SEBF8190-01
Final Drive and Wheel, Wheel: 4051, 4201
GUIDELINE FOR
BEARING ANALYSIS
AND ASSESSMENT
Tapered Bearings Used in
Off-Highway Trucks
New
Summary of Revisions
Page Description
All Updated all pages with new information and additional
photos to aid in visual identification of damage.
Introduction
This Guideline enables dealers and their
customers to benefit from cost reductions made
possible through an established parts reusability
program. Every effort has been made to provide
the most current and relevant information known
to Caterpillar Inc. Since the Company makes
ongoing changes and improvements to its
products, this Guideline must be used with the
latest technical information available from
Caterpillar to ensure such changes and
improvements are incorporated where
applicable.
For questions or additional information
concerning this Guideline, contact Caterpillar
Dealer Support Division, Service Support
(309) 675-6304.
Summary
The purpose of this Guideline is to help identify
the cause of a bearing failure. In most cases,
the question of reusability will not be an issue. If
the bearing has any amount of abnormal
damage, it should be replaced. However, if the
cause of that damage is not corrected, the
replacement bearing will also have a shortened
life span. Use the information and photos
showing normal and abnormal wear to help
identify the cause of the damage and then
correct the problem before installing new
bearings.
The beginning of the Guideline gives the correct
nomenclature for tapered roller bearings. This is
followed by a section on the design and
operational characteristics of bearings. Later in
the Guideline, a series of normal wear photos
are shown. Finally the remainder of the
Guideline gives various examples of abnormal
damage.
Never install a bearing that this Guideline shows
cannot be used again. Before installing a used
or reconditioned part, correct any conditions that
may have caused the original failure or wear.
For additional information, refer to SEBV0562,
"Anti-Friction Bearings - Applied Failure
Analysis".
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Replacement Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Safety Checks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Personal Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Parts Damage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Glossary of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Operational and Design Characteristics . . . . . 7
Machine Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Extending Bearing Life. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Bearing Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Bearing Cages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Rollers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
How Bearings Are Manufactured . . . . . . . . 9
Cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Marking Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Inspection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Bearing Inspection Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
End Play and Preload Adjustment . . . . . . . . 15
Results of Incorrect Adjustment . . . . . . . . . 15
Visual Inspection — Normal Wear . . . . . . . . 16
Rollers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Bearing Cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Visual Inspection — Abnormal Wear . . . . . . 23
How to Recognize and Prevent
Tapered Roller Bearing Damage. . . . . . . . . 23
Handling and Installation Damage . . . . . . . 23
Tapered Bore/Shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Misalignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Overheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Brinelling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Bruising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Abrasive Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Black Acid Etching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Fretting Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Creep. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
False Brinelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Electrical Pitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2
Replacement Parts
When replacement parts are required for this
product Caterpillar recommends using Caterpillar
replacement parts or parts with equivalent
specifications including, but not limited to,
physical dimensions, type, strength and material.
Failure to heed this warning can lead to
premature failures, product damage, personal
injury or death.
Safety Checks
Personal Safety
The following safety recommendations must be
used to prevent damage to the bearing and to
prevent possible personal injury. Always follow all
safety precautions listed in this and other
Caterpillar manuals or other literature on products
such as cleaning solvents, etc.
1. It is critical to follow all bearing maintenance
and handling practices. Failure to follow all
installation instructions and to maintain proper
lubrication can result in equipment failure,
creating a risk of serious bodily harm.
2. Never spin a bearing with compressed air.
The rollers may be forcefully expelled from the
bearing with great velocity, creating a risk of
serious bodily harm.
3. Do not wash or clean bearings in an
enclosed area. Solvent fumes can be toxic and
explosive. Make absolutely certain the cleaning
area is adequately ventilated with no open flame,
welding, or smoking in the area. Rubber gloves
and safety glasses should always be worn to
protect the skin and eyes from solvents.
4. Do not use a hammer and/or hardened steel
bar for bearing removal. Fragments from the
hammer, bar, or bearing could break off with
sufficient velocity to create a risk of serious
bodily harm including damage to your eyes.
5. When installing or removing bearings, always
wear safety glasses to protect your eyes from
possible flying fragments.
6. When heating bearing cones for installation,
always use insulated, fireproof gloves to hold the
heated cone.
Parts Damage
Proper bearing maintenance and handling
practices are critical in order to obtain the
longest possible life from a bearing. Like any
precision product, tapered roller bearings must
be properly maintained. Their performance
depends on careful handling and regularly
scheduled maintenance and lubrication
practices.
NOTICE
The following recommendation will help
ensure that new or reused bearings work
efficiently and have a long life. Failure to
follow all Service Manual installation
instructions and to maintain proper
lubrication can result in component failure.
1. Handle the bearings as little as possible.
Fingerprints on the bearing surface can cause
rust. Never drop or handle these precision
components roughly. Any sign of a bent cage
makes the bearing unusable.
2. Do not mix parts. If only the cup or cone
needs to be replaced, both should be changed.
Do not use the old parts with new ones because
the old part has a distinct pattern worn into its
raceway, and mixing it with a new mating part
will set up edge stresses along the races.
3. Never use a torch to heat a bearing. Torch
heat is extremely hot and difficult to distribute
evenly. In a matter of seconds, the bearing
metallurgy could be altered and begin to soften.
This could cause the bearing to fail and damage
other components in the process.
4. Use insulated, fireproof gloves to hold a
heated cone against the shoulder until the cone
seats. A hot cone has a tendency to pull away
