Lecture Notes in GEd 102

Mathematics in the Modern World

Francis Gerard C. Magtibay, [Link].

College of Teacher Education
Batangas State University
Philippines
2
Contents

Preface iii

Acknowledgment v

Dedication vii

1 The Nature of Mathematics 1

1.1 The Mathematics of Our World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 The Nature of Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 The Purposes of Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.3 Learning Activity 1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 The Mathematics in Our World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.1 Patterns in Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.2 Learning Activity 1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 The Fibonacci Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.1 Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.2 The Fibonacci Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.3 The Golden Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2 Mathematics Language and Symbols 21

2.1 Characteristics of Mathematical Language . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.1.1 Characteristics of Mathematical Language . . . . . . . 23
2.1.2 Comparison Between Natural and Mathematical Lan-
guage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1.3 Translating Natural to Mathematical Language and
Vice Versa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2 Sets and Other Basic Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2.1 Sets and Well-Definedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

i
ii CONTENTS

2.2.2 Elements and Set Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

2.2.3 Subsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.4 Cardinality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.5 Relationships Between Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2.6 The Power Set of a Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2.7 Operations on Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2.8 The Set of Real Numbers and Its Important Subsets . 34
2.3 Relations and Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4 Binary Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Bibliography 39
Preface

This compilation of lecture notes is prepared for students taking the Mathe-
matics in the Modern World course at Batangas State University. Content is
intended to supplement the BatStateU Learning Modules for this course, and
additional information discussed during synchronous lectures is also included
here.
Work is currently in progress for this document, and new versions will be
released throughout the semester.
When reading this document on a PDF viewer, you may click on any link
to open it for additional information on topics discussed. Content within all
links are the property of their respective owners.

iii
iv PREFACE
Acknowledgment

The author would like to express his gratitude to the authors of the Bat-
StateU Learning Modules for providing a reliable basis for the writing of
these lecture notes, and to the College of Teacher Education family for the
opportunity to contribute through this document.

v
vi ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Dedication

vii
viii DEDICATION
Chapter 1

The Nature of Mathematics

Chapter Objectives
1. To identify patterns and regularities in nature and in man-made con-
structs

2. To articulate the importance of mathematics in one’s life

3. To understand the nature of mathematics

4. To express appreciation of mathematics as a human endeavor

In this chapter we discuss the nature, scope, and purpose of mathematics.

We also explore the different types of patterns that are commonly seen in
nature and in man-made structures, with emphasis on the Fibonacci sequence
and the Golden Ratio.

1
2 CHAPTER 1. THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

1.1 The Mathematics of Our World

Specific Objectives
1. To understand the definition and nature of mathematics

2. To realize the purpose and importance of mathematics

3. To gain awareness of the role of mathematics in our life, as well as our

role in mathematics

In this lesson we attempt to define mathematics and explain its nature.

We also discuss the importance of mathematics, as well as the different roles
it plays in our lives.

1.1.1 The Nature of Mathematics

In his book Nature’s Numbers, Ian Stewart defined mathematics as “a formal
system of thought for recognizing, classifying, and exploiting patterns”. This
means that mathematics is more than the study of numerical relationships.
It is not restricted to computations and arithmetic solutions. Rather, it is
the study of patterns of all kinds, as well as the methods we use to gather
and use information based on these patterns.
It is worth noting that the recognition, classification, and exploitation
of patterns mentioned in our working definition always occur in that order.
We cannot use a pattern to our advantage without first knowing enough
about it to classify it, and likewise we cannot classify a pattern without first
recognizing that it is a pattern.

ˆ A note regarding definitions: It is important to remember and state

definitions verbatim (with the exact wording), so that we do not risk
altering the meaning of what we intend to say. However, it is equally
important to understand the actual meaning of a term, especially since
technical definitions are often too long and absurd for everyday con-
versation.

ˆ This video ([Link] is a scene from the film

3 Idiots. Here a professor is asking for the textbook definition of a
machine, but he does not explicitly ask for the definition. The main
character, a student called Rancho, responds by providing an answer
1.1. THE MATHEMATICS OF OUR WORLD 3

from his own understanding. The professor is dissatisfied and tells

Rancho to leave, but Rancho comes back inside to get his books. In the
process, he demonstrates the importance of using simple terminology
by coming up with a long-winding “definition” of a book on his own,
to the confusion of the professor.

ˆ While the scene is rather humorous overall, it shows the importance

and advantages of knowing both the technical and layman’s definitions
of a word. Thus, please try to remember both the exact wording and
the meaning behind Stewart’s definition of mathematics.

ˆ Please do not attempt to imitate Rancho in an actual classroom setting.

In evolutionary psychology, the four Fs are said to be the four basic

instincts that animals (including humans) are evolutionarily adapted to have,
follow, and achieve. These are fighting, feeding, fleeing, and mating; the
term four Fs likely refers to a more crude term for mating, which we will not
mention. At some point in human history, our ancestors acquired the insight
to observe patterns in their surroundings. They realized that the natural
world efficiently uses all mathematical patterns to its advantage. In turn,
they used this knowledge of patterns in ways that other living beings do not,
thereby acting beyond instincts related to the four Fs, in order to satisfy
their needs and desires. This led to scientific and cultural innovations. It
can be concluded that mathematics, the study of patterns, has always been
essential to the advancement of human civilization.
Mathematics is present all around us and is the cornerstone of all our
activities. It is at the forefront of every period of our development as a
species, from the discovery of fire to the advent of manned extraterrestrial
flight. However, it can be argued that the most important contribution of
mathematics to the development of human civilization is the advent of the
concept of numbers. Without a sense of quantity, we might not have gotten
started with mathematical discoveries, and most of the other great advances
of mankind may not have become possible without numbers.
Mathematics is a useful, practical, and powerful tool. It is more than the
simple act of calculating with numbers, formulas, and symbols, but rather
the discovery of patterns and new ways to make use of them. Mathemat-
ics was once perceived to be limited to the study of numbers, but it is now
understood as the universal language through which the natural world is pro-
grammed to operate. Mathematics is about finding creative ways of looking
4 CHAPTER 1. THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

at problems in order to understand and solve them. It also allows us to per-

ceive what is otherwise intangible, and serves as our sense of patterns and
logical connections just as our physical senses allow us to interact with each
other and with the environment. Mathematics is all of the following.

ˆ a study of patterns, as implied by our working definition.

ˆ a language, as will be discussed during Chapter 2 later on. It is hoped

that, rather than try to get correct answers every time, we aim to
become more fluent in the language of mathematics. This will allow
mathematics to come naturally to us, just like breathing, eating, or
speaking our native languages.

ˆ a process of thinking, which also ties with our working definition.

ˆ a set of problem-solving tools, since most problems can be solved by

using patterns which are the domain of mathematics.

ˆ an art, as mathematics allows us to communicate both exact results

and original ideas. Mathematics is also an instrument of creativity, as
evidenced by our discussion of recreational mathematics in Chapter 3.

Mathematics is everywhere, since patterns are everywhere. It is up to us

to recognize, classify, and exploit these patterns.

1.1.2 The Purposes of Mathematics

Mathematics serves multiple purposes, all of which are equally important.

