XI JEE Physics Theory 02


1. PERIODIC MOTION
When a body or a moving particle repeats its motion along a definite path after regular interval of time, its
motion is said to be Periodic Motion and interval of time is called time period or harmonic motion period
(T). The path of periodic motion may be linear, circular, elliptical or any other curve. For example, rotation of
earth about the sun.
2. OSCILLATORY MOTION
‘To and Fro‘ type of motion is called an Oscillatory Motion. It need not be periodic and need not have fixed
extreme positions. For example, motion of pendulum of a wall clock.
The oscillatory motions in which energy is conserved are also periodic.
The force / torque (directed towards equilibrium point) acting in oscillatory motion is called restoring force /
torque.
Damped oscillations are those in which energy is consumed due to some resistive forces and hence total
mechanical energy decreases.
3. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

If the restoring force/ torque acting on the body in oscillatory motion is directly proportional to the displace-
ment of body/particle and is always directed towards equilibrium position then the motion is called simple
Harmonic Motion (SHM). It is the simplest (easy to analyze) form of oscillatory motion.
3.1 TYPES OF SHM

(a) Linear SHM : When a particle undergoes to and fro motion about an equilibrium position, along a straight
line. A and B are extreme positions. M is mean position. AM = MB = Amplitude
(b) Angular SHM : When a body/particle is free to rotate oscillate about a given axis on a curved path.
3.2 EQUATION OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM) :

The necessary and sufficient condition for SHM is
F = – kx
where k = positive constant for a SHM = Force constant
x = displacement from mean position.
d2 x
or m = – kx
dt 2
d2 x k
 + x=0 [differential equation of SHM]
dt 2 m
d2 x k
 2 + 2x = 0 where  =
dt m
It’s solution is x = A sin (t + )
3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF SHM

Note : In the figure shown, path of the particle is on a straight line.
(a) Displacement - It is defined as the distance of the particle from
the mean position at that instant. Displacement in SHM at
time t is given by x = A sin (t + )
(b) Amplitude - It is the maximum value of displacement of the
particle from its equilibrium position.
1
Amplitude = [distance between extreme points or positions]
2
It depends on energy of the system.
RESONANCE SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION - 1

2
(c) Angular Frequency () :  = = 2f and its unit is rad/sec.
T
(d) Frequency (f) : Number of oscillations completed in unit time interval is called frequency of
1 
oscillations, f = = , its units is sec–1 or Hz.
T 2
(e) Time period (T) : Smallest time interval after which the oscillatory motion gets repeated is called time
2 m
period, T = = 2
 k
d2 x
Example 1. For a particle performing SHM, equation of motion is given as + 4x = 0. Find the time period.
dt 2
d2 x
Solution : =  4x 2 = 4 =2
dt 2
2
Time period; T= =


(f) Phase : The physical quantity which represents the state of motion of particle (eg. its position and
direction of motion at any instant).
The argument (t + ) of sinusoidal function is called instantaneous phase of the motion.
(g) Phase constant () : Constant  in equation of SHM is called phase constant or initial phase.
It depends on initial position and direction of velocity.
(h) Velocity(v) : Velocity at an instant is the rate of change of particle’s position w.r.t time at that instant.
Let the displacement from mean position is given by
x = A sin t + 
dx d
Velocity, v= = Asin(  t   ) 
dt dt
v = A cos t +  or, v =  A 2  x2

At mean position (x = 0), velocity is maximum.
vmax = A
At extreme position (x = A), velocity is minimum.
vmin = zero
Speed (v)
GRAPH OF SPEED (v) VS DISPLACEMENT (x):
v   A 2  x2 
v 2  2 A 2  x 2 
v2 x2
2 2 2
v +x =A
2 2
 1
2 A 2 A2 –A A x
GRAPH WOULD BE AN ELLIPSE
(i) Acceleration : Acceleration at an instant is the rate of change of particle’s velocity w.r.t. time at that
instant.
dv d
Acceleration, a = = [ A  cos(  t   )]
dt dt
a = 2A sin (t + 
a = 2x

