital loads can be shut down for a three load agents for each consumer, first being the vital loads 281
242 chosen duration and the long term shut down loads which are which are of utmost importance to the consumer, non-vital 282
243 the least priority loads which can be shut down for longer time loads–loads that are not as important as the vital loads meaning 283
244 periods than the non-vital loads. that non-vital loads can be shut down for a chosen duration and 284
245 Generation agents correspond to the various DERs located in the the long term shut down loads which are the least priority loads 285
246 MG. The main grid agent corresponds to the main grid which feeds which can be shut down for longer time periods than the non-vital 286
247 the loads during peak demand periods. The optimizing agent is the loads. In addition to the EV agent and the load agents, the MAS sys- 287
248 one who is responsible for calculating the set points of the gener- tem is composed of generation agents, the main grid agent and an 288
249 ators and loads and for communicating the generation and load optimizing agent. DER agents correspond to the various DGs and 289
250 settings to the corresponding agent. As the EV agents send their renewable energy resources located in the MG. The main grid 290
251 power request at regular time intervals, the optimizing agent agent corresponds to the main grid which feeds the loads during 291
252 dynamically adapts their information about the expected load. peak demand periods. The optimizing agent is the one who is 292
responsible for calculating the set points of the generators and 293
loads and for communicating the generation and load settings to 294
253 4. Power management in MG with EVs the corresponding agent. As the EV agents send their power re- 295
quest at regular time intervals, the optimizing agent dynamically 296
254 The implementation of an intelligent management system, adapts their information about the expected load. 297
255 where the EVs are connected to the MG, involves a decentralized The adaptability of the MAS is determined by the rate at which 298
256 controller that can autonomously distribute the available genera- requests of EV agents can be processed by the optimizing agents. If 299

Please cite this article in press as: Ramachandran, B., et al. Intelligent power management in micro grids with EV penetration. Expert Systems with Applica-
tions (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2013.06.007
 ESWA 8620 No. of Pages 10, Model 5G
22 June 2013

4 B. Ramachandran et al. / Expert Systems with Applications xxx (2013) xxx–xxx

300 a request is sent for the first time by a EV agent, the optimizing immune systems. In addition, the corresponding immune suppres- 364
301 agent has to recalculate the set points again. If a request from a sion operator is activated when the similarity or stimulation be- 365
302 EV contains the same intentions as the last request, no recalcula- tween any two antibodies is below a certain threshold. This kind 366
303 tion is needed. When the MG is operating in grid connected mode of suppression is similarity-based. This threshold has a crucial effect 367
304 and the EVs are charging from charging stations, EVs draw power on the performance of artificial immune system; however, it was 368
305 from the grid which would increase the active power losses. If just defined by trial and error. These existing disadvantages make 369
306 the MG is operating under islanded mode, EVs charging from artificial immune system itself difficult to adaptive plenty of opti- 370
307 charging stations would increase the cost of generation by DERs mization problems. Hence an Improved Adaptive Artificial Immune 371
308 in the MG. Hence mathematically the problem is formulated as a System (IA–AIS) algorithm was proposed (Li, Zhang, & Tan, 2011). 372
309 multi objective optimization problem that involves minimization This improved algorithm is used in this research to determine 373
310 of the variance of active power flow (Karnama, Resende, & Lopes, the optimum generation settings, load settings and charging set- 374
311 2011) through the point of common coupling considering the addi- tings for generators, loads and EVs respectively. 375
312 tional consumption of the EV batteries and minimization of cost of In this method, three immune operators, including cloning, 376
313 generation of the DERs in the MG mutation and suppressor, are redesigned to improve and enhance 377
314 ! the adaptability of artificial immune systems and the extreme re- 378
X24
ðPh  lÞ2 X
N
min F ¼ þ Cj ð1Þ search target is to upgrade the performance of artificial immune 379
316 h¼1
24 j¼1 system in complex engineering optimization problem. Interested 380
readers can refer to (Li et al., 2011) for a detailed explanation, algo- 381
317 where Cj is the cost of generation for the jth micro-generator, Ph is rithm and flowchart of the IA–AIS. It was observed that this novel 382
318 the hourly power injected at the point of common coupling and l is method is good at not only mining the local information but also 383
319 the average value of power after considering EV consumption probing potential information of objective function, which guaran- 384
320
322 Ph ¼ PMG  Ploads  PEV ð2Þ tees that the global optima is found quickly and accurately. Hence 385
the above mentioned optimization problem was solved using the 386
323 P 
24
IA–AIS. 387
h¼1 P h
325 l¼ ð3Þ
24
6. Implementation of power management in MG with EVs 388
326 where PEV is the power drawn by all EV, PMG is the sum of all micro-
327 generations in the microgrid and Ploads is the sum of power drawn
In order to assess the performance of the approach described 389
328 by loads (that are chosen by the consumer based on priority and
above, the MG network presented in Fig. 1 was used. The network 390
329 power pricing at that hour) during 24 h of a typical day. Eq. (1) is
comprises three feeders: one serving a primarily residential area, 391
330 subject to the following constraint
331 one industrial feeder serving a small workshop and one feeder with 392
333 LSOCj < OSOCj < HSOCj ð4Þ commercial consumers. For each feeder, the load curves are as 393
shown in Fig. 2 for a typical weekday in October. The total energy 394
334 LSOC, OSOC, HSOC representing the lowest desired, optimal desired demand for this day is 3188 kWh. The power factor of all loads is 395
335 and highest desired state of charge of the battery in the EV. The first assumed to be equal to 0.85 lagging. A variety of DERs such as an 396
336 and third are values specified by the car owner and the second value MT, a proton-exchange membrane fuel cell, a directly coupled 397
337 is determined by the optimization problem. WT and several PVs are installed in the residential feeder. It is as- 398
338 Artificial Immune System (AIS) has been chosen as an optimiza- sumed that all DER sources produce active power at unity power 399
339 tion algorithm since the immune system is a decentralized system factor, neither requesting nor producing reactive power. The min- 400
340 with no central controller and control is distributed throughout imum and maximum generation limits of the DER sources are gi- 401
341 our body via its constituent cells and molecules. Yet it performs ven in Table 1. The bid coefficients assumed by the DER sources 402
342 the common goal of destroying the foreign substances entering expressed in cents of Euro (Ect) per kWh and hour are given in Ta- 403
343 the body. Immune System possesses several properties such as ble 2. In the same table, start up costs where applicable are 404
344 pattern recognition, self/non-self discrimination, immune memory, presented. 405
345 immune network and colonial expansion. Similarly, multi agent To simplify our analysis, all units in this paper are assumed to 406
346 systems have several agents that have individual goals. They learn be operating in electricity mode only and no heat is required for 407
347 and utilize the attained intelligence to perform a global goal. There the examined period. In order to consider realistic numbers, the 408
348 are distinct similarities between the intelligent agents and the im- electrical efficiency of the fuel-consuming units, as well as the 409
349 mune system. A brief review of AIS is provided in the next section. depreciation time for their installation have been taken into ac- 410
count. Actual energy prices from the Amsterdam Power Exchange 411
350 5. Artificial immune system