1. Mathematics for organization. A lot of events happen around us all

the time. In the blink of an eye, several children have already been
born, hundreds of liters of water have been consumed, and thousands
of tweets have been posted. For us to make sense of all available in-
formation, we need mathematical tools to help us make sound analysis
and better decisions. For instance, a particular store can gather data
on the shopping habits of its customers and make necessary adjust-
ments to help drive sales. Scientists can plot bird migration routes to
help conserve endangered animal populations. Social media analysis
can crunch online content using software in order to gauge people’s
sentiments on particular issues or personalities.
1.1. THE MATHEMATICS OF OUR WORLD 5

2. Mathematics for prediction. As much as we can use mathematical mod-

els using existing data to generate analysis and interpretations, we can
also use them to make predictions. Applying the concept of probability,
experts can calculate the chance of an event occurring. The weather
is a prime example. Based on historical patterns, meteorologists can
make forecasts to help us prepare for our day-to-day activities. They
can also warn us of weather disturbances that can affect our activities
for weeks or months. Astronomers also use patterns to predict the oc-
currence of meteor showers of eclipses. This allows them to tell when
certain phenomena would occur and where would be the best places to
view them.

3. Mathematics for control. It is often the case that we first make obser-
vations of natural phenomena, followed by an exploration or discovery
of the underlying natural phenomena. But there have been instances
when a natural phenomenon is speculated to exist because mathemat-
ics says so, and yet no hard evidence has been found to support its
existence. For example, in 1916 Albert Einstein hypothesized the ex-
istence of gravitational waves based on his theory of special relativity,
without any observed occurrences to support his claim. As it turns out,
Einstein was right, but he was unable to observe gravitational waves
because he was limited by the technology of his time. Gravitational
waves were first observed in 2015.
Through the use of mathematics, man is also able to exert control
over himself and the effects of nature. The threat of climate change
and global warming has been the subject of much debate over the
years. Patterns indicate that unless mankind changes its behavior, sea
levels could rise to catastrophic levels as the polar caps melt due to
the increase in global temperatures. In response to this, the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was
signed in 1992 and has 197 parties as of December 2015.

4. Mathematics is indispensable. Mathematics plays a huge role in the

underpinnings of our world. We have seen it in living creatures and
natural phenomena. It is also highly evident in everyday human life,
even in situations where we mostly interact with artificial or man-made
objects. For instance, there is simply no way to be gainfully employed
without at least a basic knowledge of mathematics, or else one could be
6 CHAPTER 1. THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

cheated out of their salary or profits. At the most basic level, logical
reasoning and critical thinking are crucial skills that are needed in any
endeavor.

1.1.3 Learning Activity 1.1

Write your answers to each of the following questions on a clean sheet of
paper. Keep your answers concise and specific. Consulting the internet and
other resources is discouraged. You may read content from reliable sources,
but you may not copy from them.

1. In your opinion, what is the most important contribution of mathemat-

ics to the development of human civilization? Explain your answer.

2. Describe an object or phenomenon that came about because of math-

ematics. Explain the underlying mathematics behind this object, and
state which purpose of mathematics applies to your chosen object.

For submission, uploading of an electronic file (.docx or .pdf) or a photo

of handwritten work to Google Classroom is preferred, but you may submit
a physical copy of handwritten work. Use Arial 11 for electronic files, and
write legibly on a clean sheet of bond paper for handwritten work.
Answers will be graded according to the following criteria.
Criterion Remarks Maximum
Score
Adequacy Is the answer correct? Is it sufficiently 60 pts
explained?
Brevity Is the answer specific? Are its ideas 30 pts
presented concisely?
Language and Is the answer written with correct 10 pts
Mechanics spelling and grammar? Is the docu-
ment clean and legibly written?
Total: 100 pts
1.2. THE MATHEMATICS IN OUR WORLD 7

1.2 The Mathematics in Our World

Specific Objectives
1. To develop one’s understanding of patterns

2. To identify different patterns that occur in nature

3. To recognize different symmetries in nature

In this lesson we explore some of the various patterns that can be observed
in nature, with some examples of each type. We also discuss the different
types of symmetry that we commonly observe. with emphasis on symmetries.

1.2.1 Patterns in Nature

A pattern is a structure, form, or design that is regular, consistent, or
recurring. Patterns can be found in nature, in man-made structures, and in
abstract ideas. The following are some types of patterns that can be observed
around us.

1. Patterns of visuals. Visual patterns vary in complexity, from simple

patterns of spots and stripes on animal skins to complex patterns of
self-similarity in coastlines and ferns. An object is said to exhibit self-
similarity if it has a part that looks like the whole. This means that
a self-similar object has the same kinds of details at different scales.
For example, clouds are self-similar since a small cloud that detaches
from a larger cloud will look just the same. Coastlines are also self-
similar, because a small patch of coastline may have a similar shape
to a larger stretch of coastline that contains it. The leaves of ferns
have their own ‘leaflets’. Cauliflowers have conical spirals that have
smaller conical spirals on the surface. In most trees, the main trunk
has several large branches, which themselves have smaller branches,
and so on. Human blood vessels, airways, and neurons have the same
self-similar branching pattern. For more information, you may refer to
this video ([Link]
Mathematical patterns that describe self-similar objects are called frac-
tals. Some examples of abstract mathematical fractals include the
Peano space-filling curve, Gosper’s flow snake, the Sierpinski gasket,
8 CHAPTER 1. THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

and the Koch snowflake. Another example is the Mandelbrot set, which
is formed by assigning colors to every point on a plane according to cer-
tain rules. See this video ([Link] for more in-
formation. Also, here ([Link] is a song about
the Mandelbrot set, along with graphics that zoom in on several points
on the set. However, the song contains some profanity in its lyrics, so
please listen with due diligence and maturity.
2. Patterns of flow. Patterns of flow are usually found in fluids (liquids
or gases). Generally, fluids flow until they are between a less dense
material above them and a more dense material below them. The most
common example of this is when water flows downhill due to gravity.
Water is more dense than air, so by flowing downhill it exchanges po-
sitions with a similar volume of air that is at a lower altitude. Water
then stops flowing because it is less dense than the ground below it.
Patterns of flow are also evident when the seeds of a tree are propagated
by wind or water. The tree’s offspring eventually grow in the direction
of the prevailing water or wind, and over time, this phenomenon forms
a pattern of trees of the same kind growing along the same direction
as the flow of wind or water.
3. Patterns of movement. Patterns of movement or locomotion differ
among animals. Humans walk by alternating their left and right legs.
Four-legged animals have different ways of locomotion depending on
their purpose or situation. Horses, for example, can trot, gallop, leap,
or canter, among others. Animals with more than four legs (or no
legs) have other ways of locomotion still, and there are some species
with unique ways of locomotion. For instance, crabs walk sideways as
explained in this video ([Link] Another ex-
ample is the sidewinder snake, which moves in a unique manner adapted
to its desert environment ([Link]
4. Patterns of rhythm. Rhythmic patterns are arguably the most basic
pattern in nature. Our earliest measurements of time are based on
observations of rhythmic patterns in heavenly bodies. The sun rises and
sets at regular intervals, and from this phenomenon we measure time
in days. Likewise, the phases of the moon became our measurement for
months, and the seasons (and later the revolution of the Earth around
the Sun) served as basis for our measurement of years.
1.2. THE MATHEMATICS IN OUR WORLD 9

Note on heavenly bodies: The Earth rotates on its axis, which causes
the sun to rise and set from our point of view. Meanwhile, the Earth
revolves around the sun, making a complete journey once a year. Please
be careful to distinguish between rotation and revolution of the Earth.

5. Patterns of texture. There is also regularity in the textures of objects.

For instance, a fresh piece of paper may feel smooth to the touch, but
one that has been crumpled then flattened out may not be as smooth
because of the creases made on the surface.