from a cold shoulder unless it is held in position.
5. When installing cups or cones use a
0.05 mm (.002 in) feeler gauge to ensure proper
seating against the shoulder of the shaft or
housing.
3
6. A cone that has been heated for installation
should be lubricated after it is properly seated on
the shaft and the temperature stabilizes to the
ambient air temperature.
7. Always make sure the shaft and the housing
bore are machined to the proper specifications
and are not damaged in any way.
8. Properly store new and used bearings. For
new bearings, don't open the box early. Bearing
packaging is designed to protect bearings
against dirt and moisture during shipping and
storage. Store all bearings in a clean, dry area
until ready for installation. Avoid temperature
changes in the storage area because dramatic
temperature swings can cause condensation
that will damage the bearing.
9. Replace worn or damaged seals that can
allow contaminants such as dirt and water to
enter the bearing housing and/or allow
lubrication to escape. In most cases, it is a
good practice to replace all seals at the time of a
rebuild.
10. In applications where grease is used to
lubricate the bearing, too much grease in the
bearing and housing will cause excess churning
of the grease and will result in extremely high
temperatures. These high temperatures can
cause the bearing or other mating parts to fail.
11. Use a micrometer to measure the shaft and
housing every time a bearing is replaced. Verify
the cone seats and housing bores are the right
size. Be sure all measurements meet the
required specifications.
12. Never heat a standard bearing more than
149°C (300°F), and precision bearings should
never be heated more than 66°C (150°F).
Always follow the recommended installation
procedure in the Service Manual when installing
bearings.
13. Never use liquid nitrogen to freeze bearings.
This process is uncontrolled and could cause
damage to the bearings. Caterpillar
recommends using dry ice or a bearing freezer.
14. Never freeze a standard bearing below a
temperature of -54°C (-65°F).
Glossary of Terms
Preload: When the bearing is at normal
operating temperature, the cone and rollers are
slightly pressed into the cup. Preloading
increases the capacity of the bearing by
spreading the applied load over more rollers and
over a larger portion of the fixed raceway.
End play: When the bearing is at normal
operating temperature, the cone and rollers have
a minimal clearance. End play places more of
the load on fewer rollers.
Handling and Installation Damage: Handling
damage can be anything from corrosion caused
by handling the bearings and removing the
protective oil film to neglect and mishandling
damage. Installation damage is most often
physical damage to the bearing caused by
improper installation techniques.
Spalling: Subsurface cracks that progress to the
surface. This causes pieces of metal to peel or
break off the cone or cup. Spalling can result
after pitting, scoring, or other impact damage
has occurred on the hardened bearing surface.
Scoring: A small cut or groove extending
around the part. Scoring can be present on the
roller, cone raceway, or cup raceway. Scoring is
most often caused by foreign particles in the oil.
Misalignment: The two halves of the bearing are
not aligned with each other. Most frequently this
damage is caused when the shaft and housing
are not correctly aligned. Misalignment allows
greater loads to be concentrated on one
particular area of the bearing. Misalignment
damage progresses to abnormal wear and
eventually lead to spalling.
Overheating: The bearing temperature exceeds
the normal operating temperature either by lack
of lubrication or too much of a thrust load. A
dry, burned appearance is the result of an over
heated bearing. Generally, overheated bearings
should not be used again. Also refer to
Discoloration.
Discoloration: Some bearings may have the
appearance of overheating, but only have
discoloration. Discoloration is normally caused
by the type of oil used in the lubrication process.
Discoloration can usually be removed using a
1U-6859 Pad (Scotch Brite) and a cleaning
solvent.
4
Brinelling: Brinelling marks are dents on the
raceway surfaces caused by the rollers during a
period of excessive load. This condition can be
caused by incorrect assembly, by forcefully
driving both the cone and the cup into position
(assembled together), or through extremely high
shock loads experienced during operation or
transportation of the machine. Brinelling usually
progresses into spalling, starting at the brinell
marks.
Bruising: Damage caused by large particles
(contaminants) in the lubricant, such as metal
from a gear or a bearing failure. These particles
can cause plastic yielding and surface or
fragment denting (called "bruising") in raceways
and on rollers. Hard particles will produce sharp
angular dents while softer particles will produce
smoother, more shallow dents. If the bruising is
sharp and angular it normally leads to spalling.
Abrasive Wear: Abrasive wear can occur on
both the raceway and roller surfaces. Abrasives
such as dirt or sand in the lubrication system
can become trapped and crushed by the rollers
eventually leading to bearing failure. Another
cause of this type of wear occurs when there is
insufficient low temperature oil or grease to
maintain normal operating temperatures. It can
also occur if the rollers stop turning and start
sliding. Abrasive wear may develop into very
small pits and eventually progress into spalling
and fatigue cracking.
Corrosion: Surface damage caused by moisture
on the bearing surfaces or by moisture in the
lubrication system. One type of corrosion is rust
which can develop after the bearing is cleaned.
Without a thin film of oil, the bearing can rust
very rapidly. If moisture is in the lubrication
system, corrosion will take place while the
machine is shut down and produce a condition
known as "static corrosion" or "black acid
etching".
Black Acid Etching: A type of corrosion affecting
the raceway and roller surfaces of the bearing. It
is usually caused through a reaction of
temperature and certain oils. Black acid etching
can progress from a visual imperfection into
surface damage that can make the bearing
unusable.
Fretting Corrosion: Fretting corrosion occurs on
the surface of the bearing that contacts the shaft
or housing. This type of corrosion indicates the
cup or cone has moved relative to the shaft or
housing. The damage is caused because the
harder surface of the bearing will pick up the
softer material from the bore/shaft.
Creep: Creep is a condition that occurs when
the bearing’s outer race turns excessively inside
its housing. If a bearing shows signs of creep,
repair the housing or shaft to the correct
dimension.
False Brinelling: False brinelling is different than
true brinelling because it is not caused by heavy
shock loads. False brinelling is actually fretting
or fretting corrosion caused by vibration of the
bearing, under load, while the bearing is not
turning. False brinelling can occur when
machinery is shipped long distances by rail.
When this false brinelling occurs, the rolling
elements, which normally will support heavy
loads, actually vibrate and wear into raceway
surfaces.
Electrical Pitting: Electrical pitting can be
caused by relatively high amounts of electrical
current passing through the bearing while it is
not rotating. It can also be caused by a
relatively low current passing through the bearing
over a prolonged period of time while the
bearing is rotating.