200
351 Artificial immune systems are intelligent models or/and algo-
180
352 rithms developed by some researchers who are inspired by the po-
160
353 tential functionalities of human immune systems. In an earlier
140
354 version of artificial immune systems (De Castro & Timmis, 1996),
KW load

120
355 the candidate antibodies evolve according to their affinity com- 100
356 bined with the particular antigen. There the multiplier of cloned 80
357 antibodies is kept fixed despite their affinity, also called fixed clon- 60
358 ing, which means that all antibodies have the identical reproduc- 40
359 tion capability. Also, the mutation of antibodies is adjusted 20
360 according to their affinity combined with the particular antigen. 0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25
361 It is called affinity-based mutation. However, the simple proximate Hour
362 linear relationship between the mutation of antibodies and their
363 affinity impairs the convergence (speed and accuracy) of artificial Fig. 2. Typical load curve of the test case.

Please cite this article in press as: Ramachandran, B., et al. Intelligent power management in micro grids with EV penetration. Expert Systems with Applica-
tions (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2013.06.007
 ESWA 8620 No. of Pages 10, Model 5G
22 June 2013

B. Ramachandran et al. / Expert Systems with Applications xxx (2013) xxx–xxx 5

Table 1 Table 4
Operating limits of DERs. EV specifications.

DER Type Min power limit (kW) Max power limit (kW) Number of registered EVs in the MG (assumed) 2, 4, 10
Capacity of the battery 7.5 kWh
1 Micro turbine 6 30
Charging/discharging frequency 1/day
2 Fuel cell 3 30
SOC during departure 50%
3 Wind turbine 0 15
System efficiency 85%
4 PV 1 0 3
Usable energy in battery pack 6 kWh
5 PV 2 0 2.5
Average distance covered by a vehicle 12,000 miles/year
6 PV 3 0 2.5
Average distance covered by EVs per kWh 3.49 miles
7 PV 4 0 2.5
8 PV 5 0 2.5