6. Geometric patterns. Like patterns of visuals, geometric patterns are

mostly detected by our sense of sight. In order to distinguish between
them, we consider only predictably repetitive patterns to be geometric,
while fractal patterns are patterns of visuals.

The following are some of the more common examples of patterns that
appear in nature.

1. Waves and dunes. A wave is an organized propagation of disturbances

from place to place. There are two types of waves.

a. Longitudinal waves are waves that alternate between compres-

sion (where particles are close together) and rarefaction (where
particles are spread farther apart). Compression and rarefac-
tion occur because the direction of the disturbance in a longi-
tudinal wave is parallel to the direction in which the wave trav-
els. Some examples of longitudinal waves include sound waves
and waves that travel on a bouncing object ([Link]
ZHPK5vvtnf4).
b. Transverse waves are waves that make particles go up and down
as they move. This happens because the direction of the distur-
bance in a transverse wave is perpendicular to the direction in
which the wave travels. Some examples of transverse waves in-
clude ripples on the surface of a body of water and vibrations of the
strings of a musical instrument ([Link]

Meanwhile, dunes are formed when wind deposits sand on top of each
other until a mound starts to form.
10 CHAPTER 1. THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

2. Spots and stripes. There are various animals that have spots or stripes,
including giraffes, zebras, various species of cats, and Dalmatian dogs.
These patterns emerge due to a phenomenon known as a reaction-
diffusion system.

3. Spirals. Spirals appear in various naturally occurring objects, such as

flowers, pineapples, pine cones, animal horns and shells, whirlpools,
typhoons, and galaxies.

The most prominent type of pattern is arguably that of symmetry,

which may be defined as the quality of having exactly similar parts that are
flipped, rotated, or moved. These actions correspond to three common types
of symmetry, namely reflection, rotation, and translation.

1. Reflection, also known as line symmetry, mirror symmetry, or bilateral

symmetry, is a type of symmetry in which one half of an object will
coincide with the other when it is flipped across an imaginary line
known as the axis of symmetry. The bodies of most animals exhibit
reflection symmetry.

2. Rotation, also known as radial symmetry, is a type of symmetry in

which an object looks the same after it is turned at an angle of less
than one full rotation with respect to an imaginary point. Starfish, sea
urchins, snowflakes, and some flowers exhibit rotational symmetry.

3. Translation, also known as translational symmetry, is a type of sym-

metry in which an object is repeated identically at different locations,
without any flipping or rotation. Honeycombs and the scales of pine
cones and pineapples exhibit translational symmetry.

1.2.2 Learning Activity 1.2

In this activity, you will write a vignette of the book Nature’s Numbers by
Ian Stewart. A copy will be provided to you. This activity may be done by
yourself or with a partner. Partners will be determined through a Google
form which will also be provided.
Please be guided by the following during the writing process.

1. Begin by reading the book Nature’s Numbers.

1.2. THE MATHEMATICS IN OUR WORLD 11

2. Choose one or more chapters that interest you, except the prologue
or epilogue. Make a synthesis of what you have learned from these
chapters. This will be the content of your vignette.

3. If you are writing about multiple topics, you may divide your work
into chapters. Chapter divisions may or may not follow the chapter
divisions of the book.

4. Make sure that each chapter (if any) contains an appropriate title and
a central idea supported by several arguments, examples, or other sup-
porting content.

5. The vignette should ideally have around 1500 words, but please prior-
itize quality over word count. A well-written vignette may be shorter
or longer.

6. Observe proper referencing and citation for all the contents of your
vignette. Use APA format. You may use citation generators such as
[Link]

7. Append a bibliography as the last page of your vignette.

You may submit by uploading a .docx or .pdf file to this activity. Al-
ternatively, you may submit a handwritten vignette. Do not submit printed
documents to avoid incurring printing cost. Refer to the following formatting
guidelines.

1. The vignette should be written on letter size bond paper, in portrait

orientation. If handwritten, staple the pages on the upper left hand
corner.

2. The first page should contain your name/s, written surname first, ar-
ranged alphabetically, and left-aligned. Write your entire surname in
uppercase letters. Write one name per line of text.

3. Write your section immediately below your name/s, also left-aligned.

4. If you wish to add a creative title to your vignette, write it below your
section, center-aligned. Do not occupy the entire first page as your title
page. Begin the main body of your vignette on the same page as the
title and names.
12 CHAPTER 1. THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

5. Write chapter titles left-aligned.

6. Indent every paragraph of the main body of your vignette, except the
first paragraph of each chapter.

7. Write the page number on the upper-right corner of every page. If your
vignette has 3 pages, the page numbering should be Page 1 of 3, Page
2 of 3, and Page 3 of 3.

8. If submitting an electronic document, write your name/s, section, and

main body in Arial 11. Write your vignette title in Arial 20 bold. Write
chapter titles and bibliography title in Arial 16 bold. Double-space the
entire document.

9. If submitting a handwritten document, write legibly and avoid erasures.

Write your names, section, and main body in the same size. Chapter
titles and bibliography title should be written with around 1.5x the
font size of the main body, and the vignette title should be larger than
the chapter titles (about twice the size of the main body font).

10. Refrain from adding aesthetic or decorative elements to your document,

such as page borders/frames or printing on fancy/specialty paper.

For guidelines on submission, refer to the relevant Google Classroom ac-

tivity.
Answers will be graded according to the following criteria.
Criterion Remarks Maximum
Score
Adequacy Does the vignette provide sufficient 60 pts
and interesting discussion?
Brevity Is the vignette an appropriate length? 30 pts
Are its ideas presented concisely?
Language and Is the vignette written with correct 10 pts
Mechanics spelling and grammar?
Is the document clean and legibly writ-
ten?
Total: 100 pts
Finally, please be reminded that your work will be checked for originality.
Any work that contains at least 40% plagiarized content will be given a grade
1.2. THE MATHEMATICS IN OUR WORLD 13

of 0 regardless of the actual content. An electronic copy of handwritten work

may be requested for originality checking; this copy need not be formatted
according to the above guidelines.
14 CHAPTER 1. THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

1.3 The Fibonacci Sequence

Specific Objectives
1. To define sequences and some common types of sequences

2. To define the Fibonacci sequence and its origins

3. To find the nth term and the sum of a string of consecutive terms of
the Fibonacci sequence

4. To define the golden ratio, golden rectangle, and golden spiral

5. To identify some properties and examples of the golden ratio, rectangle,

and spiral in nature and in man-made structures

This lesson serves as a review of some fundamental concepts about se-

quences, as well as an introduction to the Fibonacci sequence. We will discuss
the definition and origins of the Fibonacci sequence, as well as some formulas
relevant to this sequence. This will be followed by an introductory discussion
of the golden ratio and its significance, along with related objects such as the
golden rectangle and the golden spiral.

1.3.1 Sequences
According to Wolfram MathWorld, a sequence is “an ordered set of math-
ematical objects”. In this lesson, we will consider sequences to be ordered
lists of numbers which may or may not repeat. These numbers are known as
the terms of the sequence and always follow a definite rule.
Sequences are usually denoted by a lowercase letter with a subscript lower-
case n, all enclosed in braces. Also, when a sequence is written out explicitly,
it is common practice to write only the first few terms, separated by commas
and followed by an ellipsis (a . . . symbol), to indicate that it is a sequence
rather than a short list of numbers. Hence {an } : 1, 3, 5, 7 . . . is a sequence.
The kth term of a sequence {an } is denoted by ak . Hence the first term
of the sequence {an } in our example is a1 = 1 and its second term is a2 = 3.
A specific term ak of a given sequence {an } can be determined in either of
two ways. If ak is solved using the position k of the term, the corresponding
formula is what we call the algebraic formula for {an }. On the other hand,
if ak is determined using the previous term ak−1 , the formula is known as the
1.3. THE FIBONACCI SEQUENCE 15

recursive formula for an . The recursive formula also includes an explicit

statement for the value of the first term (or first few terms). In our example,
the algebraic formula of the sequence 1, 3, 5, 7, . . . is an = 2n − 1 while the
corresponding recursive formula is a1 = 1, an = a(n−1) + 2.
Three of the more common types of sequences are the following.