5
Nomenclature
Tapered roller bearings consist of four basic
components. These are the inner race (cone),
the outer race (cup), tapered rollers, and a cage
(roller retainer). Under normal operating
conditions, the inner race, outer race, and rollers
carry the load while the cage spaces and retains
the rollers. The inner race, rollers, and cage is
referred to as the "inner race assembly".

Illustration 2. Tapered roller bearing. Refer to Chart A for

item identification.

Illustration 1. Components of a rear wheel group.

Chart A.
Rear Wheel Group and Tapered Roller Bearing Nomenclature
Item Description Ref. Illustration
A Cup (outer ring or race) 1, 2, 3
B Cup Raceway 3
C OD Surface of Cup 3
D Front Face of Cup 3
E Back Face of Cup 3 Illustration 3. Basic parts of a tapered roller bearing. Refer
F Cage 1, 2, 3 to Chart A for item identification.
G Roller 1, 2, 3
H Cone (inner ring or race) 1, 2, 3
I Cone Raceway 3
J ID Surface of Cone 3
K Front Face of Cone 3
L Rib (on front face of cone) 3
M Back Face of Cone 3
N Rib (on back face of cone) 3
O Retainer 1
P Shim Pack 1

6
Operational and
Design Characteristics
This section provides background information on
where bearings are used, the loads placed upon
bearings, and how bearings are manufactured.
The information in this section may help to better
determine the cause of bearing failures.
Tapered roller bearings are especially suited for
carrying both radial and thrust loads because
the rollers and raceways form an angle with the
shaft axis. Tapered roller bearings are also
useful for maintaining precise axial positioning of
shafts and housings.
Machine Application
The machine application is an important
consideration when deciding if wheel bearings
can be used again. If the machine application is
not known, assume a high-hour, heavy-duty
application. When the application is known,
make this a factor in deciding whether or not to
reuse the bearing. For example, a wheel
bearing with slight damage may be used again if
the machine is working in a low-hour, light-duty
application. In contrast, the same bearing used
in a high-hour, heavy-duty application may fail.
NOTICE
If there is any doubt as to the reusability of
the bearing, it should be replaced. A used
bearing that fails can cause damage to other
rotating components.
Proper maintenance procedures are essential for
achieving maximum bearing life and
performance. Regardless of the bearing type,
application, or operating conditions, the
machines regular maintenance schedules should
be followed.
Bearing Characteristics
Anti-friction bearings have two primary functions:
1. They support and maintain alignment of shafts
and housings while allowing them to turn with
minimum friction.
2. They carry radial and/or thrust loads.
Loads
The angled raceways allow the tapered roller
bearing to carry combinations of radial and
thrust loads.
Arrow (1) pointing downward in Illustration 4
shows the direction of a radial load. Radial
loads generally result from the weight of parts
supported by the bearings and loads on the
shaft required to transmit power — such as
belts, chains, gear drives, etc.
Arrow (2) pointing to the left in Illustration 4
shows the direction of the thrust load. Thrust
loads result from engagement forces of clutches,
forces from wheels when a machine turns a
corner, unbalanced hydraulic forces in-line with
shafts, weight of parts on a vertical shaft, or
helical gear forces.

Extending Bearing Life

The useful life of a bearing depends to a great
extent on the proper lubrication of the bearing.
This is especially true in wheel bearings where
external operating conditions include dirt,
moisture, and high and low temperatures.
Lubricants aid in carrying away heat, protecting
bearing surfaces from corrosion, and reducing
friction.
Failure to correctly lubricate and maintain proper
lubrication will eventually result in bearing
damage.

7
 Bearing Cages
Most anti-friction bearings incorporate a cage to
keep the rollers evenly spaced. This results in
even load distribution to the rollers and keeps
them from rubbing against each other during
normal operation. Because the cage is not
normally load-carrying and serves only to space
the rollers around the races it is usually stamped
from a low-carbon, mild steel.

Illustration 4. Bearing loads on a tapered roller bearing.

(1) Downward arrow shows radial load. (2) Arrow pointing
to the left shows thrust load.

A single row (tapered wheel bearing) can carry

thrust loads in one direction only. Therefore it is
usually found in pairs of bearings that face each
other, as shown in Illustration 5. The load on the
bearing is adjusted in the direction of the other
bearing on the same shaft which carries thrust
loads in the opposite direction.
Illustration 6. One-piece stamped cage used on tapered
bearings.

Additionally, cages keep cylindrical rollers in line

with the shaft. If rollers were allowed to run free,
they could skew, stop rolling, and slide. These
conditions cause adhesive wear and premature
failure. There are many different types of cages
including riveted, stamped, brass, and electron
beam welded.
Rollers
Positive roller alignment is one of the major
features of tapered roller bearings. The tapered
configuration of the roller not only ensures true
rolling motion with long line load-bearing
contact, but also generates a "seating force",
which pushes the roller against the large rib of
the inner race.
Illustration 5. Typically, tapered roller bearings are used in
pairs as shown in this rear wheel group.