(2) Uncontrolled charging: Uncontrolled charging denotes the 437

Table 2 case where the customers charge their EVs without follow- 438
Bid coefficients of DERs. ing any monetary incentive scheme. Random starting times 439
were created for each customer based on Gaussian distribu- 440
Type bi (Ect/kWh) ci (Ect/h) Start up cost (Ect)
tion. The mean value of this distribution was chosen to coin- 441
Micro turbine 4.37 85.06 9
cide with the peak residential load. This is approximately 442
Fuel cell 2.84 255.18 16
Wind turbine 10.63 0 0 18.00 during winter and at 17.00 during summer which cor- 443
PV 1 54.84 0 0 responds to the time at which residents return home. A stan- 444
PV 2 54.84 0 0 dard deviation of two hours was considered. 445
PV 3 54.84 0 0
PV 4 54.84 0 0
The uncertainty of each customers EV battery SOC prior to charg- 446
PV 5 54.84 0 0
ing, was addressed creating a random charging duration for each 447
EV owner. In this implementation, since some EV owners might 448
prefer to charge completely unrestricted, the number of EV owners 449
412 (ApX) for a day (Amsterdam Exchange Data, 2007) with rather vol- willing to charge during off peak hours is assumed as 50%. In order 450
413 atile prices have been assumed to represent realistically the open to ensure smart management of battery charging of EVs and for 451
414 market operation (Table 3). The number of EVs to be connected decentralized control of all the generators, loads and EVs, the fol- 452
415 in the MG network was estimated analytically based on the num- lowing agents have been implemented in the case study. 453
416 ber of electricity clients (customers) in that network. An estimate (1) Market agent 455
454
417 of EVs from residential electricity clients was computed based on (2) DER agent 456
418 the approach suggested in Saber and Venayagamoorthy (2011). A (3) Load agent 457
419 brief description of this method is given in Appendix. (4) Optimizing agent 458
420 Three different penetration levels with three different numbers (5) Auctioneer agent 459
421 of EVs have been considered for studying the effect of variation of (6) EV agent 460
422 number of EVs on load and energy management. Based on these
423 calculations, the following results (Table 4) were obtained. The To develop an agent-based framework, it is necessary to define the 461
424 EVs charging has been classified into two types depending on the detailed functions of each agent according to the characteristics of 462
425 time of charge, (1) Economical charging and (2) Uncontrolled the individual energy source/sink. The following is a brief descrip- 463
426 charging. tion of elements in the agent based architecture. The sequence of 464
agent communications is depicted in Fig. 3. 465
427 (1) Economical charging: Economical charging was assumed to (1) Market agent: This agent represents the bulk electric grid 467
466
428 take place between 23.00 and 6.00. Users are assumed to and announces the open market pricing to the load agent, 468
429 start charging their batteries every day at 23.00. This case DER agent and optimizing agent. As the tariff varies every 469
430 is more likely, than uncontrolled charging giving existing 15 min, data is sent over the channel for every 15 min 470
431 incentives for off-peak energy use. For this case, we assumed interval. 471
432 a constant charging rate of 1.4 kW which is based on a com- (2) DER agent: The energy source agent manages the repre- 472
433 mon household 110/120 volt, 20 A circuit with continuous sented energy source based on the local measured informa- 473
434 rating of 1.8–2.0 kW. Despite this low charging rate, the tion and the communications with other agents. The agent 474
435 charge time for a completely discharged battery is still less receives information from the optimizing agent about how 475
436 than six hours. much energy will be supplied and directs the corresponding 476
energy source to do so. The control strategies for different 477
Table 3 types of energy sources may be different than each other, 478
Market prices from APX. depending upon the characteristics of the fuels. The DER 479

Hour Price (Euro/MWh) Hour Price (Euro/MWh) agent submits asks to the auctioneer agent during every 480
15 min interval. 481
1 22.64 13 149.86
2 19 14 400 (3) Load agent: The load agent is to manage the load to make it a 482
3 13.98 15 210 controllable energy resource. In an agent-based manage- 483
4 12 16 194.99 ment of smart grid, the load also participates in the compe- 484
5 11.53 17 60 tition by participating in the bidding process according to 485
6 19.94 18 41.3
7 23.01 19 35.16
the low and high priority loads in each type of load. The load 486
8 38.37 20 43.95 agent submits its high priority and low priority bids for 487
9 149.86 21 117.12 every 15 min interval to the auctioneer agent 488
10 400 22 54 (4) Optimizing agent: This agent sends the demand and pricing 489
11 400 23 30
information to the optimization routine, viz., artificial 490
12 400 24 25.57
immune system algorithm. The AIS algorithm returns opti- 491

Please cite this article in press as: Ramachandran, B., et al. Intelligent power management in micro grids with EV penetration. Expert Systems with Applica-
tions (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2013.06.007
 ESWA 8620 No. of Pages 10, Model 5G
22 June 2013

6 B. Ramachandran et al. / Expert Systems with Applications xxx (2013) xxx–xxx

Fig. 3. Agent based management of MG with EVs.