1. An arithmetic sequence is a sequence in which the difference between

any two consecutive terms is constant. This constant is known as the
common difference of the sequence, denoted by d. For instance,
{an } : 1, 3, 5, 7 . . . is an arithmetic sequence with common difference
d = 2 since the difference between any two consecutive terms is 2.
If an arithmetic sequence has first term a1 and common difference d,
then its algebraic formula is

an = a1 + (n − 1)d

and its recursive formula is

an = a(n−1) + d

Using either of these formulas, we can verify that the next term in the
given arithmetic sequence is 9.

2. A geometric sequence is a sequence in which the quotient of any two

consecutive terms is constant. This constant is known as the common
ratio of the sequence, denoted by r. For example, {bn } : 2, 4, 8, 16, . . .
is a geometric sequence with common ratio r = 2 since the quotient of
any two consecutive terms is 2.
If a geometric sequence has first term a1 and common ratio r, then its
algebraic formula is
an = a1 rn−1

and its recursive formula is

an = a(n−1) r

Using either of these formulas, we can verify that the next term in the
given geometric sequence is 32.
16 CHAPTER 1. THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

3. A harmonic sequence is a sequence whose terms have reciprocals

1 1 1 1
that form an arithmetic sequence. For example, {cn } : , , , , . . . is
2 3 4 5
a harmonic sequence because the reciprocals of its terms are 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .
which forms an arithmetic sequence with common difference d = 1.
We will not use algebraic or recursive formulas for harmonic sequences,
but instead calculate results using the corresponding arithmetic se-
quences. In this example, the next term of the arithmetic sequence is
1
6, so the next term of the corresponding harmonic sequence is .
6

1.3.2 The Fibonacci Sequence

The Italian mathematician Leonardo Pisano (Pisano means “from Pisa”),
also known by the name Fibonacci, is credited with the following thought
experiment. Suppose we begin with a pair of newborn rabbits, one male and
one female, subject to the following conditions.

1. Rabbits first produce offspring at the age of two months, and then
produce offspring once every month thereafter.

2. Rabbits are always born in pairs of one male and one female.

3. To simplify the experiment, only pairs born together will ever mate.

4. To further simplify the experiment, assume that rabbits remain alive

and capable of reproduction forever (to eliminate the complications of
calculating death rate).

Then at the start of the first month, only the original pair of rabbits is
present.
The same is true at the start of the second month, since the starting pair
of rabbits are not yet capable of reproduction.
At the start of the third month, the first pair will give birth to a new
pair, for a total of 2 pairs of rabbits.
At the start of the fourth month, the original pair will give birth to
another pair, while the second pair (born on the third month) is not yet
mature.
This pattern continues, and generally, the number of pairs of rabbits at
the start of each month is equal to the number of pairs of rabbits at the start
1.3. THE FIBONACCI SEQUENCE 17

of the previous two months. This is how Fibonacci discovered what is now
known as the Fibonacci sequence.
The Fibonacci sequence {Fn } is defined recursively by F1 = F2 = 1
and F(k+2) = Fk + F(k+1) . The first 16 terms of the Fibonacci sequence are
as follows.

F1 = 1 F2 = 1 F3 = 2 F4 = 3
F5 = 5 F6 = 8 F7 = 13 F8 = 21
F9 = 34 F10 = 55 F11 = 89 F12 = 144
F13 = 233 F14 = 377 F15 = 610 F16 = 987
The following are some properties of the Fibonacci sequence.

1. The sum of the first k terms of the Fibonacci sequence is given by

F1 + F2 + · · · + Fk = F(k+2) − 1

For example, the sum of the first ten terms of the Fibonacci sequence
is
F1 + F2 + · · · + F10 = F(10+2) − 1
= F(12) − 1
= 144 − 1
= 143

This result may be verified by adding the terms manually.

2. The sum of any ten consecutive terms of the Fibonacci sequence is
given by
Fk + F(k+1) + · · · + F(k+9) = 11F(k+6)

To illustrate, the sum of the ten consecutive terms F1 = 1 to F10 = 55

of the Fibonacci sequence is
F1 + F2 + · · · + F10 = 11F(1+6)
= 11F7
= 11(13)
= 143

This is consistent with the sum that we calculated in the previous item.
18 CHAPTER 1. THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

3. The sum of any collection of consecutive terms of the Fibonacci se-

quence is given by

Fa + F(a+1) + · · · + Fb = F(b+2) − F(a+1)

As an example, the sum of all terms of the Fibonacci sequence from F1

to F10 is

F1 + F2 + · · · + F10 = F(10+2) − F(1+1)

= F(12) − F(2)
= 144 − 1
= 143

Again this is consistent with the previous solutions.

4. If a and b are positive integers such that b is divisible by a, then Fb is

divisible by Fa . For instance, the terms F4 = 3, F8 = 21, F12 = 144,
and every fourth term of the Fibonacci sequence are all divisible by
F4 = 3.

1.3.3 The Golden Ratio

Closely related to the Fibonacci sequence is a number known as the golden
ratio. The golden ratio is the number
√
1+ 5
ϕ= ≈ 1.618 033 988 . . .
2
The golden ratio and the Fibonacci sequence appear in numerous patterns
in nature and in man-made objects, some of which are the following.

1. The quotient of consecutive terms of the Fibonacci sequence is always

a number close to the golden ratio, and this quotient becomes closer to
ϕ when larger terms of the Fibonacci sequence are used.

2. The ’algebraic’ formula for the kth term of the Fibonacci sequence is

ϕk − (1 − ϕ)k
Fk = p
(5)
1.3. THE FIBONACCI SEQUENCE 19

3. The golden rectangle is a rectangle whose length is ϕ times its width.

It has the property that if we remove a square with sides equal to the
width of the rectangle, what remains is a smaller golden rectangle.
Examples of objects shaped like golden rectangles include credit cards,
ID cards, and canvases of artwork.

For more information, you may visit this link [Link]

com/works/nature-by-numbers/.
20 CHAPTER 1. THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS
Chapter 2

Mathematics Language and

Symbols

Chapter Objectives
1. To discuss the language, symbols, and conventions of mathematics

2. To explain the nature and usefulness of mathematical language

3. To perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly

In this chapter we discuss the nature of mathematical language, as well as

some of its conventions and symbols. This is followed by a section on trans-
lating from natural to mathematical language and vice versa. Finally, we
discuss some basic mathematical concepts such as sets, relations, functions,
and binary operations.