Note  Negative sign shows that acceleration is always directed towards the mean position.
At mean position (x = 0), acceleration is minimum.
amin = zero
At extreme position (x = A), acceleration is maximum.
amax = 2A
GRAPH OF ACCELERATION (A) VS DISPLACEMENT (x)
A
2
a =  x x
–A
 1 
Example 2. The equation of particle executing simple harmonic motion is x = (5 m) sin (  s )t   . Write
 3
down the amplitude, time period and maximum speed. Also find the velocity at t = 1 s.
Solution : Comparing with equation x = A sin (t + ),
we see that the amplitude = 5 m,
2 2
and time period = = = 2s.
  s 1
The maximum speed = A  = 5 m ×  s–1 = 5 m/s.
dx
The velocity at time t = = A  cos (t + )
dt
At t = 1 s,
  5
v = (5 m) ( s–1) cos     = – m/s.
 3 2
Example 3. A particle executing simple harmonic motion has angular frequency 6.28 s –1 and amplitude 10 cm.
Find (a) the time period, (b) the maximum speed, (c) the maximum acceleration, (d) the speed when
the displacement is 6 cm from the mean position, (e) the speed at t = 1/6 s assuming that the
motion starts from rest at t = 0.
2 2
Solution : (a) Time period = = s = 1 s.
 6.28
(b) Maximum speed = A = (0.1 m) (6.28 s–1)
= 0.628 m/s.
(c) Maximum acceleration = A2
= (0.1 m) (6.28 s–1)2
= 4 m/s2.
(d) v= 2 2
A 2  x 2 = (6.28 s ) (10 cm )  ( 6 cm ) = 50.2 cm/s.
–1
(e) At t = 0, the velocity is zero i.e., the particle is at an extreme. The equation for displacement
may be written as
x = A cost.
The velocity is v = – A  sin t.
1  6.28 
At t= s, v = – (0.1 m) (6.28 s–1) sin  
6  6 

= ( – 0.628 m/s) sin = 54.4 cm/s.
3

Example 4. A particle starts from mean position and moves towards positive
extreme as shown. Find the equation of the SHM. Amplitude of t=0
SHM is A. -A 0 A
Solution : General equation of SHM can be written as x = A sin (t + )
At t = 0, x = 0
 0 = A sin
  = 0,    [0,2 )
Also; at t = 0, v = ve
 A cos = ve
or, = 0
Hence, if the particle is at mean position at t = 0 and is moving towards +ve extreme, then the
equation of SHM is given by x = A sint
Similarly t=0
for -A 0 A
=
 equation of SHM is x = A sin(t + )
or, x = A sint
Note :
 If mean position is not at the origin, then we can replace x by x  x0 and the eqn.
becomes x  x0 = A sin t + , where x0 is the position co-ordinate of the mean position.
Example 5. A particle is performing SHM of amplitude “A” and time period “T”. Find the time taken by the particle
to go from 0 to A/2.
Solution : Let equation of SHM be x = A sin t
when x = 0 , t = 0
when x = A/2 ; A/2 = A sin t
or sin t = 1/2 t = π /6
2
t = π /6 t = T/12
T
Hence , time taken is T/12, where T is time period of SHM.
Example 6. A particle of mass 2 kg is moving on a straight line under the action of force F = (8 – 2x) N. It is
released at rest from x = 6 m.
(a) Is the particle moving simple harmonically.
(b) Find the equilibrium position of the particle.
(c) Write the equation of motion of the particle.
(d) Find the time period of SHM.
Solution : F = 8 – 2x
or F = –2(x – 4)
at equilibrium position F = 0
 x = 4 is equilibrium position
Hence the motion of particle is SHM with force constant 2 and equilibrium position x = 4.
(a) Yes, motion is SHM.
(b) Equilibrium position is x = 4 v=0
(c) At x = 6 m, particle is at rest i.e. it is one of the extreme position
Hence amplitude is A = 2 m and initially particle is at the extreme position. 0 x=4 x=6
 Equation of SHM can be written as

k 2
x – 4 = 2 cos t , where  = = =1
m 2
i.e. x = 4 + 2 cos t
2
(d) Time period, T = = 2sec.