492 mal generation of each DER back to the controller agent such price, then the loads and EVs decide to buy power from the grid 529
493 that the sum of all DER generations equals load demand. meaning the MG is operating in a grid connected mode. On the 530
494 This in turn is communicated to each DER agent so as to other hand, if the DER’s selling price is lower than the grid pricing, 531
495 adjust their generation settings. then the loads and EVs decide to buy power locally from the DERs 532
496 (5) Auctioneer agent: The trading strategy adopted in this work and hence the MG can operate in an islanded mode. 533
497 viz., RB auction strategy is conducted by the auctioneer The optimizing agent described in step (4) carries out the opti- 534
498 agent to assess the risk associated with a bid or ask under mization routine by receiving domestic, commercial and industrial 535
499 current market conditions and respond accordingly. A load demands, EV charging load demand (if the EV is in charging 536
500 profit-maximizing adaptive bidding strategy based on risk mode), EV power output (during discharge) and generations from 537
501 and CE price prediction is utilized by the auctioneer agent. DERs in the MG. The outputs from the optimization routine are 538
502 (6) EV agent: This agent represents the vehicle and is used for the generation settings for the DER, load settings (depending on 539
503 negotiating with the auctioneer agent for charging and dis- MG is in islanded mode or grid connected mode) and charge/dis- 540
504 charging. This agent considers the financial benefits of charge settings of the EVs. These optimum settings are then com- 541
505 charging/discharging based on the consumers’ personal municated to the respective agents (DER, load and EV) and the 542
506 driving habit and market prices. Each EV agent has a differ- generation levels will be set at the DERs and charging/discharging 543
507 ent parking time and final state of charge (SOC) which he levels will be set at the EVs. When the MG is operating in islanded 544
508 would like to possess at the end of his stopover. Here, it is mode, if the EVs are in charging mode and if all the loads are 545
509 assumed that each EV agent tries to have at least 10% more turned ON, then there is a chance that demand may become great- 546
510 energy than used for the latest trip. Once connected, the EV er than generation. To avoid this scenario, we have implemented 547
511 agent transmits the plug capacity, connection timer, initial demand response which can be used to turn OFF certain loads 548
512 and final desired SOC to the optimizing agent who then runs based on their priority/importance at the chosen time period. 549
513 the optimization routine and determines how the available The EV owners discharge their vehicles during peak hours when 550
514 energy can be distributed. The EV agent can exhibit either there is a demand for power and also when the power tariff is high. 551
515 one of two charging behaviors viz., uncontrolled charging This benefits the consumers in providing uninterrupted power 552
516 or economical charging. supply and also earns profits for the EV owners. 553
517 The selling prices (ASKs) are submitted by DERs to the auction- 554
518 The optimization routine described in step (4) considers cus- eer agent. The load agents and EV agents also submit their buying 555
519 tomers preferences and energy prices so as to optimize the energy prices (BIDs) to the auctioneer agent. A Risk Based (RB) auction 556
520 usage. Moreover, to maximize the financial benefits, a demand re- strategy was used by the buyers and sellers, which makes decisions 557
521 sponse algorithm m is incorporated in the load agents that can based on the notion of risk attitude (adapted to best fit the prevail- 558
522 change the energy usage by end use customers from their normal ing market situations). Risk is defined as the most appropriate way 559
523 consumption patterns, in response to changes in the price of elec- to characterize the agent’s willingness to trade. Thus the DER 560
524 tricity over time. The optimizing agent communicates with the agents, load agents and EV agents form a BID or ASK depending 561
525 optimization routine to determine the optimal settings of DERs on how risk seeking or risk averse they are and adapt their risk atti- 562
526 in the MG and also the EVs. Here the MGs are considered to be tude, based on past experience. This causes them to be more effec- 563
527 operating in both islanding mode as well as grid connected mode. tive in prevailing market conditions. This adaptive behavior by the 564
528 When the market price for energy is lower than the DER’s selling agents modifies the BIDs and ASKs continuously till a settlement is 565

Please cite this article in press as: Ramachandran, B., et al. Intelligent power management in micro grids with EV penetration. Expert Systems with Applica-
tions (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2013.06.007
 ESWA 8620 No. of Pages 10, Model 5G
22 June 2013

B. Ramachandran et al. / Expert Systems with Applications xxx (2013) xxx–xxx 7

Table 5
DR strategies by load type.

Priority Type DR strategy

Critical loads
Deferrable loads
Interruptible loads
Refrigerator Not shed or shifted at all
Freezer
Cooking
Lighting
Water heating Shut down the equipment when the price is higher, load will be shifted to less expensive hours
Clothes drying
EV
Space cooling/space heating 9.00 am–5.00 pm: turn OFF
5.00 pm–9.00 am: adjust by 10 °F and resume after peak hours
Optional lighting Turn OFF 50% of the lighting loads when the price is higher

566 reached between them. The negotiations are carried out through The load shared, for all the three EV penetration scenarios are 608
567 the auctioneer agent who acts as a broker between the selling shown in Fig. 4 for uncontrolled charging (usually in the evening) 609
568 agents and buying agents. Interested readers can refer to Vytelin- and without demand response and when the MG is grid connected. 610
569 gum, Dash, David, and Jennings (2004) for more on RB auction The uncontrolled charging scenario in most cases adds to the sys- 611
570 strategy. tem peak load. The low penetration level’s impact on the peak load 612
is minimal while both the medium and high EV penetration sce- 613
narios’ would increase peak demand. In the uncontrolled charging 614