21
22 CHAPTER 2. MATHEMATICS LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS

2.1 Characteristics of Mathematical Language

Specific Objectives
1. To understand understand what mathematics language is

2. To name different characteristics of mathematics

3. To translate natural language to mathematical language and vice versa

4. To familiarize oneself with some common mathematical symbols

One of the more common stories from Biblical times involves a time when
all humans enjoyed an advanced civilization, including a common language
spoken by everyone. They wanted to reach heaven by building a tower, which
came to be known as the Tower of Babel. However, God became angry at this
display of arrogance, and He caused the people to speak different languages.
This meant that the people making the Tower could no longer communicate,
and as a result they were unable to make progress in their construction.
Eventually the tower builders gave up and went their separate ways, and
this is said to explain why people speak different languages.
Based on this story, one of the most important tools in accomplishing
any given task is a language, which is defined by the Cambridge English
Dictionary as “a system of communication consisting of sounds, words, and
grammar”, or alternatively as “a system of communication used by people
in a particular country or type of work”. In particular, this second definition
stresses that different professions or fields of study have different vocabular-
ies. They may use the same combinations of sounds to mean different things.
For instance, there are some Filipino loanwords from the Spanish language
such as lamyerda and puto which are rude in Spanish but not in Filipino.
(Please be careful not to use such words around Spanish speakers.)
Mathematics is essential in communicating important ideas, and hence it
is also a language. However, mathematical language has a different structure
from most ’natural’ languages (those languages that people usually employ
for communication from a young age). The most obvious difference is the use
of mathematical symbols, which include other symbols aside from the letters
of the alphabet but are often read using natural language. This means that
fluency in natural language does not always translate to fluency in mathemat-
ical language. Further information is available in the section on translating
natural to mathematical language and vice versa.
2.1. CHARACTERISTICS OF MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE 23

Conversational language is often easier to grasp than formal or literary

language. It is easier to understand everyday communication in Filipino or
Taglish than it is to read and understand the vocabulary of Ibong Adarna
or Florante at Laura. It is also is easier to converse in English than to un-
derstand legal documents that are also written in English. These examples
illustrate that even within languages, there are levels of fluency to be consid-
ered. The same is true of mathematical language. Most people are familiar
with the basic mathematical operations of additiona, subtraction, multipli-
cation, and division, but there are varying levels of fluency in mathematics.
For example, 3+5 = 8 is easily understood, but something like x2 ≥ 0∀x ∈ R
is less so. Mathematics often seems difficult or frustrating, but this is not the
case. We are simply unfamiliar because mathematical language is structured
differently from most other languages we are familiar with.
Hence the proper approach to understanding mathematical language is
not to obtain correct answers every time, but rather to be familiar and fluent
with the symbols and structures used, to the extent that mathematical lan-
guage comes naturally to us. When we sleep, we do not tick off a checklist
of doing routines, turning off lights, going to bed, lying down, closing our
eyes, and so on. We simply go to sleep. Likewise, when we eat we do not
consider the actions of sitting down, putting food on our plate, separating
a bite-sized portion with utensils, bringing the food to our mouth, actually
biting the food, chewing, swallowing, etc. individually. We simply eat. The
individual motions are not tasks by themselves; sleeping and eating come to
us naturally, and by treating mathematics the same way we can hopefully
improve further.

2.1.1 Characteristics of Mathematical Language

Mathematical language has three characteristics.

1. Mathematical language is precise. It is able to distinguish between

different objects or ideas, no matter how similar they seem to be. For
example, some people use the terms undefined and indeterminate inter-
changeably, especially outside mathematics. However, these two terms
mean different things within mathematics.
1
Consider the “number” . If this is equal to some real number x, then
0
it is a solution to the equation 0 · x = 1. However, the product of
24 CHAPTER 2. MATHEMATICS LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS

zero and any real number is zero, so there is no real number that can
1
be multiplied by 0 to produce 1. Hence x does not exist, and is
0
0
undefined. Now consider the “number” . If this is equal to some real
0
number y, then it is a solution to the equation 0 · y = 0. Since the
product of zero and any real number is zero, it follows that y can be
any real number, but we have no more information to determine which
real number y is, specifically. Thus y is indeed a real number, but we
0
cannot determine which one it is; in other words, is indeterminate.
0
Another way of distinguishing between the two aforementioned terms
is through the concept of division. When the division operation is first
introduced to learners, it is often described as repeated subtraction. In
order to find the answer to 10 ÷ 2, we count the number of times that
the divisor 2 can be subtracted from the dividend 10 until it is reduced
to zero. In this case, we can reduce 10 to 0 by subtracting 2 five times,
so the quotient is 10 ÷ 2 = 5. Thus, to perform the division 10 ÷ 0,
we subtract 0 from 10 repeatedly. However, 10 will never be reduced
to 0 regardless of the number of times we subtract 0. This implies
that 10 ÷ 0 is undefined. On the other hand, to perform the division
0 ÷ 0, we subtract 0 from 0 repeatedly. It can be observed that the
answer will always be 0 no matter how many times we subtract, so any
positive integer can be accepted as the answer. However, we are not
certain which of these numbers is the correct answer, so we conclude
that 0 ÷ 0 is indeterminate.
2. Mathematical language is concise. It is able to communicate a lot of
information using a relatively short statement. For instance, in natu-
ral languages we use pronouns (panghalip in Filipino) to avoid repeat-
ing the same long names over and over. Instead of saying ’Michael
said Michael lost Michael’s watch’, we say ’Michael said he lost his
watch’. Similarly, mathematics uses variables both as pronouns and
as nicknames. Variables are symbols, usually letters, which are used to
abbreviate quantities or represent unknown values.
Most of us may have asked the following question at some point: why
do we even need variables in mathematics? I used to be good at math
when we studied only numbers, why did letters have to be involved?
I won’t say things like ’xy 2 of this, please’ at the store! However, as
2.1. CHARACTERISTICS OF MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE 25

previously mentioned, variables serve as both pronouns and nicknames

in mathematical language. This video [Link]
illustrates the importance of nicknames in particular, as it tells stories
about a boy with a very long name. (Note: you do not have to memorize
the boy’s name, and as such I will not write it in full.)
On the other hand, by keeping mathematical language concise we avoid
unnecessary or redundant parts that do not add meaning to what we
x
communicate. For example, we don’t write x+0, or , or 1x, but simply
1
x. This is comparable to verbal communication in natural languages, in
the sense that we usually depend on pauses and intonation to infer the
presence of punctuation symbols. This means that we don’t pronounce
punctuation symbols, and this video [Link] is
an example of the confusion that could ensue if we assigned sounds to
punctuation marks.

3. Mathematical language is powerful. It is able to express ideas of

varying complexity by building upon ideas that have been previously
established to be true. Furthermore, mathematical language is able to
represent physical phenomena because it stemmed from efforts to make
sense of the physical world.

