1

STEELMAKING
 A modern steel melting shop has three broad groups of facilities i.e. Primary Steelmaking, Secondary
2 Steelmaking and Casting of Liquid Steel
Primary steelmaking is predominantly carried out in top-blown Basic Oxygen Furnaces (BOF)
The other two types of furnaces that are also used are the Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS) and the Electric
Arc Furnace (EAF)
Primary steelmaking is a process of oxidation.
The principal oxidising agent is gaseous oxygen along with iron oxide (added as iron ore).
The extent of refining in oxygen steelmaking processes is substantial since the principal metallic feed is blast
furnace hot metal containing high percentages of carbon, silicon, phosphorus and manganese.
In EAF steelmaking, the extent of refining is far less since a large proportion of the metallic feed is in form
of steel scrap containing low levels of impurities.
 The oxidation reactions are exothermic and constitute the source of heat in BOF and BOS processes, leading
3 to an increase in the bath temperature to 1600-1650°C at the end of refining, from the initial temperature of
1250-1300°C. On the other hand, in EAF steelmaking the major heat source is electrical power.
Oxidation of Si, Fe, Mn, P (and sometimes small amounts of Ti) leads to the formation of SiO2, FeO, MnO,
P2O5 (and TiO2). These oxides combine with the fluxing agents added (principally lime, sometimes
OTHER AGENTS ARE ADDED SUCH AS fluorspar, ilmenite, dolomite, e.t.c) to form a basic molten slag,
which helps in refining. Carbon is oxidised in the form of gaseous carbon monoxide.
4
BASIC OXYGEN FURNACE /PROCESS
(BOF)(BOP)
INTRODUCTION
The Basic Oxygen Steelmaking process differs from the EAF in that it is autogenous, or
self-sufficient in energy.
The primary raw materials for the BOP are 70-80% liquid hot metal from the blast furnace
and the balance is steel scrap.
Oxygen (>99.5% pure) is "blown" into the BOF at supersonic velocities. It oxidizes the
carbon and silicon contained in the hot metal liberating great quantities of heat which melts
the scrap. There are lesser energy contributions from the oxidation of iron, manganese, and
phosphorus. The post- combustion of carbon monoxide as it exits the vessel also transmits
heat back to the bath.
5
The product of the BOS is molten steel with a specified chemical analysis at 2900°F-3000°F. From here it
may undergo further refining in a secondary refining process or be sent directly to the continuous caster
where it is solidified into semi-finished shapes: blooms, billets, or slabs.
Basic refers to the magnesia (MgO) refractory lining which wears through contact with hot, basic slags.
These slags are required to remove phosphorus and sulphur from the molten charge. BOF sizes are typically
around 250 tons, and tap-to-tap times are about 40 minutes, of which 50% is "blowing time".
RAW MATERIALS
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i) HOT METAL
Hot metal is liquid iron from the blast furnace saturated with up to 4.3% carbon and containing 1% or less
silicon, Si. It is transported to the BOF shop either in torpedo cars or ladles.
The hot metal chemistry depends on how the blast furnace is operated and what burden (iron-bearing)
materials are charged to it.
The trend today is to run at high productivity with low slag volumes and fuel rates, leading to lower silicon
and higher sulphur levels in the hot metal.
-The sulphur level from the blast furnace can be 0.05% but an efficient hot metal desulphurizing facility
ahead of the BOF will reduce this to below 0.01%.
The most common desulphurizing reagents, lime, calcium carbide and magnesium - used alone or in
combination - are injected into the hot metal through a lance. The sulphur containing compounds report to
the slag; however, unless the sulphur-rich slag is skimmed before the hot metal is poured into the BOF, the
sulphur actually charged will be well above the level expected from the metal analysis.
 7
ii) SCRAP
In autogenous BOP operation, scrap is by far the largest heat sink. At 20 - 25% of the charge it is one of the
most important and costly components of the charge.
Steel scrap is available in many forms.
Scrap also comes in many sizes, varying chemical analyses and a variety of prices. All of which makes the
purchase and melting of scrap a very complex issue.