571 7. Results and discussion scenario, one-third of the EV fleet begins charging at 6:00 pm, ex- 615
actly the time when the peak demand occurred on the peak winter 616

572 The proposed approach for energy management in a MG with day. As a result, all of the EV penetration scenarios analyzed would 617

573 EVs was implemented on the test system shown in Fig. 1. Simula- add to the system peak. In the winter months, the early evening 618

574 tions were carried out with three different levels of EV penetration peak is driven by residential energy use. Given that EVs represent 619

575 in the MG. Moreover two different charging scenarios were consid- a significant household load, charging when returning home from 620

576 ered to study the effect of charging type/customers preferences on work would increase early evening peak demand for electrical en- 621

577 energy management and demand response. The charging scenarios ergy during the cold weather months. Fig. 5 depicts the variation of 622

578 of EVs that were considered in this paper are economical charging EV penetration levels under conditions of economical charging 623

579 and uncontrolled charging. The objective of this paper is to develop without demand response and when the MG is grid connected. 624

580 an energy management solution and to study the effect of avail- This charging scenario assumes that either through financial incen- 625

581 ability of renewable DERs and the effect of different charging pro- tives such as off peak rates, the EVs do not charge until 12.00 am 626

582 files on the power management problem. The main advantages of midnight. Fig. 6 illustrates that a large number of EVs could charge 627

583 the proposed approach are that the MAS presented in this paper from the grid without adding to system peak demand under an 628

584 works on an extendable, flexible and scalable architecture for economical charging scenario. Penetration rates of around 10 EVs 629

585 expressing EV intentions and for controlling their charging behav- can be accommodated without the need to build additional gener- 630

586 ior. The auction strategy used in this paper is an adaptive risk ation and transmission. In both the cases discussed above, demand 631

587 based strategy which adapts itself depending on past experience response was not considered because the MG was connected to the 632

588 and prevailing market conditions. The simulations were tested on grid (because the grid prices were lower than the DER selling 633

589 a multi agent platform programmed using a JADE agent manage- prices). In the next simulation, the DER’s ASKs were modified to 634

590 ment platform. Once initialized, agents attached to MG compo- be lower than the grid prices and hence the MG was operating in 635

591 nents, or groups of components can operate independently, islanded mode. 636

592 according to their programming. The agent platform directly sup- In the islanded mode, with EVs charging and all the domestic 637

593 ports ‘‘Plug and Play’’ connectivity, as agents can come on-and appliances connected in the domestic customers’ location, load de- 638

594 off asynchronously and can be easily replicated for fault survivabil- mand is greater than the available generation. To meet this in- 639

595 ity. Collectively, MG agents operate according to user-defined goals creased demand, several more distributed energy resources have 640

596 and can work independently or cooperatively as their program- to be introduced into the MG which is not an economically viable 641

597 ming dictates, executing their responsibilities in parallel with option. Hence demand management has to be included in this 642

598 other agents. scheme so that some of the loads can be turned ON or OFF based 643

599 These agents were simulated with three different levels of EV on their importance and time of consumption. Demand manage- 644

600 penetration, 2, 4, and 10. Each case corresponds to a specific load- ment or Demand response can be accomplished by (a) staggering 645

601 ing configuration. To create a case, appropriate residential profiles the EV charging time, or (b) performing household load control. 646

602 are assigned to each customer. The EVs are randomly allocated to The implementation of demand management with EVs is built 647

603 customers and EV charging profiles are added on top, to create final upon an existing infrastructure and is mainly a software based 648

604 customer profiles. It is assumed in this implementation that, only solution. In most cases, the software-based solution can be consid- 649

605 the residential customers possess EVs and they charge their vehi- ered more cost effective than a hardware-based solution (Shao, 650

606 cles only at their respective homes. The demand response strate- Pipattanasomporn, & Rahman, 2009), i.e. building more DERs in 651

607 gies based on load type are given in Table 5. the MG. 652

Table 6
Consumer comfort zones for different appliances.

Air conditioners Water heaters Washing machine EV

Comfort 6±2°F difference from 6±10°F difference from 630 min within the original charging 630 min within the original charging
zone setting setting time time

Please cite this article in press as: Ramachandran, B., et al. Intelligent power management in micro grids with EV penetration. Expert Systems with Applica-
tions (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2013.06.007
 ESWA 8620 No. of Pages 10, Model 5G
22 June 2013

8 B. Ramachandran et al. / Expert Systems with Applications xxx (2013) xxx–xxx

230

180
KW load

130 Daily load

2 PHEVs
4 PHEVs
10 PHEVs
80

30
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25
Time of Day

Fig. 4. EV penetration impact: uncontrolled charging.