8
Stress
High stress areas on roller bearings are
concentrated on the inner and outer raceways
and on the rollers where radial rolling contact
forces are applied. Stresses in tapered roller
bearings with high thrust loads or preload will be
applied all around both raceways.
There will also be bending, sliding, and
compressive forces due to the contact between
the rib of the cone and the large ends of the
rollers. This contact (called seating force) is
what keeps the rollers aligned with the shaft.
See Illustration 7.
Illustration 7. Stress area on tapered roller bearings.
9
How Bearings Are Manufactured
Anti-friction bearings are manufactured from
alloy bearing steels of the highest quality. Some
are vacuum melted, and most are vacuum
degreased for maximum cleanliness. Race
blanks are either cut from tube stock (small
bearings) or forgings (large bearings) from high-
quality steel and then machined to approximate
specifications. After machining, the races of
cylindrical and tapered roller bearings are case
hardened to a minimum of Rc 58 and then
ground to the final specifications.
The bearings are then tempered at temperatures
of approximately 190 to 200°C (375 to 400°F).
Case hardening give the surface of the raceway
good resistance to wear and fatigue while
maintaining a softer (Rc 25 to 48), tougher core
for increased impact load carrying capability.
Illustration 8 shows a cross-section of a tapered
roller bearing cone. The surface has been
etched to highlight the case hardened depth.
Illustration 8. Cross-section of a cone showing case
hardened depth.
Rollers are forged (cold headed) from the same
high-quality steel used to make bearing cups
and cones. Illustration 9 shows an example of a
cylindrical roller after cold heading, before heat
treat and grinding.
Illustration 9. Example of a typical roller before heat treating
and grinding.
Illustration 10 shows a cross-section of a roller
that has been etched to show the case
hardened depth after heat treat and finish
machining. The maximum hardness for a roller
should be Rc 50.
Illustration 10. Vertical and horizontal cross-section of a
typical roller.
10
Cleanliness
Use all cleaning solutions and solvents with care.
Wear eye and hand protection whenever using
high-pressure cleaning equipment and solvents.
Always use cleaning solvents in a well-ventilated
area because some solvents can be toxic and/or
explosive. Make absolutely certain there is
adequate ventilation and no open flame, welding,
or smoking in the cleaning area. Failure to follow
the precautions provided by the manufacturer of
the cleaning equipment and solvents can result in
bodily injury.
One of the most common sources of damage in
anti-friction bearings is debris that contaminates
the lubrication system. Debris can be a major
cause of abrasive wear which can lead to
reduced bearing life. Cleanliness during
assembly of a component should include the
bearing, housings and shafts, tools, solvents,
and flushing oils. Bearings should also be
placed on a clean surface prior to installation
and clean rags and gloves used to handle
bearings. The following steps will help extend
the life of the bearing.
1. Avoid corrosion, use a cleaning solution such
as kerosene or mineral spirits. Do not use
steam or hot water directly on the bearings.
2. Prior to inspection, make sure the bearings
are free from dirt and excessive oil.
3. If the bearings are stored after inspection, put
a thin layer of oil onto all machined surfaces,
wrap them in waxed paper, and store the
bearing in a clean, dry place.
4. Always use gloves when handling bearings to
prevent possible rusting (corrosion).
Marking Procedure
The marking code is a procedure for determining
if a bearing has been reused. The marking
procedure should include a user code that will
identify that the bearing was reused at the time
of overhaul. Normally, bearings have a specific
life expectancy and should not be reused.
If marking a bearing, make sure the mark is on
the side of the bearing and not covered by a
mating part, if possible. A 9U-7377 Engrave
O-Mark Acid Etching Pen can be used to mark
the bearings.
The example, shown in Illustration 11, shows
how a bearing can be marked.
For additional information, on marking other
components/parts, refer to SEBF8187
"Standardized Parts Marking Procedures".

Illustration 11. Bearing with marking code printed on the

race. The “R” was used in this example only to show that
the bearing was not replaced at the time of overhaul.

11
Inspection
Inspection of the bearing, after cleaning, is
critical in order to determine if the bearing can
be used again. Use a bright incandescent light
to illuminate the cup and cone raceway. An
8S-2257 Loupe can be used to inspect
questionable areas of the raceways.
The cup and cone should be inspected for
cracks, corrosion, foreign object damage,
spalling, pitting, fretting, uneven wear,
misalignment, overheating, brinelling, abrasive
wear, and handling damage. The Visual
Inspection section of this Guideline explains and
shows the characteristics of both normal and
damaged bearings. Careful consideration must
be given to how much or how little damage is
acceptable for a bearing to be used again. If
there is any doubt as to the reusability, the
bearing should be replaced.
Illustrations 12 and 13 show the inspection
techniques used to evaluate the cup and cone
to determine the reason for failure. Both the
raceway and the OD (outside diameter) of the Illustration 12. Inspecting the cup raceway.
cup should be inspected. The inner raceway, ID
(inside diameter), rollers, and cage of the cone
should also be inspected on the cone. The
chart on the following page should help
determine the cause of different types of
damage.

Illustration 13. Inspecting the cone raceway.

12
Use the following chart to help identify causes of
the damage found during the visual inspection
procedure.

13
Bearing Inspection The following Bearing Inspection Report Form is
one example of how to keep track of PCR life on
Report each part or component.
Parts accountability at time of inspection and
rebuild is becoming more and more critical
because of the increased hours between
rebuilds. Tracking parts with the number of
rebuilds, the number of hours on each rebuild,
and the part number of the part/component can
be very helpful in extending planned component
rebuild (PCR) life. By extending PCR life, the
cost per hour to operate a machine is lowered.