2.1.2 Comparison Between Natural and Mathematical

Language
Here we will discuss some analogous concepts between mathematical lan-
guage and natural language (particularly English).
The English language has nouns, which are names given to persons,
places, and objects. In mathematical language, the counterparts of nouns are
the different mathematical objects being discussed, most commonly numbers.
In English, pronouns are used to represent nouns to avoid redundancy
and improve composition. The mathematical equivalents of pronouns are
variables, which represent both known values and unsolved quantities.
English has phrases, which are groups of words that do not represent
complete ideas. Some examples of these are afraid of spiders, joyfully clap-
ping, and a dance number by the performers. The mathematical equivalents
of a phrase is an expression, which is a correct arrangement of mathematical
26 CHAPTER 2. MATHEMATICS LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS

symbols that represents an object of interest rather √ than a complete idea.

a2 + b 2
Some examples of expressions include ab, 3x2 y 4 , and .
c
The English language also has sentences, which are complete ideas that
have a subject and a predicate. In mathematical language, sentences are
equivalent to equations like 5x + 3 = 8 and inequalities such as 9x − 7i >
3(3x − 7u). A mathematical sentence is a correct arrangement of mathemat-
ical symbols that states a complete thought.
Sentences in English are only complete when they have verbs, which are
words that describe actions or link the subject to the rest of the sentence.
Correspondingly, mathematical language has relational symbols, most com-
monly the equal sign = and the following inequality symbols:

1. Less than <

2. Greater than >

3. Less than or equal to ≤

4. Greater than or equal to ≥

5. Not equal to 6=

Here < and > are known as strict inequalities because they do not
allow the option of equality, that is, they are strict about one quantity being
less or greater than another. Likewise, ≤ and ≥ are known as non-strict
inequalities. We also note that ≤ can be interpreted as “not greater than”,
and similarly ≥ can be interpreted as “not less than”.
The English language also has connectives, which are words or phrases
that join one part of text to another. In mathematical sentences such as
1 + 2 = 3, the addition symbol + serves the role of connective between
the operands 1 and 2. The same is true for the mathematical operations of
subtraction, multiplication, and division.
Both English and mathematical language have conventions, which are
rules implemented not out of necessity, but in order to conform to standards
or follow tradition. Some conventions in English include the alphabetical
arrangement of the letters, as well as use of punctuation marks at the end
of every sentence. In mathematical language, it is conventional to use an
ellipsis (. . .) to indicate that the pattern implied by the first few terms or
objects should be continued.
2.1. CHARACTERISTICS OF MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE 27

2.1.3 Translating Natural to Mathematical Language

and Vice Versa
The best way to learn translation between natural and mathematical lan-
guage is to keep practicing. However, we may note some general tips and
guidelines.

1. When translating phrases or sentences containing the words “less than”

or “more than”, exchange the positions of the quantities before and
after these words. Thus “three less than a number” is x − 3, not 3 − x.
This is especially important for “less than”.

2. Be sure to use different variables to refer to different numbers. “The

sum of one number and the square of that number” is x + x2 , but “the
sum of one number and the square of another” is x + y 2 .

3. Consecutive numbers can be obtained by adding increments of 1. Thus

“three consecutive numbers” can be represented by x, x + 1, and x + 2.

4. Likewise, consecutive even numbers and consecutive odd numbers can

be described by adding increments of 2. Hence “three consecutive even
numbers” are 2x, 2x + 2, and 2x + 4, while “three consecutive odd
numbers” are 2x + 1, 2x + 3, and 2x + 5.

For exercises on this lesson, see the University Module.

28 CHAPTER 2. MATHEMATICS LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS

2.2 Sets and Other Basic Concepts

Specific Objectives
1. To define the term set and related terminologies
2. To utilize the two ways of describing sets
3. To perform basic operations on sets
4. To define relations and functions
5. To identify the domain and range of a given relation or function
6. To determine and perform binary operations
In this lesson we will be discussing some basic concepts of mathematics,
namely sets, relations, functions, and binary operations.

2.2.1 Sets and Well-Definedness

A set is a well-defined collection of objects. By well-defined, we mean that
given any object, we can easily determine beyond doubt whether that object
is included in the given collection. For example, the collection of all letters of
the English alphabet is well-defined, since any object can be easily classified
as belonging or not belonging to the set. For instance, A, b, C, and d belong
in the collection, while 1, red, sugar, and Batangas do not belong in the
collection. Thus the collection of all letters of the English alphabet is a set.
On the other hand, the collection of all beautiful people in Batangas State
University is not well-defined. This is because what qualifies as beautiful in
one person’s opinion might not be considered beautiful by another. Generally,
any collection determined by opinion, preference, or taste is subjective and
can be disputed by someone with a different opinion or perspective. As
such, these collections are not well-defined. However, we may include a
reference to be consulted in order to make these collections well-defined. For
example, the collection of the 100 most popular songs as of the latest edition
of the Billboard charts is well-defined because its source is specified. Even if
another source of information disputes the Billboard top 100, the description
specifically states the reference material to be used.
Note that the actual answer (whether a given object is included or not)
is irrelevant; it only matters that we are able to answer the question ‘is
2.2. SETS AND OTHER BASIC CONCEPTS 29

this included in the collection?’ with a definitive yes or no. Consider the
collection of all objects that are invisible and blue. Since the objects in
this collection are blue, it follows that they have color, and thus they can
be seen. This means that they are not invisible, that is, the description is
impossible. However, this implies that all objects are not included in the
set, that is, given any object, we are certain that said object is not part of
our collection. Therefore the collection of all objects that are invisible and
blue is well-defined, despite the fact that this collection has nothing in it. In
fact, we may say that this collection is well-defined precisely because there is
nothing in it!

2.2.2 Elements and Set Notation

Sets are usually represented by capital letters. Hence we may write “V is the
set of all vowels in the English language.”
The objects included in a set are known as its elements. If an object a
is an element of a set X, we write a ∈ X. Otherwise, if a is not an element
of X, we write a ∈ / X. In our example, the elements of set V are a, e, i,
o, and u. We may say that a ∈ V and b ∈ / V . Be sure to write the ∈
symbol properly; ε is a different symbol altogether and is to be avoided when
describing elements of sets.
There are two commonly used methods of describing sets. A set is written
in roster form when its elements are written one by one, separated by
commas, and all enclosed in one pair of braces { }. Hence we may write
our example in roster form as V = {a, e, i, o, u}. Be sure to write the brace
symbols properly; there should be no gap or hole in the middle of each brace
symbol.
At times a set may have numerous elements that can be arranged in an
easily recognizable pattern. In these cases, we may use one or more ellipsis
symbols to describe the set in roster form. See the following examples.
1. The set of positive integers is {1, 2, 3, . . .}.
2. The set of integers is {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . .}.
3. The set of decimal digits is {0, 1, 2, . . . , 9}.
4. The set of letters in the Filipino alphabet is {a, b, c, . . . , n, ñ, ng, o, p, . . . , z}.
Here the middle group is indicated to distinguish this set from the set
of letters in the English alphabet (where ñ and ng are missing).
30 CHAPTER 2. MATHEMATICS LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS

In contrast, a set is written in rule form if its elements are identi-

fied by a rule or description that is met precisely by the elements of the
set, no more and no less. We may write our example in rule form as
V = {x|x isavowelintheEnglishlanguage}. Here the variable x may be re-
placed with any convenient letter, and the entire notation is read as “V is
the set of all x such that x is a vowel in the English language”. In particular,
the vertical bar | is read as “such that”. Some references use a colon : instead
of a vertical bar.

2.2.3 Subsets
Suppose we have two sets A and B. If every element of A is an element of
B, we say that A is a subset of B. In symbols, if x ∈ A implies that x ∈ B,
then A ⊆ B. On the other hand, if A is not a subset of B, we write A 6⊆ B.
For example, consider the sets P = {1, 2}, Q = {3, 4}, and R = {1, 2, 3}.
Then every element of P is also an element of R, and it follows that P ⊆ R.
However, Q contains an element that does not belong in R, namely 4. Thus
Q 6⊆ R.
Every set is a subset of itself.

2.2.4 Cardinality
The cardinality of a set A, denoted by n(A) or |A|, is the number of elements
contained in A.
Sets can be classified according to their cardinality. Some of these classi-
fications are as follows.

1. An empty set or null set is a set that has no elements. It is usually

represented by the symbols { } or ∅. However, be careful not to
combine the symbols into {∅}, as this is not an empty set anymore.
The cardinality of an empty set is zero. We also note that the empty
set is a subset of every set, and that the only subset of the empty set
is itself.