Fig. 7. Load profile for 4 EVs with demand response in islanded mode.

210

190

170

150
KW load

130 Daily
y loa
ad
2 PH
HEVs
s
110
4 PH
HEVs
s

90 10 PHEV
P Vs

70

50

30
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 1
17 19 21 23 25
Time of Day

Fig. 5. EV penetration impact: economical charging.

Fig. 8. Load profile for 10 EVs with demand response in islanded mode.

Fig. 6. Load profile for 2 EVs with demand response in islanded mode.
Fig. 9. Load profile of the air conditioner with demand response.

653 In the demand management scheme, the EVs act as a load on

654 the system to recharge their batteries within the time available be- ward for such flexibility is cheaper charging for the vehicle owner. 664
655 tween reconnection to the grid and the next journey. If that time is Demand management balancing services generate revenue by 665
656 longer than the minimum time required for recharging, this intro- allowing vehicles to either purchase electricity for cheaper than 666
657 duces the flexibility to shift the loads within that period to reduce was anticipated, thus saving money, or by allowing vehicles to sell 667
658 peak demand and fill periods of lower demand, thereby reducing the right to consume electricity, thus earning money. Since in this 668
659 the need for balancing the available energy resources. Demand paper, the focus is primarily on EVs operating under G2V mode, the 669
660 management is provided by the charging flexibility of individual former incentive is considered. 670
661 EVs, which allows them to charge during the lowest demand peri- Demand response is included into the original problem formu- 671
662 ods within the charging window that is provided by the vehicle lation as a sub-problem which can be used to maximize consumer 672
663 owners. Because low demand coincides with low prices, the re- comfort index [19] so that the consumer achieves low cost and 673

Please cite this article in press as: Ramachandran, B., et al. Intelligent power management in micro grids with EV penetration. Expert Systems with Applica-
tions (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2013.06.007
 ESWA 8620 No. of Pages 10, Model 5G
22 June 2013

B. Ramachandran et al. / Expert Systems with Applications xxx (2013) xxx–xxx 9

Fig. 10. Load profile of the washing machine with demand response.

Fig. 11. Load profile of the water heater with demand response.

674 does not compromise on his comfort level. For EV charging at The proposed demand response strategy can provide the utility 706
675 home, the delay is usually not a problem unless the user needs with unchanged peak demand to avoid building new distributed 707
676 the EV in the evening, for which they will set a higher priority energy resources, while being able to accommodate EV charging 708
677 for the EV. In that case, EV charging will be guaranteed. Therefore by suitably turning ON or OFF, the other loads, based on customer’s 709
678 the comfort indices are not applicable to EVs. But for all the other preferences. Since the utility only sends the demand limit to each 710
679 appliances such as water heaters, air conditioners and washing house and will leave all the household control decision to the con- 711
680 machines, comfort indices are defined as sumer, the proposed demand management strategy will respect 712
681 the consumer’s own choices and protect their privacy. The results 713
Usage timeactual  Usage timeoriginal obtained above prove the applicability of demand management 714
 100
683 Usage timeoriginal integrated with risk based auctions to maximize profitability of 715
the customer. During economical charging pattern, the EV owners 716
684 These indices are defined based on the severity, scale and duration were given preferential pricing for the power consumed so as to 717
685 of convenience violations for each controllable appliance. Table 6 encourage and boost charging during off peak hours. This reduces 718
686 lists the consumer comfort zones for different appliances. The num- the overall peak demand on the system and thereby reduces the 719
687 bers listed above are based on typical consumer preference. The total load on the power transmission and distribution system. By 720
688 comfort zone may vary by areas and can be re-defined according optimally controlling the EVs charging pattern, this research min- 721
689 to any available concrete survey data. The indices are used to mea- imizes the variance of active power flow through the point of com- 722
690 sure the impacts of DR on the consumer’s convenience. With de- mon coupling and the cost of power generation by DERs in the MG. 723
691 mand response implemented along with risk based auction
692 conducted in the energy market, the load profiles for a penetration
693 of 2, 4 and 10 are illustrated in Figs. 6–8 respectively. Economical 8. Conclusion 724
694 charging and uncontrolled charging are depicted by red and blue
695 curves respectively. The transportation system in the US was built in an era of cheap 725
696 In the above graphs, green line indicates the maximum capacity gas. Gas is not cheap anymore. So there’s no doubt about the fact 726
697 of the MG, blue line indicates the economical charging and red line that the transportation system needs a change. People are already 727
698 indicates uncontrolled charging. In Fig. 6, since there are only 2 EVs moving back into the cities, moving closer to where they work. Gi- 728
699 involved, there is not much of a variation between economic charg- ven the potential for near-term, large-scale deployment it is impor- 729
700 ing and uncontrolled charging behaviors. But in Figs. 7 and 8, a tant that policy makers and electricity industry members 730
701 huge variation in the power consumed and the manner in which understand the impact that EVs will have on national electricity 731
702 demand management takes in account this variation, can be ob- infrastructures. Large numbers of EVs have the potential to threa- 732
703 served. The load profiles of air conditioners, washing machines ten the stability of the power system. This paper models two differ- 733
704 and water heaters in the MG during the day is given in Figs. 9– ent charging patterns for the EVs. In this paper, a multi agent based 734
705 11 with a EV penetration of 4. framework is proposed for optimal power management in a MG 735