14
End Play and Preload
Adjustment
Failure to set bearing end play or preload to
proper specifications will result in a bearing
being adjusted too loosely or too tightly. This
will cause a bearing to fail prematurely. Always
follow the Service Manual procedures and
specifications when installing bearings.
There are many ways incorrect bearing
adjustment can cause down time and increase
repair expense. The most obvious result is
shortened bearing life, but improper bearing
adjustment also affects the operation and
service life of the spindle, seals, and other
mating parts.
Tapered roller bearings are usually adjusted with
shims and a retainer. Some applications are
designed to have a minimal clearance between
the rollers and the raceway which is called "end
play". Other applications operate with a
predetermined load called "preload". It is
extremely important, when assembling a
component, that the correct type of adjustment
(end play or preload) is performed. Always
check the Service Manual for the proper
installation specifications.
Preloading a bearing means that when the
bearing is at the normal operating temperature,
the cone and rollers are slightly pressed (loaded)
into the cup. Preloading increases the load
capacity of the bearing by spreading the applied
load over more rollers and over a larger portion
of the fixed raceway. Illustration 14 shows the
loading on the rollers of a tapered roller bearing
when it is adjusted using end play and preload.
Illustration 14. End play and preload loading on the rollers
of a tapered roller bearing.
15
Results of Incorrect
Adjustment
When investigating damaged parts/components,
it is possible to tell if incorrect bearing
adjustment was the root of the problem. The
appearance of a damaged bearing can show
that improper bearing adjustment was the cause
of not only bearing damage but also hub, axle,
or seal damage.
Correct adjustment of tapered roller bearings is
essential to long bearing life. Incorrect
adjustment of bearings during installation can
cause the bearings to fail prematurely. This
failure can be caused by either too much or too
little adjustment.
If the preload is too tight, rollers and raceways
can be damaged due to a thrust overload. This
in turn causes premature fatigue of the bearing
surfaces, spalling, and eventual failure.
In horizontal shaft applications (primarily a radial
load), incorrect adjustment could result in:
1. Wear and spalling all around the bearing
cone, but only on a small portion of the
stationary cup. Refer to Illustration 6 in the
Visual Inspection—Abnormal Wear section of
this Guideline.
2. Rollers showing more wear and spalling on
one end and less damage on the other.
Raceways can also show more wear and
spalling toward one face than the other.
3. Roller openings on the cage may show a
protruding metal lip and/or an "hour glass"
wear pattern.
Visual Inspection— Bearings with high loads or considerable shaft
deflection are designed with a crown on the
Normal Wear length of the roller. This helps to prevent
flattening, overloading, and spalling of the ends
In order to determine if a bearing is damaged of the rollers. With this type of roller, a wear
and not suitable for further use, it must be first pattern concentrated more toward the middle of
determined if the wear is normal or abnormal. the roller will be present, especially if the applied
This section shows cups, cones, cages, and load has been relatively light.
rollers with normal wear. All the visual examples
of normal wear show bearings that can be used
again.
Rollers
The wear surfaces on the large end of rollers
and on the rib face of cones are subject to wear
because of thrust loads. A thrust load pushes
the face of the roller end into the rib. Abnormal
wear would consist of heavy scoring, scuffing,
metal displacement, or heat discoloration.
Illustration 1 shows normal wear on the ends of
the rollers.

Illustration 1. Normal wear on the ends of rollers.

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16
Illustration 2. Discoloration on the radius of each roller end. In many cases, this discoloration is caused by the Extreme Pressure
(EP) gear oil in the final drive assembly and the bearing can be used again. Note: Caterpillar recommends avoiding the use of
EP oil in the final drive assembly. See Service Manual for proper type and weight of oil.

Use again

Illustration 3. Typical machining marks on the roller radius that could appear to be scoring damage. The bearing can be used
again if thorough cleaning of the ends reveals that the radius was not scored, as shown above. If the roller damage is caused by
scoring, there should be scoring marks in the corresponding area of the cup.

Use again
17
Illustration 4. Pitting on the radius of the roller ends. In some cases EP gear oil can make the rollers appear to be pitted. If the
apparent pitting is removed when the rollers are cleaned, the bearing can be used again. Note: Caterpillar recommends
avoiding the use of EP oil in the final drive assembly. See Service Manual for proper type and weight of oil.

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Illustration 5. Bearing with abrasive scoring on the roller from foreign material that may have entered the system through
damaged seals or during scheduled maintenance. If a tag wire will not catch on the scored area the bearing can be used again.

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18
Illustration 6. Fine marks caused by debris. If a tag wire will not catch on the damaged area, the bearing can be used again.

Use again

Illustration 7. The wear pattern between the arrows indicates the area where the rollers are slightly crowned. A normal wear
pattern will occur in this area and no wear should be seen on the outside edges of the roller. If wear does occur on the outside
edges, the bearing has too much preload or is misaligned.

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19
Bearing Cup

Illustration 8. Crowned roller bearing cup. The photo shows a normal wear pattern on the raceway of a bearing which was
lightly loaded. The raceway wear patterns of this type of bearing will be concentrated toward the middle of the raceway.

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Illustration 9. Normal bearing wear on the raceway of the cup. The circumferential scratches seen on the raceway surface are
normal grinding marks made more visible with side lighting and magnification.

