Surface Coating

Metal surfaces, particularly those of steels, require unique surface treatments to

achieve the appropriate properties. Although there are several surface treatment
procedures, surface coating techniques are the most popular. Coatings can provide a
wide variety of qualities, including improved surface hardness, wear and corrosion
resistance, changes in wettability, hydrophobicity, hydrophilicity, and others [1]. So, in-
order to improve wear and corrosion resistance, surface hardness;materials need
additional surface coatings. Depending on the application, different surface coating
techniques are being used. As a result, categorizing coating processes may be quite
challenging. Nevertheless, the most prevalent surface coating techniques are discussed
below.
1 Electrodeposition: Electrolytic deposition and electrophoretic deposition are the
two categories of electrodeposition technique. The electrophoretic deposition is a
technique where the colloidal particles suspended in a liquid medium migrate under the
influence of an electric field and are deposited onto an electrode whereas electrolytic
deposition is a process of coating thin layer of one metal on top of different metal to modify
its surface properties.

2.Thermal Spraying: In this technique, the components are heated to a molten or

semi-solid state and then sprayed on to the substrate with a high-speed jet. The thickness
attained with this process can be anywhere between 20 µm and several millimetres, which
is substantially higher than the thickness provided by PVD, CVD, or electroplating
processes [5-6].
3.Thin film Coatings: a. Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD): In the physical
evaporation method, the material is initially evaporated at elevated temperatures between
1000 and 2000 °C before being condensed in a high pressure vacuum atmosphere
whereas in the plasma sputtering technique,accelerated ions strike a substance’s surface,
and the coating ions are expelled from the surface and dropped onto the target surface
b .Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD): CVD process high temperature heating of
substrate is done due to which the selection of materials is limited since it only works with
materials that have high melting points. The reaction chamber consisting of target
material is now introduced with the precursor materials
4.Ion beam deposition: This technique states that it is possible that the ions have
enough energy to be implanted or integrated into the interface as a result of their contact
with the surface.
5.Sol gel deposition: The sol-gel phenomena indicates that there’s agglomeration of
micro-molecules present in a solution and in specific controlled environments it can lead
to the formation of a coherent gel like network. Later base or an acid is added to activate
the precursor which then forms a network which ages and grows with time and temperature
Bearing Materials 1) High/mid carbon alloy steel ) High/mid carbon alloy steel In general,
steel varieties which can be hardened not just on the surface but also deep hardened by the so-
called "through hardening method" are used for the raceways and rolling elements of bearings.
Foremost among these is high carbon chromium bearing steel, which is widely used. For large
type bearings and bearings with large cross sectional dimensions, induction hardened bearing
steel incorporating manganese or molybdenum is used. Also in use is midcarbon chromium steel
incorporating silicone and manganese, which gives it hardening properties comparable to high
carbon chromium steel 2) Case hardened (carburizing) steel Carburizing hardens the steel from
the surface to the proper depth, forming a relatively soft core. This provides hardness and
toughness, making the material suitable for impact loads. NTN uses case hardened steel for
almost all of its tapered roller bearings. In terms of case hardened steel for NTN's other bearings,
chromium steel and chrome molybdenum steel are used for small to medium sized bearings, and
nickel chrome molybdenum steel is used for large sized bearings. 3 Heat resistant bearing steel
When bearings made of ordinary high carbon chromium steel which have undergone standard
heat treatment are used at temperatures above 120˚C for long durations, unacceptably large
dimensional changes can occur. For this reason, a dimension stabilizing treatment (TS treatment)
has been devised for very high temperature applications. This treatment however reduces
hardness of the material, thereby reducing rolling fatigue life 4) Corrosion resistant bearing steel
For applications requiring high corrosion resistance, stainless steel is used. To achieve this
corrosion resistance a large proportion of the alloying element chrome is added to martensite
stainless steel. 5) Induction hardened steel Besides the use of surface hardening steel, induction
hardening is also utilized for bearing raceway surfaces, and for this purpose mid-carbon steel is
used for its lower carbon content instead of through hardened steel. For induction hardening of
the deep layers required for larger bearings and bearings with large surface dimensions, mid-
carbon steel is fortified with chrome and molybdenum 6.Other bearing materials For ultra high
speed applications and applications requiring very high level corrosion resistance, ceramic
bearing materials such as Si3N4 are also available .
7. Cage materials Bearing cage materials must have the strength to withstand rotational
vibrations and shock loads. These materials must also have a low friction coefficient, be light
weight, and be able to withstand bearing operation temperatures. For small and medium sized
bearings, pressed cages of cold or hot rolled steel with a low carbon content of approx. 0.1% are
used. However, depending on the application, austenitic stainless steel is also used.