Please cite this article in press as: Ramachandran, B., et al. Intelligent power management in micro grids with EV penetration. Expert Systems with Applica-
tions (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2013.06.007
 ESWA 8620 No. of Pages 10, Model 5G
22 June 2013

10 B. Ramachandran et al. / Expert Systems with Applications xxx (2013) xxx–xxx

736 with EV penetration. The generators, loads and EVs are represented Bessa, R. J., & Matos, M. A. (2012). Economic and technical management of an 795
aggregation agent for electric vehicles: A literature survey. European 796
737 as agents in a multi agent system, which can coordinate and com- 797
Transactions on Electrical Power, 22, 334–350.
738 municate with each other for efficient and economical operation of Bessa, R. J., Matos, M. A., Soares, F. J., & Lopes, J. A. P. (2012). Optimized bidding of a 798
739 the MG. The integration of demand management strategy along EV aggregation agent in the electricity market. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, 799
3(1), 443–452. 800
740 with risk based auction strategy is also explored. In this demand 801
De Castro, L. N., & Timmis, J. (1996). Artificial immune systems: A new computational
741 management strategy, the utility sends in the power demand limit intelligence approach. London, UK: Springer-Verlag. 802
742 signal to the consumer and the control decisions are left to the cus- DeForest, N. et al. (2009). Impact of widespread electric vehicle adoption on the 803
electrical utility business-threats and opportunities. Technical report 804
743 tomer. This ensures that customer’s choices and needs are met and
2009.5.v.1.1, center for entrepreneurship and technology, University of 805
744 simultaneously provides the customer with economical power. California, Berkeley. 806
745 Customer’s choices are defined based on his comfort indices and Fell, K. (2010). Assessment of plug-in electric vehicle integration with ISO/RTO 807
746 his comfort/tolerance level. With a higher penetration of EVs the systems. Technical report, ISO/RTO council. 808
Ghaderi, S. F., Azadeh, A., Pourvalikhan Nokhanda, B., & Fathi, E. (2012). Behavioral 809
747 customer will not have to sacrifice his comfort at home in ex- simulation and optimization of generation companies in electricity markets by 810
748 change for cheaper power. Making use of these indices to imple- fuzzy cognitive map. Expert Systems with Applications, 39(5), 4635–4646. 811
749 ment demand management will aid in improving the customer Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. (2006). IEEE Std. 802.15.4- 812
2006, IEEE standard for information technology – telecommunications and 813
750 participation in these programs. information exchange between systems – local and metropolitan area networks 814
751 We have considered a MG that can have a maximum of 10 EVs – specific requirements – part 15.4: Wireless medium access control (MAC) and 815
752 along with existing domestic loads. If the size of the MG is in- physical layer (PHY). 816
Kamboj, S., Kempton, W., & Decker, K. S. (2011). Deploying power grid-integrated 817
753 creased, then an increased penetration of EVs may be considered. 818
electric vehicles as a multi-agent system. In The 10th International conference on
754 The authors will be extending this research work by studying a autonomous agents and multiagent systems AAMAS 11 (Vol. 1, pp. 13–20). 819
755 higher capacity MG with a much higher penetration of EVs com- International Foundation for Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems. 820
Karnama, A., Resende, F. O., & Lopes, J. A. P. (2011). Optimal management of battery 821
756 pared to the case in this paper. As the number of EVs increases, 822
charging of electric vehicles: A new microgrid feature. In IEEE powertech
757 it will become more difficult to keep the household load under a conference (pp. 1–8). Trondheim, 19–23 June 2011. 823
758 given demand limit and not violating the consumer’s comfort level. Kukandeh, Y. R., Kukandeh, H. R., & Kazemi, M. H. (2009). Controlling voltage and 824
frequency of a power network with microgrid using droop method. Research 825
759 At that point, the utilities may not be able to rely solely on demand
Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology, 4(03), 196–200. 826
760 response to shave the peak demand. When all demand resources Li, Z., Zhang, Y., & Tan, H.-Z. (2011). IA–AIS, an improved adaptive artificial immune 827
761 are exploited, utilities can explore other means such as increasing system applied to complex optimization problems. Applied Soft Computing, 828
762 the DERs or opt for transmission and distribution equipment up- 11(8), 4692–4700. 829
