Lecture 7 - Force Based ELF

Dr.
Hazim Dwairi 12/12/2022
Method of Analysis
Force-Based ELF
Dr. Hazim Dwairi
HU
Load Analysis Procedure

1. Determine building occupancy 8. Determine redundancy factor (r)
category 9. Determine lateral force analysis
2. Determine design response procedure
spectrum 10. Add torsional loads, as applicable
3. Determine seismic design category 11. Add orthogonal loads as applicable
4. Determine importance factor 12. Perform analysis
5. Select structural system and system 13. Combine results
parameters (R, Cd, Wo) 14. Check strength, deflection, and
6. Examine system for configuration stability
irregularities
7. Determine diaphragm flexibility
(flexible, semi-rigid, and rigid)
1
Dr. Hazim Dwairi 12/12/2022
Risk Category
Design Response Spectrum

● Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE)
● Design Earthquake
2
Design Response Spectrum
Site Classification
3
Seismic Design Category

● Assign the more sever seismic design category according to:
Seismic Importance Factor, Ie
4
9
10
Structural System & Structural System &
Dr. Hazim Dwairi
System Parameters System Parameters

12/12/2022
5
Structural System &

System Parameters
11
Response Modification Factor, R

● Account for:
○ Ductility (inelastic action)
○ Overstrength
○ Redundancy
○ Damping
○ Past behavior
● Maximum = 8
○ Eccentrically braced frame with
welded connections
○ Buckling restrained brace with
welded connections
○ Special moment frame in steel
or concrete
12
6
Overstrength Factor, Wo
1. Sequential yielding of critical

regions
2. Materials strength greater
than specified values
3. Strength enhancement due to

strain hardening
4. Capacity reduction (f) factors
13
Deflection Amplification Factor, Cd
Cd = Ratio of maximum inelastic

displacement to maximum displacement
of corresponding elastic oscillator
14
7
Structure
Irregularity
Horizontal
Irregularity
15
Horizontal Structural Irregularity

1a) and 1b) torsional irregularity
Include accidental
torsion with Ax = 1.0
1a) dmax > 1.2 davg Irregular

1b) dmax > 1.4 davg Irregular
16
8

2) Re-entrant Corner
Irregularity exists if px > 0.15Lx and py > 0.15Ly
17

3) Diaphragm Discontinuity Irregularity
Irregularity exists if open area > 0.5 times floor

area OR if effective diaphragm stiffness varies by
more than 50% from one story to the next.
18
9

4) Diaphragm Discontinuity Irregularity
Discontinuity in a lateral force-resistance

path, such as an out-of-plane offset of at
least one of the vertical elements.
19

5) Non-Parallel Systems Irregularity
Nonparallel System Irregularity exists when the vertical lateral

force resisting elements are not parallel to or symmetric about
the major orthogonal axes of the seismic force resisting system.
20
10
Structure
Irregularity
Vertical
Irregularity
21
Vertical Structural Irregularity

1a) & 1b) Stiffness (Soft Storey) Irregularity
Irregularity (1a) exists if stiffness of any story is less than 70% of the
stiffness of the story above or less than 80% of the average stiffness
of the three stories above.
An extreme irregularity (1b) exists if stiffness of any story is less than
60% of the stiffness of the story above or less than 70% of the
average stiffness of the three stories above.
Exception: Irregularity does not exist if no

story drift ratio is greater than 1.3 times drift
ratio of story above.
Irregularity 1b is NOT PERMITTED in SDC E

or F.
22
11

2) Weight (Mass) Irregularity
Irregularity exists if the effective mass of any
story is more than 150% of the effective mass of
an adjacent story.
A roof that is lighter than the floor before need
not be considered.
Exception: Irregularity does not exist if no

story drift ratio is greater than 1.3 times drift
ratio of story above.
23

3) Vertical Geometric Irregularity
Irregularity exists if the dimension of the lateral

force resisting system at any story is more than
130% of that for any adjacent story.
24
12