4. SHM AS A PROJECTION OF UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
P0
Consider a particle moving on a circle of radius A with a a x(t) P vx (t)

constant angular speed  as shown in figure.
Suppose the particle is on the top of the circle (Y-axis) at O Q x

t = 0. The radius OP makes an angle  = t with the Y- x(t)
axis at time t. Drop a perpendicular PQ on X-axis. The
components of position vector, velocity vector and accel-
eration vector at time t on the X-axis are
x(t) = A sin t v x(t)
vx(t) = A cos t
ax(t) =  2A sin t -A 0 +A
x(t)
Above equations show that the foot of perpendicular Q executes a simple harmonic motion on the X-axis.
The amplitude is A and angular frequency is . Similarly the foot of perpendicular on Y-axis will also execute
SHM of amplitude A and angular frequency [y(t) = A cos t. The phases of the two simple harmonic
motions differ by /2.
5. GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY & ACCELERATION IN SHM

Displacement, x = A sin t
π
Velocity, v = A cos t = Asin t + ) or v= A 2  x2
2
Acceleration, a =  A sint =  A sin t + π )
2 2
or a = – 2x
Note :  v= A 2  x2
a=–x 2
These relations are true for any equation of x.
time, t 0 T/4 T/2 3T/4 T

displacement, x 0 A 0 A 0
Velocity, v A 0 A 0 A
acceleration, a 0 2A 0 2A 0
x
T/4 T/2 3T/4 T 5T/4 3T/2
A
–A
v

1. All the three quantities displacement, velocity and acceleration vary harmonically with time, having
same period.
2. The velocity amplitude is times the displacement amplitude (vmax = A).
3. The acceleration amplitude is 2 times the displacement amplitude (amax = A).
π
4. In SHM, the velocity is ahead of displacement by a phase angle of .
2
π
5. In SHM, the acceleration is ahead of velocity by a phase angle of .
2

6. ENERGY OF SHM
6.1 Kinetic Energy (KE)
1 1 1
mv2 = m2 (A2 – x2) = k (A2 – x2) (as a function of x)
2 2 2
1 1
= m A22 cos2 (t + ) = KA2 cos2 (t + ) (as a function of t)
2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
KE max = kA ; KE 0T = kA ; KE 0A = kA
2 4 3
Frequency of KE = 2 × (frequency of SHM)
6.2 Potential Energy (PE)

1 1
Kx2 (as a function of x) = kA2 sin2 (t + ) (as a function of time)
2 2
6.3 Total Mechanical Energy (TME)
Total mechanical energy = Kinetic energy + Potential energy
1 1 1
=
k (A2 – x2) + Kx2 = KA2
2 2 2
Hence total mechanical energy is constant in SHM.
6.4 Graphical Variation of energy of particle in SHM.
E KE
TE
PE
–A/ 2 O A/ 2 A x
–A
Example 7. A particle of mass 0.50 kg executes a simple harmonic motion under a force F = – (50 N/m)x. If it
crosses the centre of oscillation with a speed of 10 m/s, find the amplitude of the motion.
Solution : The kinetic energy of the particle when it is at the centre of oscillation is
1 1
E= mv2 = (0.50 kg) (10 m/s)2 = 25 J.
2 2
The potential energy is zero here. At the maximum displacement x = A, the speed is zero and hence
1 2
the kinetic energy is zero. The potential energy here is kA . As there is no loss of energy,,
2

1
kA2 = 25 J .............(i)
2
The force on the particle is given by
F = – (50 N/m)x.
Thus, the spring constant is k = 50 N/m.
Equation (i) gives
1
(50 N/m) A2 = 25 J or, A = 1 m.
2

7. SPRING-MASS SYSTEM
m
(1) T = 2
k
smooth surface
k m
(2) T = 2
k
(3) If spring has mass ms then
ms
T = 2
m
3
k
Example 8. A particle of mass 200 g executes a simple harmonic motion. The restoring force is provided by a
spring of spring constant 80 N/m. Find the time period.
Solution : The time period is
m 200  10 3 kg
T = 2 = 2 = 2× 0.05 s = 0.31 s.
k 80 N / m
Example 9. The friction coefficient between the two blocks shown in figure is µ and the horizontal plane is
smooth. (a) If the system is slightly displaced and released, find the time period. (b) Find the
magnitude of the frictional force between the blocks when the displacement from the mean position
is x. (c) What can be the maximum amplitude if the upper block does not slip relative to the lower
block ?

