GIS 101

Initial Concepts
 GIS?
▷Geographic Information Systems
▷Probably the hardest question to answer in a
succinct and clear manner.
▷GIS is a technological field that uses spatial data in
order to produce maps, perform analysis, and assess
real-world problems.
“In the strictest sense, a GIS is a computer system capable of assembling, storing,
manipulating, and displaying geographically referenced information, i.e. data
identified according to their locations. Practitioners also regard the total GIS as
including operating personnel and the data that go into the system.” (USGS)
“GIS is an integrated system of computer hardware, software, and trained
personnel linking topographic, demographic, utility, facility, image and other
resource data that is geographically referenced.” (NASA)
 GIS?
▷ GIS is not restricted to computational applications. It also
includes data, methodologies for the use of this data and
equipment structure (hardware) where the data and the
people who will use the technology will be supported.

SOFTWARE

METHODOLOGY HARDWARE

HUMAN
DATA
RESOURCES
 History

▷ Dr. John Snow and the Cholera

outbreak in London (1854)
▷Thanks to the study that Snow
released, officials from the government
were able to determine the cause of the
disease; which was contaminated water
from one of the major pumps.
Data
 Data

▷Data: element or known quantity that serves as a basis

for solving a problem.

▷ Information: is a set of related data in order to

transmit knowledge.

▷Data, on its own, is meaningless. When it’s analyzed

and interpreted, it becomes meaningful information.
 Data

▷Problem: Robbery

▷Data: Witness statement, list of suspects, time, list of

stolen items, suspect description, alibi, picture.

▷Information: clues to the criminal's identity

▷Data is a collection of facts, while information puts

those facts into context.
 Spatial Data

▷A way to make a computer understand the real world.

▷Location and Attributes.

"House" feature
Attributes: Owner, area, address, number of rooms...
 Spatial Data Types
▷Vector;
Basic geometric figures.
Points, lines, polygons.
.shp .dxf .kml
Each feature has information
recorded in the atribute table.
▷Raster;
Pixels. Cell-based.
Satellite images, DEM, mosaics.
.png .tiff .jpg
Each cell contains one value
representing the dominate value of
that cell. (elevation, precipitation...)

There is no better or worse.

Each has capabilities and limitations.
They can be combined to perform different types of spatial analysis.
Geodesy
 Geodesy
▷It’s the science of accurately measuring and
understanding three fundamental properties of
the Earth: its geometric shape, its orientation in
space, and its gravity field.

▷ What differentiates data from spatial data is

location. To establish locations on the earth's
surface it is necessary to treat it
mathematically.
 Earth’s Shape
▷ Earth is not a Sphere. Format: geoid;

▷A surface of equal gravity, formed by the mean sea level (no

tide and wind effects), supposedly extended beneath the
continents. It’s a surface which defines zero elevation.

▷Irregular surface, with ondulations and depressions.

 Earth’s Shape

▷How do we represent Earth using math and parameters?

▷ Mathematical model: ellipsoid.

 Reference Ellipsoids

▷ Geodesists have adopted the ellipsoid as the most basic

model of the Earth.

▷ Attempts to approach the real shape of the Earth.

 Reference Ellipsoids

▷ Each country (or group of

countries) has adopted a
reference ellipsoid for the
geodetic and topographic work
that is closest to the geoid in the
region considered.

▷ Currently the most common

reference ellipsoid used, and that
used in the context of the Global
Positioning System, is the one
defined by WGS 84.
Datum
 Datum
▷ Set of parameters that define a certain Geodetic Reference System*,
including the specification of the reference ellipsoid, as well as its
position and orientation relative to the real surface of the Earth.

▷ Geodetic mark, horizontal or

vertical, used as an origin point;

▷ Standard reference point, set

of points or surface from which
measurements are based.

*used to describe the spatial positions of objects.

 Datum
▷ A datum has a specific known point(s) on Earth used as a reference.

▷ Unfortunately, there are lot of datum available. You have to know

which datum was used in order to know its correct location.

▷ Many maps were created using

different starting points and even
today people continue to change
datum in an effort to make them more
accurate when combining data from
different users or eras (conversion
tools).

▷ A projection uses the datum as a

reference point, its location on Earth.
 Datum
▷NAD83 ▷WGS84
North American Datum World Geodetic System

▷ Local Datum, Topocentric ▷ Global Datum, Geocentric

Known point ≠ centre of the Earth’s mass Known point = centre of the Earth’s mass
 “Which one should I use?”
▷Depends on where is your study area located.

▷Sometimes, it will be informed.

▷“country + datum” on Google.

▷Example:
Brazil:
Córrego Alegre
Astro Datum Chuá
SAD69
SIRGAS2000
Projections
 Map Projections

▷ That’s how we get from 3D Earth models to 2D maps.

▷ Projections transforms a curved surface to a flat graph.

 Longitude and Latitude
▷ Latitude: lines that run east-west and are parallel to each
other. If you go north, you’ll have higher values of latitudes.
Values (Y) varies between -90 and +90 degrees.

▷ Longitude: lines that run north-south and converge at the

poles. Values (X) varies between -180 and +180 degrees.

▷ The latitude and longitude values determine the geographic

coordinates of a location.
Longitude and Latitude
 Meridians
▷Any semicircle that contains the two poles of the planet.