4) In-plane Discontinuity Irregularity
Irregularity exist where there is an in-plane
offset of a vertical seismic force-resisting
element resulting in overturning demands on
supporting structural elements.
Irregularity exists if the offset is greater than the

width (d) or there exists a reduction in stiffness
of the story below.
25

5) Capacity (Weak-Storey) Irregularity
a) Irregularity exists if the lateral strength of any story is less
than 80% of the strength of the story above.
b) An extreme irregularity exists If the lateral strength of any
story is less than 65% of the strength of the story above.
Irregularities (a) and (b) are NOT

PERMITTED in SDC E or F. Irregularity (b)
not permitted in SDC D.
26
13
Diaphragm Flexibility
Diaphragms must be considered as semi-rigid unless they can be classified
as FLEXIBLE or RIGID.
● Flexible Diaphragms:
○ In structures where the vertical elements are steel braced frames; steel and concrete
composite braced frames; or concrete, masonry, steel, or steel and concrete composite
shear walls.
○ In one- and two-family dwellings.
○ light-frame construction where all the following conditions are met:
■ Topping of concrete or similar materials is not placed over wood structural panel
diaphragms except for nonstructural topping no greater than 1 1/2 in. (38 mm)
thick.
■ Each line of vertical elements of the seismic force resisting system complies with the
allowable story drift of Table 12.12-1.
27
Diaphragms must be considered as semi-rigid unless they can be classified
as FLEXIBLE or RIGID.
● Rigid Diaphragms:
○ Diaphragms of concrete slabs or concrete-filled metal deck with span-to-depth ratios of 3
or less in structures that have no horizontal irregularities are permitted to be idealized as
rigid.
• Untopped steel decking and untopped wood structural panels are considered
FLEXIBLE if the vertical seismic force resisting systems are steel or composite
braced frames or are shear walls.
• Diaphragms in one- and two-family residential buildings may be considered
FLEXIBLE.
• Concrete slab or concrete filled metal deck diaphragms are considered RIGID if
the width to depth ratio of the diaphragm is less than 3 and if no horizontal
irregularities exist. (FEMA 450)
28
14
Rigid versus Flexible Diaphragms
29
Seismic load is taken according to

ELF procedure
30
15
Redundancy factor (r), ASCE 7-16

● The value of ρ is permitted to equal 1.0 for the following:
○ Structures assigned to Seismic Design Category B or C;
○ Drift calculation and P-delta effects;
○ Design of nonstructural components;
○ Design of nonbuilding structures that are not similar to buildings;
○ Design of collector elements, splices, and their connections for which the seismic load
effects, including overstrength of Section 12.4.3, are used;
○ Design of members or connections where the seismic load effects, including overstrength
of Section 12.4.3, are required for design;
○ Diaphragm loads determined using Eq. (12.10-1), including the limits imposed by Eqs.
(12.10-2) and (12.10-3);
○ Structures with damping systems designed in accordance with Chapter 18; and
○ Design of structural walls for out-of-plane forces, including their anchorage.
31
Redundancy factor (r), ASCE 7-16

● For SDC (D), r = 1.3 if torsional irregularity 1b exists
● For SDC (D, E, F), r = 1.3, unless (use r = 1.0):
○ Each story resisting more than 35% of the base shear in the direction of interest shall
comply with Table 12.3-3. OR
○ Structures are regular in plan at all levels provided that the seismic force-resisting
systems consist of at least two bays of seismic force-resisting perimeter framing on each
side of the structure in each orthogonal direction at each story resisting more than 35%
of the base shear. The number of bays for a shear wall shall be calculated as the length of
shear wall divided by the story height or two times the length of shear wall divided by the
story height, hsx, for light-frame construction.
32
16
Redundancy factor (r), IBC/UBC

● Seismic Design Categories A, B, C r = 1.0
● Seismic Design Categories D, E, F compute ri for each storey and use the
maximum:
ri = 2 – 6.1/rmax,i√Ai
Ai = the floor area in m2 of the diaphragm level immediately above the
story in consideration
ri = the ratio of the design story shear resisted by the most heavily loaded
element to the total story shear for a given direction of loading.
33
Redundancy factor (r), IBC/UBC

Structural ri
system
Braced frames Lateral load in the heavily loaded brace/story shear
Moment frames Shear in two adjacent columns/story shear.