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20
Illustration 10. Normal wear across the raceway. Whatever the preload or applied load, if the bearing operation is normal, the
wear should be relatively uniform across the entire raceway and roller surfaces. If the dark appearance (similar to this photo) is
caused by the EP gear oil and not over heating, the bearing can be used again. Note: Caterpillar recommends avoiding the use
of EP oil in the final drive assembly. See Service Manual for proper type and weight of oil.

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Illustration 11. Normally, grinding marks on the outside surface diameter should be visible. The outside surface of the cup
should be free of fretting corrosion or creep which is caused when the cup turns inside the bore. For examples of this type of
damage, refer to the "Fretting Corrosion and Creep" section in this Guideline.

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21
Illustration 12. Wear on outside surface of the cup is called “Creep”. This type of damage is normally not found in off-highway
trucks, but generally occurs in applications with higher speeds. Minor surface damage like this can be removed using a 6V-2010
Polishing Stone. Never use a grinder with a buffing wheel to polish bearing surfaces. Before installing a bearing with this type of
wear, make sure the diameter of the cup and the bore diameter of the housing are within the specified tolerance.

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Illustration 13. Light stains on the outside diameter of the cup are acceptable and can be caused by contact with the housing.
These stains can also appear on the inside diameter of the cone. There should be little or no wear on these surfaces. If wear is
present it indicates the race has moved relative to the shaft or housing. If the bearing appears to have been spinning (blue/black
appearance) it should be replaced.

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22
Visual Inspection—
Abnormal Wear
How to Recognize and
Prevent Tapered Roller
Bearing Damage
In many cases, damage is easily identified by the
appearance of the bearing. Sometimes,
however, it is impossible to determine the exact
cause of damage. A bearing with scored and
heat discolored roller ends and rib is easily
identified. The cause, however, might be traced
to any one of a number of things. It may be the
wrong type of lubricant was used, an excessively
tight bearing setting, or a combination of too
tight a setting and lack of lubrication.
Simple examination of bearings may not reveal
the cause of the damage. It can reveal if the
bearing can be reused, but it often takes a
thorough and complete investigation of the
mounting, installation, and operating conditions
to determine the cause of the damage. Unless
the cause of the damage is found and
corrected, the replacement bearing will be
damaged in the same manner.
The most common causes of bearing failure due
to operating conditions are:
• Handling and Installation Damage
• Spalling
• Fractures
• Plastic Yielding
• Abrasive Wear
• Corrosion
• Fretting Corrosion and Creep
• Electrical Pitting and Fluting
23
Key points to remember when analyzing
bearings are:
1. Operating conditions can cause high loads
and/or temperatures on raceways and rolling
surfaces which will disturb the oil film. This
causes abnormal wear, spalling, and/or plastic
yielding resulting in failure.
2. When one damage source occurs, it may
generate other damage to the same surface.
There is a possibility two or more types of
damage can be present, with the secondary
damage caused by the initial damage.
Handling and Installation
Damage
Incorrect installation and removal practices result
in damage, as shown in the photos in this
section, which can lead to bearing failure.
Using incorrect tooling for removing or installing
bearings can also result in damaged bearings.
Damage can be caused by uneven and/or
forceful blows on bearing races, cages, rollers,
housings, or shafts.
NOTICE
Dents in the cup or cone can interfere with
roller travel, cause high localized stress, and
initiate spalling. A dent is also an abnormal
stress riser which could result in a fatigue
crack. In either case, this damage can cause
the bearing to fail and possibly result in
damage to other rotating components.
Illustration 1. Roller shows signs of denting due to rough handling during inspection or installation.

Do not use again

Illustration 2. The bearing cage was damaged when it was dropped prior to installation. This type of damage can crack the
cage and cause the rollers to bind. The rollers could then skew and stop turning or begin skidding causing damage to both the
cup and cone, or generate heat which will lead to a serious failure.

Do not use again

24
Illustration 3. Example of a bearing installed using improper tooling (probably a punch and hammer). Installing a bearing in this
manner may have caused this bearing to crack.

Do not use again

Illustration 4. Bearing cup that was incorrectly installed using a chisel or punch. The magnification clearly shows the imprint of
the tool. This type of damage can lead to chipping or cracking of the cone.

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25
Illustration 5. Bearing cup that was incorrectly installed using a hammer or other driving tool. The magnification shows the
imprint that was left by the rounded face of the tool. The installation damage has progressed into spalling.

Do not use again

Illustration 6. Bearing (1) was adjusted with too much end play and bearing (2) with too much preload. If the cup wears in area
(1) in the thicker section of the cup it is due to too much end play. If the damage is on the thinner portion of the cup as in area
(2) it is caused by too much preload. The results were abnormal wear and spalling only in one area of the cup.

Do not use again

26
Illustration 7. Rollers show signs of spalling on the small end. This type of damage was probably caused by misalignment or
excessive end play. Inspect the opposing bearing on the other end of the shaft for similar damage.

Do not use again

Illustration 8. Example of damage caused by inadequate lubrication or too much end play. The cage damage (protruding metal
lip and "hour glass" shaped wear) seen in this example is normally caused by excessive end play. A second possible cause
could be too much preload. The mating raceway of the cup (not shown) also showed even wear/spalling extending all the way
across the face and completely around the circumference.

Do not use again

27
Illustration 9. Wear between the roller and cage pocket was probably caused by improper lubrication or excessive end play.

Do not use again

Illustration 10. Deep and rapid spalling of the cone raceway caused by extremely high stress loads. The spalling covers the
complete surface of the raceway.