Vapor phase process Vapor Phase Deposition is a process widely

used in the semiconductor and biotechnology industries for the
deposition of a thin film of various materials in order to
achieve precise surface modification. Typical vapor deposition
coating applications: Silane coating for MEMS 1.Semiconductor
surface modification 2.Copper capping 3.BioMEMS packaging 4.Glass
slide surface modification 5.DNA and oligonucleotide adhesion 1
.in recent years, vapor deposition has become the preferred
method for coating surfaces with silanes. YES coating systems
like the VertaCoat and EcoCoat control the functionalization
process so results are precisely reproducible, run-to-run. 2
.Complete dehydration followed by vapor deposition coating
provides a superior silane/substrate bond that is stable after
exposure to atmospheric moisture, extending the time available
between process steps. Chemical usage for the vapor deposition
process is dramatically less than the amount needed for wet
application processes, significantly reducing waste and chemical
costs. 3 .Whether you need a slick surface for coating
microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) or a sticky surface for
semiconductor fabrication, chemical vapor deposition will provide
the desired surface modification.

Boundary lubrication occurs when any of the essential factors that influence
full-fluid film formation between contacting surfaces are .When thick, long-
lasting lubricant films for separation of the two surfaces are technically impossible,
a molecular layer of a substance whose specific properties can significantly
influence the friction and wear characteristics is of great importance. One of the
primary objectives of lubricant development is the creation of such boundary
friction layers in a variety of geometric, dynamic and thermal conditions. Boundary
lubricating layers are created from surface-active substances and their chemical
reaction products. When a complete fluid film does not develop at the interface
between potentially rubbing surfaces, the film thickness may be reduced to permit
momentary dry contact between wear surface high points or asperities of the solid
bodies. This condition is characteristic of boundary lubrication. Compared with
hydrodynamic, EHD and mixed lubrication modes, friction and wear under
boundary conditions are the most severe for the lubricant to control.
It is very important for a lubricant formulator to know in which regime a contact will
operate. Boundary lubrication mostly occurs under high-load and low-speed
conditions in bearings, gears, piston rings, pumps, transmissions, etc. It usually
represents the critical regime that limits the life of components. In heavily loaded
bearings, the fluid’s viscosity alone is often not sufficient to maintain a film between
the moving surfaces.
Sommerfeld -- The Bohr–Sommerfeld model (also known as the Sommerfeld
model or Bohr–Sommerfeld theory) was an extension of the Bohr model to allow
elliptical orbits of electrons around an atomic nucleus. Bohr–Sommerfeld theory is named
after Danish physicist Niels Bohr and German physicist Arnold Sommerfeld. Sommerfeld
argued that if electronic orbits could be elliptical instead of circular, the energy of the
electron would be the same, except in the presence of a magnetic field, introducing what
is now known as quantum degeneracy. The Bohr–Sommerfeld model supplemented the
quantized angular momentum condition of the Bohr model with an additional radial
quantization condition, the Wilson–Sommerfeld quantization condition