Very large pieces of scrap can be difficult to melt and may damage the vessel when charged. Some scrap
may contain oil or surface oxidation. Obsolete scrap may contain a variety of other objects which could be
hazardous or explosive. Obviously the chemical analysis of obsolete scrap is imprecise.
iii) FLUXES
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Fluxes serve two important purposes. First they combine with SiO2 which is oxidized from the hot metal to
form a "basic" slag that is fluid at steelmaking temperatures. This slag absorbs and retains sulphur and
phosphorus from the hot metal.
Lime (95+% CaO) and dolomite (58%CaO, 39% MgO) are the two primary fluxes. They are obtained by
calcining the carbonate minerals, generally offsite in rotary kilns. Calcining CaCO3 and MgCO3 liberates
CO2 leaving CaO or MgO. Two types, "soft" and "hard" burned lime ?, are available. Soft burned fluxes
form slag more quickly than hard-burned, and in the short blowing cycle, this is critical for effective sulphur
and phosphorus removal. The amount of lime charged depends on the Si content of the hot metal.
In BOP steelmaking a high CaO/SiO2 ratio in the slag is desirable, e.g. 3. A rule of thumb is 6 X the weight
of Si charged. The MgO addition is designed to be about 8 to 10% of the final slag weight. This saturates the
slag with MgO, thus reducing chemical erosion of the MgO vessel lining.
iv) COOLANTS
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Limestone, scrap, and sponge iron are all potential coolants that can be added to a heat that has been
overblown and is excessively hot. The economics and handling facilities dictate the selection at each shop.
v) ALLOYS
Bulk alloys are charged from overhead bins into the ladle. The common alloys are ferromanganese (80%Mn,
6%C, balance Fe), silicomanganese (66%Mn, 16%Si, 2%C, balance Fe), and ferrosilicon (75% Si, balance
Fe). Aluminium can be added as shapes and/or injected as rod. Sulphur, carbon, calcium, and special
elements like boron and titanium are fed at the ladle furnace as powders sheathed in a mild steel casing about
1/2 inch in diameter.
vi) REFRACTORIES
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The basis for most refractory bricks for oxygen steelmaking vessels is magnesia, MgO, which can be
obtained from minerals or seawater.
Carbon is added as pitch (tar) or graphite.
The magnesia lime type refractories used in lining oxygen steelmaking vessels are selected mainly for their
compatibility with the highly basic finishing slags required to remove and retain phosphorus in solution.
During refining, the refractories are exposed to a variety of slag conditions ranging from 1 to 4 basicity as
silicon is oxidizes from the bath and combines with lime. The iron oxide, FeO, content of the bath increases
with blowing time especially as the carbon in the steel falls below 0.2 % and Fe is oxidized.
Although all refractory materials are dissolved by FeO, MgO forms a solid solution with FeO, meaning they
coexist as solids within a certain temperature range.
The high concentrations of FeO formed late in the blow, however, will oxidize the carbon in the brick.
 Today's working lining refractories are primarily resin-bonded magnesia-carbon bricks made with high
11 quality sintered magnesite and high purity flake graphite.
Resin-bonded brick are unfired and contain 5% to 25% high purity flake graphite and one or more powdered
metals.
These bricks require a simple curing step at 350 to 400°F to "thermoset" the resin that makes them very
strong and therefore easily handled during installation. Further refinements include using prefused grains in
the mix.
Small additions of metal additives (Si, Al, and Mg) protect the graphite from oxidation because they are
preferentially oxidized. Metallic carbides, nitrides, and magnesium-aluminate spinel form in service at the
hot face of the brick filling voids, and adding strength and resistance to slag attack.
 The rate of solution of a refractory by the slag is dependent on its properties. These properties are directly
12 related to the purity and crystal sizes of the starting ingredients as well as the manufacturing process.
Additions of up to 15% high purity graphite to MgO-carbon refractories provide increased corrosion
resistance. Beyond 15% this trend is reversed due to the lower density of the brick.
Ultimately, the cost per ton of steel for brick and gunning repair materials, coupled with the need for vessel
availability, dictate the choice of lining.