▷Greenwich Meridian:
○ Prime Meridian;
○ Divides Earth into 2 hemispheres: East, with coordinates of
increasing values (from 0° to +180°), and West, with decreasing
values (from 0° to -180°);
 Parallels
▷Circles where the plane is perpendicular to the axis of the
poles.

▷ Equator:
○ Origin Parallel;
○Divides Earth into 2 hemispheres: North (from 0° to
+90°) and South (from 0° to -90°).
 Cartographic Projections
▷ The projection transforms a position on the Earth's surface, identified
by latitude and longitude, into a position in cartesian coordinates;

▷There is no ideal projection, deformations are inevitable:

▷the direction between a feature and surrounding features
▷ the distance between a feature and surrounding features
▷ the shape of any feature
▷ the size of any feature

▷There is no one perfect projection and a map maker must choose the one
which best suits their needs.
 Projection Types
Describes how a map shows the positional relationship
between two features, and their size and shape.

▷Conformal projections: correctly shows the shape of

features, but not the size;

▷Equidistant projections: correctly shows the distance

between two features, but not the shape or size;

▷Equal-area projections: correctly shows the size of

features, but not the shape;

▷True Direction: correctly shows the direction between two

features;
 Projection Techniques
Describes the way an imaginary piece of paper (which will
become the map) is laid on the Earth to obtain the latitude and
longitude for the map.

As you move away from where the piece of paper touches the
Earth, distortions increase.
 Projection Techniques
▷Azimuthal: the imaginary ‘piece of
paper’ is flat, this is usually used over
Polar areas.

▷Conical: the imaginary ‘piece of paper’

is rolled into a cone, this is usually used
in mid-latitude areas (approximately
20° – 60° North and South)

▷Cylindrical: the imaginary ‘piece of

paper’ is rolled into a cylinder, this is
usually used over Equatorial areas or
for World Maps
 Projections

As a general rule the best projection to use is dictated by the

map's:

➢ Location (equatorial, polar, or mid latitudes)

➢ Extent ⁄ size (world vs regional vs local)
➢ Purpose (distortion may not be an issue, but keeping
equal-areas or true direction may be important).

When selecting a projection, map makers should also

consider national conventions and consistency with other
maps of an area.
 UTM
▷One of the most famous projections.

▷Uses pairs of Cartesian coordinates in metric units (meters).

▷60 flattened slices of 6º of longitude;

▷Latitude – Y: “Northing”.
North: Equator = 0.
South: Equator = 10.000.000m
False northing, avoiding negative values.

▷Longitude – X: “Easting”.
Each slice has a central meridian of 500.000m,
Avoiding negative values.
False easting.

It is necessary to inform the zone:

(450.000mE, 9.500.000mN) UTM 24S
UTM Zones
Coordinate Systems
 System types
GEOGRAPHIC CORDINATE SYSTEM (GCS)

▷Units in decimal degrees (angular)

▷Longitude (x axis) and latitude (y axis)
▷Positive: north of the equator and east of the prime meridian
▷Negative: south of the equator and west of the prime meridian
▷+ Ideal for large areas (region, globe)
▷- Usually, bigger deformation compared to projected CRS

PROJECTED COORDINATE SYSTEM (PCS)

▷Units in meters or feet (linear)

▷Easting (x) and Northing (y)
▷Values should always be positive
▷hundreds of projections to choose
▷+ Ideal for small areas (local)
▷+ smaller deformation compared to geographic CRS
▷- deformation increases as you move farther from the zone
▷- huge errors if chosen poorly
▷The UTM system divides the Earth into 60 zones, each 6° of longitude in width.
Coordinate Reference
System (CRS)
▷Projections on a map represent the Earth's
surface in two dimensions.

▷There are global map projections, but most

projections are created and optimized to project
smaller areas of the Earth's surface.

▷Projections are never absolutely accurate

representations of reality (areas, shapes, distances).

▷It is impossible to preserve all these features at

the same time in a map projection.
 Coordinate Reference System
A Coordinate Reference System(CRS) gives meaning
and location to coordinate values in a local, regional
or global system. It also defines the projection type
(when projected), just as a projected two-
dimensional map is related to real locations on
Earth.

Every CRS has its own EPSG code.

 CRS Components
▷ Coordinate system: The X, Y grid upon which your data is
overlayed and how you define where a point is located in
space.
▷ Horizontal and vertical units: The units used to define the grid
along the x, y (and z) axis.
▷ Datum: A modeled version of the shape of the Earth which
defines the origin used to place the coordinate system in space.
▷ Projection Information: The mathematical equation used to
flatten objects that are on a round surface (e.g. the Earth) so
you can view them on a flat surface (e.g. your computer screens
or a paper map).
 Which one should you use?
▷ The decision of which map projection and CRS to use depends
on the regional extent of the area you want to work in, on the
analysis you want to do, and often on the availability of data.
Map Elements
 Map Elements

▷ Main map body/map frame

▷ Legend
▷ Title
▷ Scale/scale bar
▷ Orientation indicator (north arrow)
▷ Coordinate grid
▷ Inset map/map overview/locator map
▷ Graphics/images
▷ Source notes/map citation

PS: Not all are necessary or appropriate for every map.

Ask yourself which elements will most help the viewer understand your map.