Reynolds equation assumptions he principles of the theory are derived

from the observation that the lubricant can be treated as isoviscous and laminar
and the fluid film is of negligible curvature. The classical Reynold’s equation
can be derived from the Navier-Stokes equations and the equation of continuity
under assumptions of: 1. constant viscosity, Newtonian lubricant 2. thin film
geometry
3.negligible body force 4.no-slip boundary conditions
How to measure friction? Method 1 Weight ratio The onginates from
Leonardo da Vinci (ca 1500) He studied friction by measuring the load hanging on a cord, at
which the block begins to side The coefficient of friction is found by the quotient of the dead
weight of the mass hanging on the cord and the mase of the block, - F+/N-Mdead weight/Mack.
Static coefficient of friction - dynamic coefficient of friction The moment at which the block
begins to slide (break away force) is the so called static friction, the force at which the block
continues to slide is the dynamic or kinetic coefficient of friction. For most material combinations
the value of the static friction exceeds that of the dynamic friction. Be aware that the dynamic
friction can still be dependent on velocity, contact pressure, temperature and surface roughness.
The static friction can be dependent on the time that the block is in rest, which is typically the
case when lubricated. Method 2: Spring balance Pull a spring balance connected to the block
and slowly increase the force until the block begins to slide. Make sure the spring balance is
parallel to the surface. The reading on the spring balance scale when the load begins to slide is a
measure for the static friction, while the reading when the block continues to slide is a measure
of dynamic friction. The coefficient of friction is simply - Fspring/Fnormal = Fspring /(Mblock 9),
9-9.81 m/s2 Hint: Pulse rotation sensors (multi-turn potentiometers,pulse encoders) often prove
to be very useful to create low cost sensors for measuring displacement by combining the sensor
with a cable and a pulley, for measuring torque with a torsional spring, for measuring force with
a wire, a pulley and a spring etc.Method 3: Tilted plane Place a block on a tilted plane and
increase the angle of tilt until the mg block begins to slide. The tangent of the tilting angle just
found is the so called "friction angle". This angle is related to the coefficient of friction Hi.e.
utano Ft/F from 45 Angle of itin degrees Angle of alt in degrees Solve Method 4: Clamping To
measure the static coefficient of friction under conditions of high contact pressure the object
may be clamped between two surfaces. The force necessary to put the object in motion must be
halved to obtain the friction force because of the two contacting surfaces. Method 5:
Pendulum The pendulum is suitable to analyze the static and dynamic friction under reciprocal
motion by monitoring the bearing torque. This however requires a torque sensor. The energy
loss of combined static and dynamic friction can be analyzed by considering the reduction of the
amplitude of motion in time. This only requires a simple rotary potentiometer or pulse rotation
sensors to visualize the amplitude reduction in time Method 6: Motorized Tribometers In
the measuring methods discussed above the friction coefficient is measured in fresh contacts,
not after running in. The coefficient of friction may change

Friction & type Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid
layers, and material elementssliding against each other. There are several types of friction: Dry
friction is a force that opposes the relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact.
Symbol letter mu (p) It is usually symbolized by the Greek letter mu (p). Mathematically, µ = F/N,
where F is the frictional force and N is the normal force. Because both F and N are measured in
units of force (such as newtons or pounds), the coefficient of friction is dimensionless.
importance of typology in design of machine elements The study of tribology is
crucial for numerous components in modern de- sign especially with bearings and gears
applications. A bearing is a ma- chine element that constrains relative motion and reduces
friction between moving parts to only the desired motion. Bearings enhance the functionali- ty
of machinery and help to save energy and they are essential for the sta- ble operation of
machinery and for ensuring its top performance. Because of their wide use and their relation to
shafts, bearings are standardized parts. While, gears are one of the most important machine
elements and are widely used especially in power transmission machinery and applica- tions.
These toothed wheels are meant to keep a specified ratio of angular velocities and shaft
relations while transmitting powers between these components. Due to the high efficiency the
implication of gears has emerged in various domains that involve high speed engines and tool
box- es. Basically a gear is a toothed wheel having a specified space between teeth enabling it to
form a mesh with different gears. The engagement be- tween the gears enables power
transmission between shafts based on dif- ferent relations. The evaluation of tribology for these
two components, in- volves prior knowledge of their different aspects.

write a short note on two body and three body abrasive wear abrasion
wear The abrasive wear process in polymers has been traditionally divided into two groups:
two-body and three-body abrasive wear. Two-body abrasion occurs when the wear is caused by
hard particles fixed to a surface. This mechanism very often changes to three-body abrasion,
where the wear particles act as abrasives between the two surfaces (Figure 2.11). These trapped
particles are free to roll, as well as slide. Examples of three-body abrasion would be the wear
caused by sand or grit in a bearing, and hard debris or abrasive slurries trapped between moving
surfaces. Three-body abrasion is often of considerable practical importance, but appears to have
received much less attention than the two-body problem. The rate of material removal in three-
body abrasion is one order of magnitude lower than that for two-body abrasion (Gahr, 1998).
This is because in the three-body situation abrasive grains are free to move, and therefore may
not always produce wear. For example, it may spend most of the time rolling and tumbling

.
effects on wear Load The load and the sliding speed affect the amount of friction force.
The wear rate significantly increases when the load increases. On the other hand, small
coefficient of friction values, together with increase in sliding speed, loading, and sliding over
long distances, reduce wear rate. Temperature The wear rate increases with an increase in
temperature for a constant amount of fly ash content. They have observed that the temperature
significantly affects the mode of wear. The mode of wear at room temperature was abrasive,
whereas at high temperature, it was adhesion Crystal structure crystal is a solid material that
has a repeating, three-dimensional pattern of atoms, ions, or molecules. The regularity of the
pattern gives crystals their characteristic appearance. The type of crystal structure depends on
the type of atoms, ions, or molecules that make it up.