Do not use again

28
Tapered Bore/Shaft
Tapered shafts or housing bores can cause an overload condition in bearings when the full surface area
of the cup or cone is not in complete contact with the mating surface. Surface damage to the cup is
normally greater where the cup fits too tightly inside the bore. Signs of tapered bore/shaft damage are
more frequently found on the OD surface of the bearing cup.
If either the bore or shaft is tapered, correct the problem before installing a new bearing.

Illustration 11. Wear and heat discoloration on the outside diameter of the cup was caused by a tapered housing bore. This
bearing was installed into a bore with improper tolerances (too tight). The damage was caused by increased temperature due to
reduced clearances between the rolling element and raceway.

Do not use again

Misalignment
Misalignment can cause unusual wear, contact stress fatigue, and spalling. Shafts or housings that are
misaligned will normally cause wear or spall patterns and both can occur within the same raceway.
Correct any misalignment problems before installing a new bearing.

29
Illustration 12. Wear pattern caused by misalignment

Do not use again

Illustration 13. Constant heavy stress loading has produced spalling probably caused by bearing misalignment.

Do not use again

30
Overheating
Lack of lubrication can cause a bearing to become over heated. The resulting high temperature bearing
surfaces, rollers, and surrounding components can cause the metal to become softened (annealed).
Components which have been under-lubricated will become discolored and will generally be dry looking
with burned or cooked-on oil.
A discolored bearing should be cleaned with a soft bristle brush or a 1U-6859 Pad (Scotch Bright) and
clean solvent. If the discoloration is removed, it is probably lacquer buildup and not heat damage. If the
discoloration remains, the bearing should not be used again.

Illustration 14. Cup raceway with a discolored surface. This discoloration was probably caused by a lack of lubrication or
excessive rpm. The bearing can be used again if the discoloration is removed with 1U-6859 Pad (Scotch Bright) and solvent as
shown in the area indicated by the arrow.

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31
Illustration 15. Cup raceway with damage caused by overheating. The damage could not be removed with 1U-6859 Pad
(Scotch Bright) and solvent.

Do not use again

Illustration 16. Rollers show signs of over heating due to lack of lubrication and signs of misalignment since the burned area is only
at the bottom of the roller. If rollers are damaged, replace the entire bearing and correct any lubrication or misalignment problems.

Do not use again

32
Illustration 17. Debris damage can be seen on the raceway and has progressed into the early stages of spalling.

Do not use again

Illustration 18. An inclusion in the steel of the bearing was probably caused by foreign material in the lubricating oil. The
damaged area has progressed into spalling

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33
Illustration 19. Over heating damage. The discoloration could not be removed using a 1U-6859 Pad and solvent. The bearing
also shows signs of micro-spalling due to a lack of lubrication and high operating temperatures.

Do not use again

Illustration 20. Roller damage due to a lack of lubrication that has progressed into micro-spalling.

Do not use again

34
Brinelling
Brinelling marks are dents on the raceway surfaces which are caused by excessive loads being
transferred to the raceway by the rollers. This condition can be caused by incorrect assembly, by
forcefully driving both the cone and the cup into position (assembled together), or through extremely high
shock loads during the operation of the machine. This type of damage occurs when the roller pushes
the case hardened surface of the cup into the softer core material.
Brinelling can cause inadequate lubrication between race and roller, too much surface contact, and an
overload condition between raceways and rollers. Overloading can then progress into spalling, starting at
the brinell marks.

Illustration 21. Brinelling damage on the raceway of the cup.

Do not use again

35
Illustration 22. Magnified view of the initial stage of brinelling.

Do not use again

Illustration 23. Close-up of brinelling dent caused by a severe shock load. This damage occurred after the bearing had been
running for many hours.

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36
Bruising
Large particles (contaminants) in the lubricant, such as metal from a gear or a bearing failure, can cause
plastic yielding and surface or fragment denting (called "bruising") in raceways and rollers. Hard particles
will produce sharp angular dents while softer particles will produce smoother, more shallow dents. If the
bruising is sharp and angular and if the bearing is allowed to run long enough, the bruising will lead to
spalling.

Illustration 24. Cup raceway with light bruising. This type of damage will eventually progress into spalling. Use good judgment
based on the application’s rpm and number of hours remaining before the bearing will be replaced.

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Illustration 25. The bruising is on the entire raceway (360 degrees) and could be felt with a tag wire.

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37
Illustration 26. Cup raceway with moderate bruising and a tag wire will not catch on bruises.

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Illustration 27. Cup raceway with heavy bruising.

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38
Illustration 28. Magnified area of raceway with heavy bruising.

Do not use again

Illustration 29. Extreme case of bruising.

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39
Illustration 30. Bruising which has progressed into spalling.

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Illustration 31. A large particle which will cause bruising is embedded into the cage causing both cage and roller damage.

Do not use again

40
Abrasive Wear
Abrasive wear can occur on both the raceway and roller surfaces. This type of wear occurs when there
is insufficient oil or grease to control heat and/or if the rollers stop turning and starts sliding. Abrasives
such as dirt or sand in the lubrication system can become trapped and crushed by the rollers. This wear
may eventually lead to bearing failure because of a loss of preload adjustment. Abrasive wear may also
develop into very small pits that can progress into spalling and fatigue cracking. If abrasive wear is
determined to be the cause of the damage, correct any problem that may have allowed foreign material
into the lube system.

Illustration 32. Abrasive wear. The bearing can be used again if there is no pitting.

Use again

Illustration 33. Abrasive wear. The bearing can be used again, if under magnification no pits are found.

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41
Illustration 34. Fine abrasive particles have worn the surface of the roller ends and the rib of the cone, as indicated by the
arrows.