Gan, L., Topcu, U., & Low, S. (2011). Optimal decentralized protocol for electric 830
763 grade to address high EV penetration scenarios. vehicle charging, In 50th IEEE conference on decision and control and European 831
control conference (CDC–ECC), 2011 (pp. 5798, 5804). 12–15 December 2011. 832
Odell, J., & Huget, M. P. (2003). FIPA modeling: interaction diagrams. Working draft, 833
764 9. Uncited reference 834
foundation for intelligent physical agents. www.auml.org.
Pecas Lopes, J. A., Soares, F. J., & Almeida, P. M. R. (2009). Identifying management 835
765 Q4 Shao et al. (2012). procedures to deal with connection of electric vehicles in the grid. In Powertech, 836
2009 IEEE bucharest (pp. 1–8). 837
Peças Lopes, J. A., Soares, F. J., Almeida, P. M. R., & Da Silva, A. M. M. (2009). Smart 838
766 Appendix A charging strategies for electric vehicles: Enhancing grid performance and 839
maximizing the use of variable renewable energy sources. In Proceedings of the 840
24th international battery hybrid fuel cell electric vehicle symposium and 841
767 The number of EVs in an electric power network can be esti- exhibition, Stavanger, Norway (pp. 1–11). 842
768 mated analytically based on number of electricity clients (custom- Peças Lopes, J. A., Soares, F. J., & Almeida, P. M. R. (2011). Integration of electric 843
769 ers) in that network. An estimate of EVs from residential electricity vehicles in the electric power system. Proceedings of the IEEE, 99(1), 168–183. 844
Rash, J. L., Rouff, C. A., Truszkowski, W., Gordon, D., Hinchey, M. G. (2009). Formal 845
770 clients may be computed as follows: 846
771 approaches to agent-based systems. First international workshop, FAABS 2000
Greenbelt, MD, USA, April 5–7. 847
773 NEV ¼ NV UCV2G V REC NREC ¼ NVUCV2G V REC X RL Lmin =AV HLD
Saber, A. Y., & Venayagamoorthy, G. K. (2011). Plug-in vehicles and renewable 848
774 energy sources for cost and emission reductions. IEEE Transactions on Industrial 849
776 AV HLD ¼ AV MEC =ð30  24Þ Electronics, 58(4), 1229–1238. 850
Shao, S., Pipattanasomporn, M., & Rahman, S. (2009). Challenges of PHEV 851
777 where: penetration to the residential distribution network. In: IEEE – power and 852
779
778  NEV = Number of EVs energy society general meeting, PES ‘09 (pp. 1–8). 853
Shao, S., Pipattanasomporn, M., & Rahman, S. (2012). Grid integration of electric 854
780  NVUCV2G = % of the number of registered EVs for participation vehicles and demand response with customer choice. IEEE Transaction on Smart 855
781 in generation scheduling with V2G Grid, 3(1), 543–550. 856
782  VREC = Average number of EVs per residential electricity client Sortomme, E., & El-Sharkawi, M. A. (2012). Optimal scheduling of vehicle-to-grid 857
energy and ancillary services. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, 3(1), 351–359. 858
783  NREC = Number of residential electricity clients 859
Su, W., Eichi, H., Zeng, W., & Chow, M.-Y. (2012). A survey on the electrification of
784  XRL = Percentage of residential loads in the power network transportation in a smart grid environment. IEEE Transactions on Industrial 860
785  Lmin = Minimum load in the power network at given time (MW) Informatics, 8(1), 1–10. 861
Sundstrom, O., & Binding, C. (2012). Flexible charging optimization for electric 862
786  AVHLD = Average hourly load demand per residential electricity 863
vehicles considering distribution grid constraints. IEEE Transactions on Smart
787 client (kW) Grid, 3(1), 26–37. 864
788  AVMEC = Average monthly electricity consumption per residen- Vandael, S., Boucke, N., Holvoet, T., & Deconinck, G. (2010). Decentralized demand 865
side management of plug-in hybrid vehicles in a smart grid, In Proceedings of the 866
789 tial electricity client (kWh)
first international workshop on agent technologies for energy systems (pp. 67–74). 867
790 868
Vytelingum, P., Dash, R.K., David, E., & Jennings, N. R. (2004). A risk-based bidding
strategy for continuous double auctions. In 16th european conference on artificial 869
791 References intelligence Valencia, Spain (pp. 79–83). 870
Yang, Z. (2012). Economic dispatch of the microgrid with electric vehicles. Advanced 871
Materials Research, 614–615. 872
792 Amsterdam Power Exchange. (2007). Available: <http://ww.apx.nl> [Online].
793 Bellifemine, F., Caire, G., Trucco, T., & Rimassa, G. (2010). Jade programmer’s guide, 873
794 <http://jade.tilab.com/>.

Please cite this article in press as: Ramachandran, B., et al. Intelligent power management in micro grids with EV penetration. Expert Systems with Applica-
tions (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2013.06.007