Solution : (a) For small amplitude, the two blocks oscillate together. The angular frequency is
k Mm
= and so the time period T = 2 .
Mm k
(b) The acceleration of the blocks at displacement x from the mean position is
  kx 
a = – 2x =  
Mm
  mkx 
The resultant force on the upper block is, therefore, ma =  
 Mm 
This force is provided by the friction of the lower block. Hence, the magnitude of the frictional
 mk | x | 
force is  
 Mm 
mk A
(c) Maximum force of friction required for simple harmonic motion of the upper block is
Mm
at the extreme positions. But the maximum frictional force can only be µ mg. Hence
mk A µ(M  m)g
= µ mg or, A=
Mm k
Example 10. A block of mass m is suspended from the ceiling of a stationary elevator through a spring of spring
constant k and suddenly, the cable breaks and the elevator starts falling freely. Show that block now
executes a simple harmonic motion of amplitude mg/k in the elevator.
Solution : When the elevator is stationary, the spring is stretched to support

the block. If the extension is x, the tension is kx which should
balance the weight of the block.
Thus, x = mg/k. As the cable breaks, the elevator starts falling with acceleration ‘g’. We shall work
in the frame of reference of the elevator. Then we have to use a pseudo force mg upward on the block.
This force will ‘balance’ the weight. Thus, the block is subjected to a net force kx by the spring when
it is at a distance x from the position of unstretched spring. Hence, its motion in the elevator is
simple harmonic with its mean position corresponding to the unstretched spring. Initially, the spring
is stretched by x = mg/k, where the velocity of the block (with respect to the elevator) is zero. Thus,
the amplitude of the resulting simple harmonic motion is mg/k.
Example 11. The left block in figure collides inelastically with the right block
and sticks to it. Find the amplitude of the resulting simple harmonic
motion.
Solution : Assuming the collision to last for a small interval only, we can apply the principle of conservation of
2
v 1 v
momentum. The common velocity after the collision is . The kinetic energy = (2m)  
2 2 2
1
= mv2. This is also the total energy of vibration as the spring is unstretched at this moment. If the
4
1
amplitude is A, the total energy can also be written as kA2. Thus,
2
1 2 1 m
kA = mv2, giving A = 2 k v..
2 4

Example 12. Two blocks of mass m and m are connected with a spring of natural length l and spring constant k.
1 2
The system is lying on a smooth horizontal surface. Initially spring is compressed by x as shown in
0
figure.
 – x0
Show that the two blocks will perform SHM about their equilibrium position. Also (a) find the time
period, (b) find amplitude of each block and (c) length of spring as a function of time.
Solution : (a) Here both the blocks will be in equilibrium at the same time when spring is in its natural length. Let
EP and EP be equilibrium positions of block A and B as shown in figure.
1 2
EP1  EP2
EP1 EP2
x1 x2
Let at any time during oscillations, blocks are at a distance of x and x from their equilibrium
1 2
positions.
As no external force is acting on the spring block system
 (m + m )x = m x  m x = 0 or mx =m x
1 2 cm 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
For 1st particle, force equation can be written as
d2 x1 m1
k(x + x ) =  m 2 or, k(x + m x ) =  m a
1 2 1
dt 1 2 1 1 1
k(m1  m 2 ) 2
k(m1  m 2 )
or, a = m1m 2 x1   = m1m 2
1
m1m 2  m1m 2
Hence, T = 2 k(m  m )  2 where  = (m  m ) which is known as reduced mass
1 2 K 1 2
Ans (a)
Similarly time period of 2nd particle can be found. Both will be having the same time period.
(b) Let the amplitude of blocks be A and A .

1 2
m A =m A
1 1 2 2
By energy conservation;
1 2 1 2
k(A + A ) = k x or, A +A = x
2 1 2 2 0 1 2 0
m1
or, A +A = x or, A + m A =x
1 2 0 1 2 1 0
m2 x 0 m1x 0
or, A = m m Similarly, A = m m
1 1 2 2 1 2

(c) Consider equilibrium position of 1st particle as origin, i.e. x = 0 . EP1 l EP2
x co-ordinate of particles can be written as
x = A cost and x =   A cost

1 1 2 2
Hence, length of spring at time t can be written as; x=0
length = x  x
2 1
=   (A + A )cost
1 2
Example 13. The system is in equilibrium and at rest. Now mass m is removed from m . Find //////////////////////////
1 2
the time period and amplitude of resultant motion. Spring constant is K.
Solution : Initial extension in the spring

(m1  m 2 ) g
x= m1
K m2
m2 g
Now, if we remove m , equilibrium position(E.P.) of m will be below natural length of spring.
1 2 K
////////////////////////// //////////////////////////
N.L
m2g
(m1+m2)g K
K E.P
m1g
K
At the initial position, since velocity is zero i.e. it is the extreme position.
m1 g
Hence Amplitude =
K
m2
Time period = 2
K
Since only block of mass m is oscillating