Do not use again

Corrosion
Once bearings are removed from a machine and cleaned, they can rust very rapidly. Therefore all the
bearing surfaces and rollers should be lightly oiled after inspection. A light film of oil will prevent
atmospheric corrosion.
If moisture enters the lubrication system, corrosion can occur after a bearing has been installed in the
machine. Many times the corrosion will take place while the machine is shut down and produce a
condition known as "static corrosion" or "black acid etching".
To remove the corrosion stains, the surface of the raceway can be cleaned with 1U-6859 Pad (Scotch
Bright). After cleaning, use magnification to determine if pitting is present. If it is present, do not use the
bearing again.

42
Illustration 35. Raceway of a cup with static corrosion and black acid etching. This damage was caused when the moisture,
combined with acids produced in used oil, collected around the rolling elements and produced dark, evenly spaced stains.
Pitting is also present on this raceway. Deep pits can eventually cause fatigue cracks and spalling.

Do not use again

Illustration 36. Static corrosion has etched away the surface of the metal and pitting is also present on the roller. This cone is
the mating part of the cup in Illustration 35.

Do not use again

43
Illustration 37. Corrosive etching. This damage occurred over an extended period of time while the machine was either not
being used or during a long period of storage. Corrosive etching can lead to spalling.

Do not use again

Illustration 38. Static corrosion (indicated by arrow). This bearing can be reused if pitting is not present and the moisture
problem has been corrected.

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44
Illustration 39. Static corrosion with foreign object damage (arrow). This bearing can be reused, if pitting has not started and the
foreign object damage is minimal.

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Illustration 40. Corrosion with moderate and acceptable foreign object damage. This bearing can be reused, if pitting has not
started and the foreign object damage is minimal.

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45
Illustration 41. Corrosion damage with pitting.

Do not use again

46
Black Acid Etching

Illustration 42. Black acid etching on the rollers. The bearing can be used again if there is no pitting.

Use again

Illustration 43. Black acid etching (minor) on the raceway of the cup. If the surface finish is not damaged (visual stain only) the
bearing can be used again.

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47
Illustration 44. Black acid etching (severe) with pitting in the surface of the raceway.

Do not use again

Fretting Corrosion
Fretting corrosion or creep occurs on the surface of the bearing that contacts the housing or the shaft.
This type of corrosion indicates the cup or cone has moved relative to the shaft or housing. Normally, a
bearing is harder than the mating surface of the housing or shaft and will pick up the softer material from
the bore or the shaft. This softer material can usually be removed and the bearing can be used again.

48
Illustration 45. Fretting corrosion on the OD of a race. The bearing can be reused if the fretting corrosion is removed with a
6V-2010 Polishing Stone or 1U-6859 Pad (Scotch Bright).

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Illustration 46. Fretting corrosion on the OD of the bearing race. Reuse the bearing if the damage can be removed with a
6V-2010 Polishing Stone or a 1U-6859 Pad (Scotch Bright).

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49
Illustration 47. Fretting corrosion on the OD of the bearing race. Reuse the bearing if the damage can be removed with a
6V-2010 Polishing Stone or a 1U-6859 Pad (Scotch Bright).

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Creep
Creep is a condition that occurs when the bearings outer race turns excessively inside its housing. If a
bearing shows signs of creep, repair or replace the housing or shaft to provide the correct fit or tolerance.

Illustration 48. Bearing race creep damage. The bearing can be reused, unless the it shows other signs of damage.

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50
Illustration 49. Creep damage on the OD of the bearing race. The bearing can be reused if the softer material from the bore can
be removed with a 6V-2010 Polishing Stone. When this type of damage occurs always measure the mating part to make sure it
is not worn beyond the specified dimension.

Use again

False Brinelling
False brinelling is different than true brinelling because it is not caused by heavy shock loads. False
brinelling is actually fretting or fretting corrosion caused by vibration of the bearing, under load, while the
bearing is not turning. False brinelling can occur when the machine is shipped long distances by rail.
When this type of damage occurs, the rolling elements, which normally will support heavy loads, actually
vibrate and wear into the raceway surfaces.

51
Illustration 50. False brinelling. The surface of the bearing has been worn away due to the roller moving (vibrating) perpendicular
to the raceway. Notice that the wear marks in the bottom of the groove are perpendicular to the cup. If this were true brinelling,
the circumferential grinding marks would be visible in the bottom of the groove.

Do not use again

Electrical Pitting
Electrical pitting can be caused by relatively high amounts of electrical current passing through the
bearing when it is not rotating. A common cause for this damage is improper welding on the machine.
Electrical pitting can also be caused by a relatively low current passing through the bearing over a
prolonged period of time while the bearing is rotating. This type of damage can lead to spalling and
bearing failure.

52
Illustration 51. Electrical pitting showing large localized pits. The lower two pits (1) are on the raceway. The upper matching pits
(2) are on the roller. The damage was probably caused by maintenance personnel incorrectly welding on the machine. These
pits will lead to spalling and bearing failure.

Do not use again

Illustration 52. Roller with electrical pitting caused by improper grounding of the machine during arc welding.

Do not use again

53
Illustration 53. Electric current has passed through this bearing during operation giving the appearance of small burns. The
damage was possibly due to faulty grounding of the electrical system.

Do not use again

Illustration 54. Electrical pitting has created a wash-board effect that has made the surface very rough. This damage will be
present all the way around the bearing if the application used a preload adjustment. If an end play adjustment was used or the
preload adjustment was lost, the damage will only appear on a small portion of the cone.

Do not use again

54
Notes

55
 ©1999 Caterpillar, Inc.
SEBF8190-01 Printed in U.S.A. (1/99)