2. A singleton set or unitary set is a set that contains exactly one

element. Its cardinality is 1. The set {∅} mentioned earlier is an
example of a unitary set.
2.2. SETS AND OTHER BASIC CONCEPTS 31

3. A finite set, pronounced “fine-night set”, is a set whose elements we

can theoretically finish counting. Empty sets and unitary sets are both
finite. Moreover, a set that contains many elements, such as the set
containing every person who ever lived, is still finite. Despite the fact
that it is impossible to name all the elements of this set individually, it
is still theoretically possible to finish if we are not affected by fatigue,
boredom, or any other physical factors.

4. An infinite set is a set that is not finite. In other words, it is not

theoretically possible to finish counting the elements of an infinite set.
For instance, the set of all positive integers is infinite. Recall that if n
is a positive integer, then so is n + 1; it follows that it is impossible to
finish enumerating all the positive integers one by one.

2.2.5 Relationships Between Sets

Aside from classifying sets according to their cardinality, we may also classify
two or more sets according to the relationship between them.

1. Two sets are equal if they have the same elements. The order in which
these elements are listed does not matter, so the sets {red, blue} and
{blue, red} are equal. The notation used is also irrelevant, so the sets
{x|x isavowelintheEnglishlanguage} and {a, e, i, o, u} are also equal.

2. Two sets are equivalent if they have the same cardinality. Hence each
of the sets {a, b, c}, {1, 2, 3}, and {red, blue, yellow} is equivalent to the
others, although no two sets among them are equal. Generally, equal
sets are equivalent, but equivalent sets are not always equal.

3. Two sets are joint if they have at least one element in common. For
instance, the sets {a, b, c} and {b, c, d} are joint sets because they both
contain the elements b and c.

4. On the other hand, two sets are disjoint if they have no common
elements. The set of all vowels and the set of all consonants form a
pair of disjoint sets.
32 CHAPTER 2. MATHEMATICS LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS

2.2.6 The Power Set of a Set

The power set of a set A, denoted by P(A), is the set whose elements are
all the subsets of A.
If the cardinality of a set A is |A|, then the cardinality of its power set is
given by the formula |P(A)| = 2|A| .
As an example, consider the set S = {a, b, c}. To obtain the power set of
S, we begin with subsets that have zero elements (the empty set), followed by
subsets with one element each ({a}, {b}, and {c}), written in alphabetical
order. This is followed by subsets with two elements each ({a, b}, {a, c},
and {b, c}, still in alphabetical order. We proceed to the next cardinality,
which is 3, and the only three-element subset of S is {a, b, c}. Since this
last subset is the given set itself, we stop and note how many subsets we
have written (in this case, eight). We then use the formula for cardinality to
check: the cardinality of S is |S| = 3, so the cardinality of its power set must
be |P(S)| = 23 = 8. Thus our answer is correct, and the power set of S is

P(S) = {∅, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}}

2.2.7 Operations on Sets

Some of the more common operations performed on sets are the following.

1. The union of two sets A and B, written as A∪B, is the set that contains
all elements of A or B (or both). To get the union of two sets, make a
set containing all their elements and remove duplicates. For example,
the union of the sets {1, 2} and {1, 3} is {1, 2} ∪ {1, 3} = {1, 2, 3}.

2. The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set

that contains all elements of both A and B. To get the intersection of
two sets, make a set containing only elements that are in both sets. For
instance, the intersection of the sets {1, 2} and {1, 3} is {1, 2}∪{1, 3} =
{1}.

3. The difference between two sets A and B, denoted by A − B or A \ B,

is the set containing those elements of A that are not in B. Note that
this is different from B \ A, which is the set containing those elements
of B that are not in A. To illustrate, we have {1, 2} \ {1, 3} = {2} and
{1, 3} \ {1, 2} = {3}.
2.2. SETS AND OTHER BASIC CONCEPTS 33

4. To understand the next operation, we first define the universal set

U to be the set that contains all elements under consideration. In our
running example, we may consider U = {1, 2, 3} to be our universal
set.

The complement of a set A, denoted by A0 or AC , is the difference

U \ A, where U is the universal set. From our example, if U = {1, 2, 3},
V = {1, 2}, and W = {1, 3}, then V 0 = {3} and W 0 = {2}.

5. The Cartesian product of two sets A and B, denoted by A × B, is

the set whose elements are all the ordered pairs (a, b), where a ∈ A and
b ∈ B. Like the difference operation, A × B is different from B × A,
which is the set of ordered pairs (b, a). For example, if P = {x, y}
and Q = {1, 2}, then P × Q = {(x, 1), (x, 2), (y, 1), (y, 2)}. Note that
all possible combinations of one element per set must be formed into
ordered pairs.

Suppose a food stall sells shawarma, lemonade, and bottled water, while
another food stall sells takoyaki, bottled water, and orange juice. Then the
set of all items sold by either stall can be found by taking the union of
the two sets of items, namely shawarma, takoyaki, lemonade, bottled water,
and orange juice. Meanwhile, the set of all items sold by both stalls can be
obtained by taking the intersection, namely bottled water only. Also, the
set of all items sold by one stall but not the other can be obtained using
the difference operation. The set of items sold by the first stall (but not the
second) consists of shawarma and lemonade, while the set of items sold by
the second stall (but not the first) consists of takoyaki and orange juice.
If we consider the set of all letters of the English alphabet to be our
universal set, then the complement of the set of English vowel letters is the
set of English consonant letters.
Suppose a fast food chain offers chicken, burgers, and fries in their menu,
as well as bottled water, pineapple juice, iced tea, and carbonated drinks.
Then the set of all possible combinations of food and drink items consists of
twelve ordered pairs (a, b), where a is a food item and b is a drink. As an
exercise, you may try listing these twelve ordered pairs.
34 CHAPTER 2. MATHEMATICS LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS

2.2.8 The Set of Real Numbers and Its Important Sub-

sets
The term real numbers is commonly used in the study of mathematics, so it
is important to properly define what it refers to. Likewise, related concepts
such as important subsets of the set of real numbers should also be defined
properly so that they can be studied.
The technical definition of the set of real numbers involves some advanced
concepts, such as ordering and the least upper bound property, which are
beyond the scope of our course. Instead, we begin with familiar sets of
numbers. In most cases we will provide a situation or equation whose solution
involves a number from the set in question. This will be followed by the
definition of the set.
One of the most basic notions in mathematics is that of counting, for
which we use the numbers 1, 2, 3, . . .. These numbers comprise the set of
counting numbers, also known as the set of natural numbers and the
set of positive integers. This set is represented by the symbols N or Z+ .
Most symbols for the set of real numbers and its mathematically significant
subsets are written in this manner, known as doublestruck letters.
To represent the concept of “nothing” mathematically, the number 0 was
introduced. The set {0} is simply known as the set containing zero, with-
out any special nomenclature. Meanwhile, the set that contains the numbers
0, 1, 2, 3, . . . is known as the set of whole numbers, denoted by W or Z∗ .
It should be noted that in some fields of study, particularly those related
to computer science, the term “natural numbers” is used to refer to the set
of whole numbers. This means that to a computer scientist, 0 is a natural
number, which contradicts our naming conventions in mathematics. To avoid
ambiguity in communication, the term “positive integer” is preferred.
However, there are equations such as x + 1 = 0 that have no solution
in W. For this reason, we introduce the set {−1, −2, −3, . . .} of negative
integers, denoted by Z− . The other hand, the set that contains all positive
integers, negative integers, and the number 0 is called the set of integers,
denoted by the symbol Z. This symbol comes from the German word Zahlen
meaning “number”.
Next, we consider equations such as 4x2 − 4x + 1 = 0 which have no
solution in Z. Because of this, we introduce the set of rational numbers Q.
a
A rational number is a number of the form , where a and b are integers
b
2.3. RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 35

and b is not equal to zero.