what is wear explain factors affecting Wear is the loss of materials, usually due to
sliding. Typically wear is undesirable as it can lead to increased friction and ultimately to
component failure. The major factors influencing wear are given below: 1 Variable connected
with metallurgy. 2Hardness. 3 Toughness.4Constitution and structure. 5 Chemical composition.
Variables connected with service. 6 Contacting materials.7 Pressure.8 Speed.
9 Temperature. 10 Other contributing factors. 11 Lubrication. 12 Corrosion. Hardness -
particles with hardness lower than the surface cause little wear. Shape - angular particles
cause greater wear than rounded particles. Size - larger particles cause more extensive
wear as they carry more kinetic energy. Shape - angular particles cause greater wear
than rounded particles. Size - larger particles cause more extensive wear as they carry
more kinetic energy Impact speed (for erosion) - particles with greater speed cause
more extensive wear as they carry more kinetic energy.Impact angle (for erosion) -
particles hitting at angles close to perpendicular to the surface cause greater erosion.

Sommerfeld number the design of fluid bearings, the Sommerfeld number (S) is a
dimensionless quantity used extensively in hydrodynamic lubrication analysis. The Sommerfeld
number is very important in lubrication analysis because it contains all the variables normally
specified by the designer.

design consideration in hydromatic general bearing Journal bearing

design is complex. It involves optimizing clearances, bearing length, minimum film lubricant,
viscosity, flow rate, and inlet slots. Design equations are available, but their solution is time
consuming unless done on a computer. Fortunately, these equations have been reduced to chart
form, and a wide variety of design problems can be solved with various charts in the literature.
Effective viscosity for the bearing should be obtained from the mean oil operating temperature.
Using mineral oil-based lubricants, this temperature typically ranges from 120 to 180°F, but
should be less than 250°F. As an approximation, an oil temperature rise of 20°F above the inlet
can be assumed. But, most accurate results are obtained from actual field experience. Mean oil
temperature is not indicative of maximum bearing metal temperatures. Oil flow rates are
determined from the oil temperature rise and power loss. When the required oil flow is
determined, an estimate should be made as to whether the required amount of oil is drawn
through the clearance space in the bearing. Minimum film thickness is often shown on design
charts and is found from (1 - ec) where e = eccentricity ratio and c = bearing clearance. However,
an acceptable minimum value is not shown because it depends on factors such as surface
roughness and type of loading. There is no substitute for minimum film values that have proven
successful in similar applications. High pressures and temperatures generated in a hydrodynamic
film should be considered when selecting bearing materials. Bearings subjected to cyclic stresses
can fail by fatigue. The bearing material should also be compatible with the journal material so
when metal-to-metal contact occurs at starting and stopping, minimal surface damage occurs.
 .

what is lubricant explain lubricant is a substance that helps to reduce friction

between surfaces in mutual contact, which ultimately reduces the heat generated when the
surfaces move. It may also have the function of transmitting forces, transporting foreign
particles, or heating or cooling the surfaces good lubricant generally possesses the following
characteristics: A high boiling point and low freezing point (in order to stay liquid within a wide
range of temperature A high viscosity index Thermal stability Hydraulic stability Demulsibility
Corrosion prevention A high resistance to oxidation Oil- Oil is one of the most common
lubricants found in plants. It’s a thin liquid that comes in different “weights” or viscosity, the
lower the weight number, the thinner the oil. At times, additives can be mixed with the oil to
prevent oxidizing and corrosion. Grease- Greases are created by combining oil (typically mineral
oil) with thickeners (such as lithium-based soaps). Lubricants such as molybdenum disulfide,
graphite, and others may be combined with additional particles. Greases have the ability to mix
well with the lubricants in the oil, adding stickiness and allowing the lubricants to collect on the
surfaces. Grease can also act as a barrier, protecting surfaces from contaminants that can
damage the surface. Dry lubricant Specific types of lubricants, such as silicon, molybdenum,
graphite, and PTFE, are present in dry lubricants. These particles have a very slippery molecular
nature, which reduces friction between these surfaces. They are also available in spray form,
where they are mixed with alcohol, water, or other volatile solvents that evaporate after
application. Gases Gases like nitrogen and helium are used as lubricants in applications where
film thickness between tribo-pair is ultra small. The advantages of using gas lubricants are large
temperature range, no sealing required for lubrication, very low friction due to low viscosity, no
vaporization, no solidification, and no decomposition. The downsides of using gas lubricants are
low load capacity, lower tolerance for any errors in load estimation, and the need for a specialist
designer in creating smooth surfaces with low clearance.