In two bay frames multiply columns shear by 0.7
Shear walls Wall shear x 3.3/Lw
Dual systems Multiply calculated r for all elements by 80% and use maximum
r shall not be less than 1.0 and need not exceed 1.5
Special moment resisting frames need to be arranged in away such that r = 1.2
for SDC D and r = 1.1 for SDC E & F
34
17
Permitted Analytical Procedure
35
Equivalent Lateral Force (ELF) Procedure

Seismic Design Base Shear :
VB  C sW ; Where
C s, min  0.044 I e .S DS  0.01

I I
Cs  e S DS  C s, max  e S D1  T  TL
R R.Tn
S T I
Cs, max  D1 L e  T  TL
T 2R
For Structures in SDC  E or F and Structures with S1  0.6 g
0 .5 I E
Cs, min  S1
R
36
18
Effective Seismic Weight, W

● All Structural and nonstructural elements weights (Total dead load)
● 25% of the reduced storage live load, except:
○ open parking structures and public garages, it need not be considered.
○ Inclusion of storage loads adds no more than 5% to the effective seismic weight at that
level, it need not be considered.
● The actual partition weight, or 480 N/m2 minimum partition allowance
● Total weight of permanent equipment.
● 20% of snow load when “flat roof” snow load exceeds 1.44 kN/m2
● Weight of landscaping and other materials at roof gardens and similar
areas.
37
Approximate Period of Vibration, Ta

Ta = Ct (hn)x
Buildings ONLY: For concrete or steel

moment frames < 12 stories in height,
minimum story height of 3 m. N =
number of stories.
Ta = 0.1 N
38
19
Approximate Period of Vibration, Ta

● For masonry or concrete shear wall structures not exceeding 36.6 m in
height is permitted to be determined from:
39
Upper Limit on Calculated Period

● Structure period, T, computed using the structural properties and
deformational characteristics of the resisting elements in a properly
substantiated analysis, shall not exceed (CuTa):
T ≤ Cu Ta
40
20
What to use as the height above the base of the building?
hn: The vertical distance from the base to the highest level of seismic force
resisting system of the structure (ASCE 7-16)
41
Factors Affecting the Location of Base

● Location of the grade relative to floor levels,
● Soil conditions adjacent to the building,
● Openings in the basement walls,
● Location and stiffness of vertical elements of the seismic force-resisting
system,
● Location and extent of seismic separations,
● Depth of basement,
● The way basement walls are supported,
● Proximity to adjacent buildings, and
● Slope of grade.
42
21
Building Base
Base at top
of Footing
(1) Level site without basement (3) Base at level closest to grade elevation
(2) Level site with basement (4) Base below substantial openings in basement wall
43
Building Base
Base at top
Base at top of Footing
of Footing
(5) Base at foundation level where concrete shear walls (7) Building with vertical elements of the seismic force-
extend over the full height and length of the building resisting system supporting lateral earth pressures
Base at top Base at top

of Footing of Footing
(6) Building with tie-back or cantilevered retaining wall (8) Building with vertical elements of the seismic force-
that is separate from the building resisting system supporting lateral earth pressures
44
22
Distribution of Forces along Height
Fx  CvxVB
wx hxk
Cvx 
n
w h
i 1
k
i i
‘k ‘ Accounts for Higher Mode Effects
45
Torsional Effects
ALL Induce inherent and accidental torsion effects
B Ignore torsional amplification
C, D, E, F Include torsional amplification where Type 1a or