Rational numbers can be integers or fractions/decimals. A rational num-
ber written in decimal form may be terminating, which means that it has a
last digit, or repeating but not terminating, meaning that the decimal repre-
sentation has no last digit but instead repeats the same sequence of digits
indefinitely. The set of rational numbers is denoted by Q.
Finally, we define the set of real numbers as the set of all numbers
that correspond to points on a line, which is called the number line. By
convention, numbers assigned to points on the right of the number line are
larger than those assigned to points on the left of the number line. Hence
positive real numbers are assigned to points to the right of the “zero” point,
while negative real numbers are assigned to points to the left of the “zero”
point. The set of real numbers is denoted by R.
Real numbers that are not rational are called irrational numbers.
a
These are numbers that cannot be expressed in the form , where a and
b
b are integers and b is not equal to zero. The symbol for the set of irrational
numbers is Q0 . The decimal representation of an irrational number is always
√
non-terminating and non-repeating. Notable examples include π and 2.

2.3 Relations and Functions

A relation between two sets A and B is a subset of the Cartesian product
A × B. It is a set whose elements are ordered pairs (a, b), where a ∈ A and
b ∈ B, but unlike Cartesian products we are not required to form all possible
combinations of one element per set.
Relations are so called because they are usually described by the relation-
ship between the first and second components of their ordered pairs. One of
the more familiar examples is the equality relation between R and R, which
we define as {(a, b)|a = b} for all a, b ∈ R. This relation includes the ordered
pairs (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), and every other ordered pair whose two components
are equal real numbers. Other examples of relations include the inequality
relations <, >, ≤, ≥, and 6=.
A function from a set A to a set B is a relation in which no two distinct
elements of B are associated with the same element of A.
For instance, let us consider a list of names, say, Alice, Bob, and Carl.
Let M be the set of all letters of the English alphabet, and let N be the set
containing the names in the list. Then we can construct the ordered pairs
36 CHAPTER 2. MATHEMATICS LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS

{a, Alice}, {b, Bob}, and {c, Carl}, thus associating each name with its first
letter. Here the first component of each ordered pair is an element of M ,
and the second component is an element of N . This means that the three
ordered pairs form a subset of the Cartesian product M × N , and thus they
form a relation. Moreover, no two first components are associated with the
same second component, and it follows that this relation is also a function.

However, if we add a fourth ordered pair {b, Bert}, our relation is no

longer a function because there are two different second components (Bob
and Bert) that are both associated with the same first component (b).

One may describe relations or functions, especially mathematical ones,

as machines that take an input and produce an output. In this regard,
relations and functions may be described as f (x) = y, where f is the name
of the function, x is the input (the element of the first set), and y is the
output (the element of the second set). For instance, if we have f (x) = 2x,
an input of 3 will result in an output of 2x = 2(3) = 6, so the ordered pair
(3, 6) is part of the function f .

Given a function f from A to B, the set of all elements of A that are

first components of some ordered pair in f is known as the domain of the
function. Also, the set of all elements of B that are second components of
some ordered pair in f is called the range of the function. In our previous
example, any real number can be used as an input x for the function f (x) =
2x, because any real number can be doubled to obtain another real number.
It follows that the domain of f in this case is the set of real numbers. Likewise,
any real number can be obtained as an output f (x) of an appropriately chosen
x, since any real number can be expressed as twice another real number.
Hence the range of f is also the set of real numbers.

1
However, this is not always the case. Consider the function g(x) = .
x
We can use every real number as input, except for x = 0 which will lead to
division by zero. Hence the domain of g is the set of all real numbers except
1
0. Moreover, there is no solution to the equation = 0, so it is impossible to
x
find an ordered pair within g whose second component is 0. Thus the range
of g is the set of all real numbers except 0.
2.4. BINARY OPERATIONS 37

2.4 Binary Operations

A binary operation is an operation that requires two inputs to produce one
output. More specifically, an operation ∗ is a binary operation with respect
to a set S if a ∗ b ∈ S for all a, b ∈ S.
To illustrate the process, consider the set of integers Z and the addition
operation +.

1. Take two arbitrary elements of the given set. By arbitrary we mean

a random choice that is not specified.
Using the given, we let a, b ∈ Z. Note that we will not specify the values
of a and b in order to keep them arbitrary, so the only information we
have on them is that they are both integers.
2. Perform the given operation on the arbitrary elements, then check
whether the result is also an element of the given set.
The result of the operation is a + b, and it can be easily seen that the
sum of two integers is also an integer. Hence a + b ∈ Z.
3. If the result is an element of the given set, we conclude that the given
is a binary operation with respect to that set; otherwise, it is not a
binary operation.
Since a + b ∈ Z, it follows that addition is a binary operation with
respect to Z.

As an additional example, let us consider the set of negative integers

−
Z = {−1, −2, −3, . . .} and the multiplication operation ×.
1. Let a, b ∈ Z− . We know nothing about a and b, except that they are
negative.
2. The result of the operation is ab, and we see that the product of two
negative numbers is positive. Thus ab ∈/ Z− .
/ Z− , it follows that multiplication is not a binary operation
3. Since ab ∈
with respect to Z− .
Aside from the basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division, other processes that have two inputs and one output may be
considered as binary operations. Here are some examples.
38 CHAPTER 2. MATHEMATICS LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS

1. The arithmetic mean of two real numbers a and b, which we denote

a+b
by AM (a, b), is the real number . Computation of the arithmetic
2
mean is a binary operation with respect to the set of real numbers R.

2. The geometric mean of two positive real√numbers a and b, which

we denote by GM (a, b), is the real number ab. Computation of the
geometric mean is a binary operation with respect to the set of positive
real numbers R+ .

3. The harmonic mean of two positive real numbers a and b, which we

1
denote by HM (a, b), is the real number 1 1 . Computation of the
a
+b
harmonic mean is a binary operation with respect to the set of positive
real numbers R+ .

4. Consider the set R = {rock, paper, scissors} of all possible moves in a

game of rock-paper-scissors. For any a, b ∈ R, define the operation a ∗ b
to be the winner between a and b in a game of rock-paper-scissors, with
the additional provision that if a = b, then a ∗ b = a = b. It can be
verified that ∗ is a binary operation with respect to the set R.

For more information and exercises, refer to the University Module.

Refer to Chapter 3 of the University Module for material on problem-
solving and reasoning.
Bibliography

[1] R. Aufmann et al., Mathematics in the Modern World, 14th ed., Cen-
gage.

[2] J.A.R. Belen, N.M. Mame, and I.P. Piñero, Learning Modules in Math-
ematics in the Modern World, BatState-U, Batangas, Philippines, 2020.

[3] Vidhu Vinod Chopra Films. (2016, April 23). What is a machine? -
Funny scene — 3 Idiots — Aamir Khan — R Madhavan — Sharman
Joshi [Video]. YouTube. [Link]

[4] I. Stewart, Nature’s Numbers, BasicBooks, New York, USA, 1995.

[5] Cambridge English Dictionary Online. Retrieved 3 November 2022.

39