The penetration of slag and metal between the refractory grains, the mechanical erosion by liquid movement,
and chemical attack by slags all contribute to loss of lining material. Over the years, there have been
numerous operating developments designed to counteract this lining wear.
OPERATION
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14

Once the hot metal temperature and chemical analysis of the blast furnace hot metal are known, a computer
charge model determines the optimum proportions of scrap and hot metal, flux additions, lance height and
oxygen blowing time.
A "heat" begins when the BOP vessel is tilted about 45 degrees towards the charging aisle and scrap charge
(about 25 to 30% of the heat weight) is dumped from a charging box into the mouth of the cylindrical BOF.
The hot metal is immediately poured directly onto the scrap from a transfer ladle. Fumes and kish (graphite
flakes from the carbon saturated hot metal) are emitted from the vessel's mouth and collected by the
pollution control system.
Charging takes a couple of minutes, Then the vessel is rotated back to the vertical position and lime/dolomite
fluxes are dropped onto the charge from overhead bins while the lance is lowered to a few feet above the
bottom of the vessel.
The lance is water-cooled with a multi-hole copper tip. Through this lance, oxygen of greater than 99.5%
purity is blown into the mix. If the oxygen is lower in purity, nitrogen levels at tap become unacceptable.
15
 As blowing begins, an ear-piercing shriek is heard. This is soon muffled as silicon from the hot metal is
16 oxidized forming silica, SiO2, which reacts with the basic fluxes to form a gassy molten slag that envelops
the lance.
The gas is primarily carbon monoxide (CO) from the carbon in the hot metal. The rate of gas evolution is
many times the volume of the vessel and it is common to see slag slopping over the lip of the vessel,
especially if the slag is too viscous.
Blowing continues for a predetermined time based on the metallic charge chemistry and the melt
specification. This is typically 15 to 20 minutes, and the lance is generally pre-programmed to move to
different heights during the blowing period.
The lance is then raised so that the vessel can be turned down towards the charging aisle for sampling and
temperature tests. Static charge models however do not ensure consistent turndown at the specified carbon
and temperature because the hot metal analysis and metallic charge weights are not known precisely.
Furthermore, below 0.2% C, the highly exothermic oxidation of iron takes place to a variable degree along
with decarburization. The "drop" in the flame at the mouth of the vessel signals low carbon, but temperature
at turndown can be off by +/- 100°F.
 Once the heat is ready for tapping and the preheated ladle is positioned in the ladle car under the furnace, the
17 vessel is tilted towards the tapping aisle, and steel emerges from the tap hole in the upper "cone" section of
the vessel.
The tap hole is generally plugged with material that prevents slag entering the ladle as the vessel turns down.
Steel burns through the plug immediately. To minimize slag carryover into the ladle at the end of tapping,
various "slag stoppers" have been designed. These work in conjunction with melter's eyeballs, which remain
the dominant control device. Slag in the ladle results in phosphorus reversion, retarded desulphurization, and
possibly "dirty steel". Ladle additives are available to reduce the iron oxide level in the slag but nothing can
be done to alter the phosphorus.
 - After tapping steel into the ladle, and turning the vessel upside down and tapping the remaining slag into
18 the "slag pot", the vessel is returned to the upright position. In many shops residual slag is blown with
nitrogen to coat the barrel and trunnion areas of the vessel. This process is known as "slag splashing".
Near the end of a campaign, gunning with refractory materials in high wear areas may also be necessary.
Once vessel maintenance is complete the vessel is ready to receive the next charge.

BASIC CHEMISTRY
What are the reactions that take place during the steelmaking process?
Source:
http://www.steel.org/making-steel/how-its-made/processes/processes-info/the-basic-oxygen-steelmaking-pro
cess.aspx
19 ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE
STEELMAKING
The electric arc furnace operates as a batch melting process producing batches of molten steel known
"heats". The electric arc furnace operating cycle is called the tap-to-tap cycle and is made up of the following
operations:
1. Furnace charging
2. Melting
3. Refining
4. De-slagging
5. Tapping
6. Furnace turn-around
- Modern operations aim for a tap-to-tap time of less than 60 minutes. Some twin shell furnace operations are
achieving tap-to-tap times of 35 to 40 minutes.