2

8. COMBINATION OF SPRINGS
8.1 Series Combination :
Total displacement x = x1 + x2
Tension in both springs = k1 x1 = k2 x2
 Equivalent spring constant in series combination Keq is given by :
m
1/keq = 1/k1 + 1/k2  T = 2 k
eq

Note :
 In series combination, tension is same in all the springs & extension will be different. (If k is same
then deformation is also same )
 In series combination , extension of springs will be reciprocal of its spring constant.
 Spring constant of spring is reciprocal of its natural length
 k  1/
 k 1 1 = k 2 2 = k 3 3
 If a spring is cut in ‘n’ pieces then spring constant of one piece will be nk.
8.2 Parallel combination :

Extension is same for both springs but force acting will be different.
Force acting on the system = F
 F = – (k1 x + k2 x)  F = – (k1 + k2 ) x  F = – keqx

m
 keq = k1 + k2  T = 2 k eq
9. METHOD’S TO DETERMINE TIME PERIOD, ANGULAR FREQUENCY IN S.H.M.
(a) Force / torque method
(b) Energy method
/////////////////////////
Example 14. The string, the spring and the pulley shown in figure are light.
Find the time period of the mass m.
Solution (a) Force Method
m
Let in equilibrium position of the block, extension in spring is x 0. k
 kx0 = mg -- (1) ////////////////////////////
Now if we displace the block by x in the downward /////////////////////////
direction, net force on the block towards mean
position is
F = k(x + x0)  mg = kx using (1) Natural length
Hence the net force is acting towards mean x0
m Equilibrium position
position and is also proportional to x.So, the k x
m
particle will perform S.H.M. and its time period
would be ////////////////////////////
m
T = 2
k
(b) Energy Method
Let gravitational potential energy is to be zero at the level of the block when spring is in its natural
length.
Now at a distance x below that level, let speed of the block be v.
Since total mechanical energy is conserved in S.H.M.
1 2 1 2
  mgx + kx + mv = constant
2 2
Differentiating w.r.t. time, we get
 mgv + kxv + mva = 0
where a is acceleration.
mg
 F = ma =  kx + mg or F =  k(x  )
k
mg
This shows that for the motion, force constant is k and equilibrium position is x = .
k
m
So, the particle will perform S.H.M. and its time period would be T = 2
k


10. SIMPLE PENDULUM
If a heavy point mass is suspended by a weightless, inextensible and
perfectly flexible string from a rigid support, then this arrangement is called
a simple pendulum


Time period of a simple pendulum T = 2 g
(some times we can take g = 2 for making calculation simple)
Note :
 If angular amplitude of simple pendulum is more, then time period
 2 
 1  0 
T = 2 g  16  (Not in JEE, For other exams)
 
where 0 is in radians.
 General formula for time period of simple pendulum when  is comparable to radius of Earth R.
1
 1 1
T = 2 g   where, R = Radius of the earth
R 
R
 Time period of simple pendulum of infinite length is maximum and is given by: T = 2 = 84.6 min
g
(Where R is radius of earth)
 Time period of seconds pendulum is 2 sec and  = 0.993 m.
 Simple pendulum performs angular S.H.M. but due to small angular displacement, it is considered
as linear S.H.M.
 If time period of clock based on simple pendulum increases then clock will be slow but if time period
decrease then clock will be fast.
T 1 
 If g remains constant &  is change in length, then  100   100
T 2 
T 1 g
 If  remain constant & g is change in acceleration then, T  100   2 g  100
 If  is change in length & g is change in acceleration due to gravity then,
T  1  1 g 
 100      100
T 2  2 g 
Example 15 A simple pendulum of length 40 cm oscillates with an angular amplitude of 0.04 rad. Find (a) the time
period, (b) the linear amplitude of the bob, (c) the speed of the bob when the string makes 0.02 rad with
the vertical and (d) the angular acceleration when the bob is in momentary rest. Take g = 10 m/s2.
10 m / s 2
Solution : (a) The angular frequency is = g/ = = 5 s–1
0.4m
2 2
the time period is = = 1.26 s.
 5 s 1

(b) Linear amplitude = 40 cm × 0.04 = 1.6 cm
(c) Angular speed at displacement 0.02 rad is
 = (5 s–1) (0.04 )2  (0.02)2 rad = 0.17 rad/s.
where speed of the bob at this instant

= (40 cm) × 0.175–1 = 6.8 cm/s.
(d) At momentary rest, the bob is in extreme position.
Thus, the angular acceleration
 = (0.04 rad) (25 s–2) = 1 rad/s2.