1b irregularity exists
46
23
Accidental Torsion
Uncertainty in the location of center of mass

and center of rigidity
47
Amplification to Accidental Torsion

Seismic Design Category C, D, E, or F,
where Type 1a or 1b torsional irregularity
exists.
2
 d 
Ax   max   3.0
 1.2d avg 
 
d d
d avg  max min
2
48
24
Why Amplifying Accidental Torsion?
49
Direction of Loading
SDC Direction of Loading Criteria
B (often controlled by non seismic orthogonal interaction effects are permitted to be neglected; seismic load
load effects) is applied independently.
C (regular structures are nor Structures with Nonparallel System Irregularities:
sensitive to orthogonal loading, a. Use ELF or MRSA or linear response history procedure with loading
yet special consideration applied independently in any two orthogonal directions. Members and
must be given to structures with
their foundations are designed for 100% of the forces for one
nonparallel or nonorthogonal
systems) direction plus 30% of the forces for the perpendicular direction. The
combination requiring the maximum component strength shall be
used.
b. Use linear or nonlinear response history procedure with orthogonal
pairs of ground motion acceleration histories applied simultaneously
D, E, F (additional requirements Conform as a min. to previous item, in addition,
for vertical members coupled
between intersecting seismic
force-resisting systems)
50
25
Orthogonal Load Effects

● Earthquake can produce inertia forces in any direction
● Structures should be investigated for forces that act in the direction that
causes the “critical load effect”
● Since this direction is not easily defined, seismic codes allow loading the
structure with 100% of the seismic force in one direction and 30% of the
force acting in the orthogonal direction.
51
Orthogonal Load Effects, QE
• Applicable to S.D.C. C, D, E, and F

• Affect primarily column, especially corner columns
52
26
Nonsymmetrical Building
Example
Orthogonal loading effects

and accidental torsion
53
Basic Load Combinations
Note: 1.0L instead of 0.5L may be used when Lo≥ 4.79 kN/m2 or in case of
public assembly or parking garages.
54
27
Basic Load Combinations (overstrength)
55
Special Members
56
28
Story Drift
Drift reported by analysis with
strength level forces:
d I
e  e
h
Inelastic Drift (amplified drift):
  Cd  e

 P - 
Drift computed at center of 1
mass of story
57
Drift Limits
58
29
Overturning
The overturning moment at level x:
n
Mx   F (h  h )
i 1
i i x
Fi = portion of VB induced at level i

hi and hx are the heights from the base to levels i and x
 = the overturning moment reduction factor
= 1.0 for the top 10 stories
= 0.8 for the 20th storey from the top and below
= linear interpolation between 1.0 and 0.8 for the stories between the
10 and the 20th from top
th
59
Building Separation to Avoid Pounding

d MT  (d M 1 ) 2  (d M 2 ) 2
dM1 dM2
dMT
60
30
P–Delta Effects
Without
gravity With
loads gravity
loads
61
P–Delta Effects
For each story compute :
Px = total vertical design load at story above level x, no load factors.

Δ = computed story design level drift (including Cd)
Vx = total shear in story
hsx = story height
If  < 0.1, ignore P-delta effects
62
31
P–Delta Effects
If  > 0.1 then check:
● where β is the ratio of the shear demand to the shear capacity of

the story in question (effectively the inverse of the story
overstrength). β may conservatively be taken as 1.0 [which gives,
for example, max = 0.125 when Cd = 4].
If  > max, structure is unstable & shall be redesigned
63
P–Delta Effects
If  > 0.1 and less than max:
Multiply all computed element forces and displacements by:
 Check drift limits using amplified drift

 Design for amplified forces
Note: P-delta effects may also be automatically included in the

structural analysis. However, limit on θ still applies.
64
32
Advanced Methods of Analysis

1. Modal response spectrum analysis
2. Time-history analysis
65
Modal Response Spectrum Analysis

1. Compute modal properties for each mode
○ Frequency (period)
○ Shape
○ Modal participation factor
○ Effective modal mass
2. Determine number of modes to use in analysis.
Use a sufficient number of modes to capture at least 90% of total
mass in each direction
3. Using general spectrum (or compatible ground motion spectrum)
compute spectral accelerations for each contributing mode.
66
33

4. Multiply spectral accelerations by modal participation factor and
by (I/R)
5. Compute modal displacements for each mode
6. Compute element forces in each mode
7. Statistically combine (SRSS or CQC) modal displacements to
determine system displacements
8. Statistically combine (SRSS or CQC) component forces to
determine design forces
67