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1. Furnace Charging
The first step in the production of any heat is to select the grade of steel to be made.
The scrap yard operator will prepare buckets of scrap according to the needs of the melter. Preparation of the
charge bucket is an important operation, not only to ensure proper melt-in chemistry but also to ensure good
melting conditions.
The scrap must be layered in the bucket according to size and density to promote the rapid formation of a
liquid pool of steel in the hearth while providing protection for the sidewalls and roof from electric arc
radiation.
Other considerations include minimization of scrap cave-ins which can break electrodes and ensuring that
large heavy pieces of scrap do not lie directly in front of burner ports which would result in blow-back of the
flame onto the water cooled panels.
The charge can include lime and carbon or these can be injected into the furnace during the heat. Many
operations add some lime and carbon in the scrap bucket and supplement this with injection.
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The first step in any tap-to-tap cycle is "charging" the scrap.

Roof and electrodes are raised and are swung to the side of the furnace to allow the scrap charging crane to
move a full bucket of scrap into place over the furnace.
The bucket bottom is usually a clam shell design - i.e. the bucket opens up by retracting two segments on the
bottom of the bucket. The scrap falls into the furnace and the scrap crane removes the scrap bucket.
The roof and electrodes swing back into place over the furnace. The roof is lowered and then the electrodes
are lowered to strike an arc on the scrap. This commences the melting portion of the cycle.
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2. Melting
The melting period is the heart of EAF operations. Melting is accomplished by supplying energy to the
furnace interior. This energy can be electrical or chemical. Electrical energy is supplied via the graphite
electrodes and is usually the largest contributor in melting operations.
Initially, an intermediate voltage tap is selected until the electrodes bore into the scrap. Usually, light scrap is
placed on top of the charge to accelerate bore-in. Approximately 15 % of the scrap is melted during the
initial bore-in period.
After a few minutes, the electrodes will have penetrated the scrap sufficiently so that a long arc (high
voltage) tap can be used without fear of radiation damage to the roof.
The long arc maximizes the transfer of power to the scrap and a liquid pool of metal will form in the furnace
hearth, at the start of melting the arc is erratic and unstable. Wide swings in current are observed
accompanied by rapid movement of the electrodes.
As the furnace atmosphere heats up the arc stabilizes and once the molten pool is formed, the arc becomes
quite stable and the average power input increases.
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Chemical energy can be supplied via several sources including oxy-fuel burners and oxygen lances. Oxy-fuel
burners burn natural gas using oxygen or a blend of oxygen and air.
Heat is transferred to the scrap by flame radiation and convection by the hot products of combustion. Heat is
transferred within the scrap by conduction. Large pieces of scrap take longer to melt into the bath than
smaller pieces.
In some operations, oxygen is injected via a consumable pipe lance to "cut" the scrap. The oxygen reacts
with the hot scrap and burns iron to produce intense heat for cutting the scrap. Once a molten pool of steel is
generated in the furnace, oxygen can be lanced directly into the bath. This oxygen will react with several
components in the bath including, aluminium, silicon, manganese, phosphorus, carbon and iron. All of these
reactions are exothermic (i.e. they generate heat) and supply additional energy to aid in the melting of the
scrap.
The metallic oxides that are formed will end up in the slag. The reaction of oxygen with carbon in the bath
produces carbon monoxide, which either burns in the furnace if there is sufficient oxygen, and/or is
exhausted through the direct evacuation system where it is burned and conveyed to the pollution control
system.
25 -
Once enough scrap has been melted to accommodate the second charge, the charging process is repeated.
When the final scrap charge is melted, the furnace sidewalls are exposed to intense radiation from the arc. As
a result, the voltage must be reduced. Alternatively, creation of a foamy slag will allow the arc to be buried
and will protect the furnace shell. In addition, a greater amount of energy will be retained in the slag and is
transferred to the bath resulting in greater energy efficiency.
Once the final scrap charge is fully melted, flat bath conditions are reached. At this point, a bath temperature
and sample will be taken.
The analysis of the bath chemistry will allow the melter to determine the amount of oxygen to be blown
during refining. At this point, the melter can also start to arrange for the bulk tap alloy additions to be made.
These quantities are finalized after the refining period.
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3. Refining
In modern EAF operations, especially those operating with a "hot heel" of molten steel and slag retained
from the prior heat, oxygen may be blown into the bath throughout most of the heat. As a result, some of the
melting and refining operations occur simultaneously.
Phosphorus and sulphur occur normally in the furnace charge in higher concentrations than are generally
permitted in steel and must be removed. Unfortunately the conditions favourable for removing phosphorus
are the opposite of those promoting the removal of sulphur?
27
Therefore once these materials are pushed into the slag phase they may revert back into the steel. Phosphorus
retention in the slag is a function of the bath temperature, the slag basicity and FeO levels in the slag.
At higher temperature or low FeO levels, the phosphorus will revert from the slag back into the bath.
Phosphorus removal is usually carried out as early as possible in the heat.
“Hot heel” practice is very beneficial for phosphorus removal because oxygen can be lanced into the bath
while its temperature is quite low. Early in the heat the slag will contain high FeO levels carried over from
the previous heat thus aiding in phosphorus removal.
High slag basicity (i.e. high lime content) is also beneficial for phosphorus removal but care must be taken
not to saturate the slag with lime. This will lead to an increase in slag viscosity, which will make the slag less
effective. Sometimes fluorspar is added to help fluidize the slag.
Stirring the bath with inert gas is also beneficial because it renews the slag/metal interface thus improving
the reaction kinetics.
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In general, if low phosphorus levels are a requirement for a particular steel grade, the scrap is selected to
give a low level at melt-in. The partition of phosphorus in the slag to phosphorus in the bath ranges from 5 to
15. Usually the phosphorus is reduced by 20 to 50 % in the EAF.
Sulphur is removed mainly as a sulphide dissolved in the slag. The sulphur partition between the slag and
metal is dependent on slag chemistry and is favoured at low steel oxidation levels.
Removal of sulphur in the EAF is difficult especially given modern practices where the oxidation level of the
bath is quite high. Generally the partition ratio is between 3 and 5 for EAF operations.
Most operations find it more effective to carry out desulfurization during the reducing phase of steelmaking.
This means that desulfurization is performed during tapping (where a calcium aluminate slag is built) and
during ladle furnace operations. For reducing conditions where the bath has a much lower oxygen activity,
distribution ratios for sulphur of between 20 and 100 can be achieved.
 - Control of the metallic constituents in the bath is important as it determines the properties of the final
29 product. Usually, the melter will aim at lower levels in the bath than are specified for the final product.
Oxygen reacts with aluminium, silicon and manganese to form metallic oxides, which are slag components.
These metallics tend to react with oxygen before the carbon. They will also react with FeO resulting in a
recovery of iron units to the bath.
The reaction of carbon with oxygen in the bath to produce CO is important as it supplies a less expensive
form of energy to the bath, and performs several important refining reactions.
In modern EAF operations, the combination of oxygen with carbon can supply between 30 and 40 % of the
net heat input to the furnace. Evolution of carbon monoxide is very important for slag foaming. Coupled
with a basic slag, CO bubbles are tapped in the slag causing it to "foam" and helping to bury the arc.
This gives greatly improved thermal efficiency and allows the furnace to operate at high arc voltages even
after a flat bath has been achieved. Burying the arc also helps to prevent nitrogen from being exposed to the
arc where it can dissociate and enter into the steel.
 If the CO is evolved within the steel bath, it helps to strip nitrogen and hydrogen from the steel.
30 Nitrogen levels in steel as low as 50 ppm can be achieved in the furnace prior to tap. Bottom tapping is
beneficial for maintaining low nitrogen levels because tapping is fast and a tight tap stream is maintained. A
high oxygen potential in the steel is beneficial for low nitrogen levels and the heat should be tapped open as
opposed to blocking the heat.
At 1600°C, the maximum solubility of nitrogen in pure iron is 450 ppm. Typically, the nitrogen levels in the
steel following tapping are 80 - 100 ppm.