9. If the design base shear based on modal analysis is less than 85%
of the base shear computed using ELF (and T = TaCu), the member
forces resulting from the modal analysis and combination of
modes must be scaled such that the base shear equals 0.85 times
the ELF base shear.
10. Add accidental torsion as a static loading and amplify if necessary.
11. For determining drift, multiply the results of the modal analysis
(including the I/R scaling but not the 85% scaling) by Cd/I.
68
34
Analytical Modeling for Modal Response Spectrum

Analysis
● Use three-dimensional analysis
● For concrete structures, include effect of cracking
● For steel structures, include panel zone deformations
● Include flexibility of foundation if well enough defined
● Include actual flexibility of diaphragm if well enough defined
● Include P-delta effects in analysis if program has the capability
● Do not try to include accidental torsion by movement of center of
mass
● Include orthogonal load effects by running the fill 100% spectrum
in each direction, and then SRSSing the results.
69
Time-history Analysis
● Follow procedures given in previous slides for modeling structure.
When using modal response history analysis, use enough modes
to capture 90% of the mass of the structure in each of the two
orthogonal directions.
● Include accidental torsion (and amplification, if necessary) as
additional static load conditions.
● Perform orthogonal loading by applying the full recorded
orthogonal horizontal ground motion simultaneous with the
principal direction motion.
70
35
Time-history Analysis
● Ground motions must have magnitude, fault mechanism, and
fault distance consistent with the site and must be representative
of the maximum considered ground motion
● Where the required number of motions are not available
simulated motions (or modified motions) may be used
A suite of not less than three ground motions shall be

used.
71
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Lecture 7 - Force Based ELF

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Dr.

Hazim Dwairi 12/12/2022

Load Analysis Procedure

Design Response Spectrum

Design Response Spectrum

Seismic Design Category

Seismic Importance Factor, Ie

System Parameters System Parameters

Structural System &

Response Modification Factor, R

1. Sequential yielding of critical

3. Strength enhancement due to

Deflection Amplification Factor, Cd

Cd = Ratio of maximum inelastic

Horizontal Structural Irregularity

1a) dmax > 1.2 davg Irregular

Horizontal Structural Irregularity

Irregularity exists if px > 0.15Lx and py > 0.15Ly

Horizontal Structural Irregularity

Irregularity exists if open area > 0.5 times floor

Horizontal Structural Irregularity

Discontinuity in a lateral force-resistance

Horizontal Structural Irregularity

Nonparallel System Irregularity exists when the vertical lateral

Vertical Structural Irregularity

Exception: Irregularity does not exist if no

Irregularity 1b is NOT PERMITTED in SDC E

Vertical Structural Irregularity

Exception: Irregularity does not exist if no

Vertical Structural Irregularity

Irregularity exists if the dimension of the lateral

Vertical Structural Irregularity

Irregularity exists if the offset is greater than the

Vertical Structural Irregularity

Irregularities (a) and (b) are NOT

Rigid versus Flexible Diaphragms

Seismic load is taken according to

Redundancy factor (r), ASCE 7-16

Redundancy factor (r), ASCE 7-16

Redundancy factor (r), IBC/UBC

Redundancy factor (r), IBC/UBC

Moment frames Shear in two adjacent columns/story shear.

Permitted Analytical Procedure

Equivalent Lateral Force (ELF) Procedure

C s, min  0.044 I e .S DS  0.01

Effective Seismic Weight, W

Approximate Period of Vibration, Ta

Buildings ONLY: For concrete or steel

Approximate Period of Vibration, Ta

Upper Limit on Calculated Period

What to use as the height above the base of the building?

Factors Affecting the Location of Base

Base at top Base at top

Distribution of Forces along Height

‘k ‘ Accounts for Higher Mode Effects

ALL Induce inherent and accidental torsion effects

B Ignore torsional amplification

C, D, E, F Include torsional amplification where Type 1a or

Uncertainty in the location of center of mass

Amplification to Accidental Torsion

Why Amplifying Accidental Torsion?

Orthogonal Load Effects

Orthogonal Load Effects, QE