Decarburization is also beneficial for the removal of hydrogen. It has been demonstrated that decarburizing
at a rate of 1 % per hour can lower hydrogen levels in the steel from 8 ppm down to 2 ppm in 10 minutes.
At the end of refining, a bath temperature measurement and a bath sample are taken. If the temperature is too
low, power may be applied to the bath. This is not a big concern in modern melt shops where temperature
adjustment is carried out in the ladle furnace.
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4. De-slagging
De-slagging operations are carried out to remove impurities from the furnace. During melting and refining
operations, some of the undesirable materials within the bath are oxidized and enter the slag phase.
It is advantageous to remove as much phosphorus into the slag as early in the heat as possible (i.e. while the
bath temperature is still low). The furnace is tilted backwards and slag is poured out of the furnace through
the slag door. Removal of the slag eliminates the possibility of phosphorus reversion.
During slag foaming operations, carbon may be injected into the slag where it will reduce FeO to metallic
iron and in the process produce carbon monoxide which helps foam the slag.
If the high phosphorus slag has not been removed prior to this operation, phosphorus reversion will occur.
During slag foaming, slag may overflow the sill level in the EAF and flow out of the slag door.
5. Tapping
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- Once the desired steel composition and temperature are achieved in the furnace, the tap-hole is opened, the
furnace is tilted, and the steel pours into a ladle for transfer to the next batch operation (usually a ladle
furnace or ladle station).
During the tapping process bulk alloy additions are made based on the bath analysis and the desired steel
grade.
De-oxidizers may be added to the steel to lower the oxygen content prior to further processing. This is
commonly referred to as "blocking the heat" or "killing the steel". Common de-oxidizers are aluminium or
silicon in the form of ferrosilicon or silicomanganese.
Most carbon steel operations aim for minimal slag carry-over. A new slag cover is "built" during tapping.
For ladle furnace operations, a calcium aluminate slag is a good choice for sulphur control. Slag forming
compounds are added in the ladle at tap so that a slag cover is formed prior to transfer to the ladle furnace.
Additional slag materials may be added at the ladle furnace if the slag cover is insufficient.
6. Furnace Turn-around
33 - Furnace turn-around is the period following completion of tapping until the furnace is recharged for the
next heat.
During this period, the electrodes and roof are raised and the furnace lining is inspected for refractory
damage. If necessary, repairs are made to the hearth, slag-line, tap-hole and spout. In the case of a
bottom-tapping furnace, the tap hole is filled with sand. Repairs to the furnace are made using gunned
refractories or mud slingers.
In most modern furnaces, the increased use of water-cooled panels has reduced the amount of patching or
"fettling" required between heats. Many operations now switch out the furnace bottom on a regular basis (2
to 6 weeks) and perform the hearth maintenance off-line. This reduces the power-off time for the EAF and
maximizes furnace productivity.
Furnace turn-around time is generally the largest dead time (i.e. power off) period in the tap-to-tap cycle.
With advances in furnace practices this has been reduced from 20 minutes to less than 5 minutes in some
newer operations.
 Electrodes
34
One of the most important elements in the electric circuit and consumable cost in electric furnace
steelmaking are the electrodes.
The electrodes deliver the power to the furnace in the form of an electric arc between the electrode and the
furnace charge.
The arc itself is a plasma of hot, ionic gasses in excess of 6,000°F. Electrodes come in two forms:
amorphous and graphitic carbon, or graphite. Since only graphite electrodes are used in steelmaking only
they will be discussed here.
Graphite electrodes are composed of a mixture of finely divided, calcined petroleum coke mixed with about
30% coal tar pitch as a binder, plus proprietary additives unique to each manufacturer.
35

Electrode consumption is around 3.5 to 4.5 pounds per ton.

Most electrode consumption is through oxidation and tip sublimation, with some small pieces lost around the
connecting joint.
A considerable portion is also lost to mechanical breakage caused by scrap cave-ins in the furnace or
crushing the electrode into the charge.
Source: Jeremy A. T. Jones, Nupro Corporation