10.1 Time Period of Simple Pendulum in accelerating Reference Frame :

T = 2 g where
eff .
 
geff. = Effective acceleration in accelerating reference system = g  a , at mean position

a = acceleration of the point of suspension w.r.t. ground.
 
Condition for applying this formula: g  a = constant
Net tension in string

Also geff = at mean position
mass of bob
Example 16. A simple pendulum is suspended from the ceiling of a car accelerating uniformly on a horizontal
road. If the acceleration is a0 and the length of the pendulum is , find the time period of small
oscillations about the mean position.
Solution : We shall work in the car frame. As it is accelerated with respect to the road, we shall have to apply
a pseudo force ma0 on the bob of mass m.
For mean position, the acceleration of the bob with respect to the car should be zero. If  be the
angle made by the string with the vertical, the tension, weight and the pseudo force will add to zero
in this position.
Hence, resultant of mg and ma0 (say F = m g2  a 02 ) has to be along the string.
ma 0 a0
 tan = mg = g
Now, suppose the string is further deflected by an angle  as

shown in figure.
Now, restoring torque can be given by
(F sin )  = – m  2 
Substituting F and using sin for small 
( m g2  a 02 )   = – m  2 
g2  a 02 g2  a 02
or, -  so; 2 =
 
This is an equation of simple harmonic motion with time period
2 
T= = 2 2
 ( g  a 02 )1/ 4



10.2 If forces other then m g acts then :

  F
T = 2 g where geff. = g 
eff . m

F = constant force acting on ‘m’.
Example 17. A simple pendulum of length ‘’ and having bob of mass ‘m’ is doing angular SHM inside water. A
constant buoyant force equal to half the weight of the bob is acting on the ball. Find the time period
of oscillations?
mg / 2 2
Solution : Here geff. = g – = g/2. Hence T = 2 g
m

11. COMPOUND PENDULUM / PHYSICAL PENDULUM
When a rigid body is suspended from an axis and made to oscillate about that S S
then it is called compound pendulum.


C = Position of center of mass 

S = Point of suspension C
C
 = Distance between point of suspension and center of mass
(it remains constant during motion)
For small angular displacement “” from mean position
The restoring torque is given by
mgsin
mg  for small , sin ~ 
or,  mg where,  = Moment of inertia about point of suspension.
mg mg
or,   or, 2 =
 

Time period, T = 2 mg   = CM + m2
Where CM = moment of inertia relative to the axis which passes from the center of mass & parallel to the
axis of oscillation.
 CM  m  2
T = 2
mg
where CM = mk2
k = gyration radius (about axis passing from centre of mass)
mk 2  m 2 k 2  2 L eq
T = 2 T = 2 = 2
mg g g
k2
Leq =   = equivalent length of simple pendulum ;

T
T is minimum when  = k.
2k
Tmin = 2 g 2k
T  2
g
Graph of T vs 
= k 

Example 18. A uniform rod of length 1.00 m is suspended through an end and is set into oscillation with small
amplitude under gravity. Find the time period of oscillation. (g = 10 m/s2)
Solution : For small amplitude the angular motion is nearly simple harmonic and the time period is given by
 (m 2 / 3) 2 2  1.00 m 2
T = 2 = 2 = 2 = 2 2 = s.
mg( / 2) mg( / 2) 3g 3  10 m / s 15

12. TORSIONAL PENDULUM
In torsional pendulum, an extended object is suspended at the cen-
tre by a light torsion wire. A torsion wire is essentially inextensible,
but is free to twist about its axis. When the lower end of the wire is
rotated by a slight amount, the wire applies a restoring torque caus- A
ing the body to oscillate (rotate) about vertical wire, when released. 
The restoring torque produced is given by C A X C X

C where, C = Torsional constant
or,  C where,  = Moment of inertia about the vertical axis.
C
or,   θ


Time Period, T = 2
C
Example 19. A uniform disc of radius 5.0 cm and mass 200 g is fixed at its centre to a metal wire, the other end
of which is fixed to a ceiling. The hanging disc is rotated about the wire through an angle and is
released. If the disc makes torsional oscillations with time period 0.20 s, find the torsional constant
of the wire.
Solution : The situation is shown in figure. The moment of inertia of the disc about the wire is
mr 2 (0.200 kg)(5.0  10 2 m)2

= = = 2.5 × 10–4 kg - m2.
2 2
The time period is given by
 42  4 2 ( 2.5  10 4 kg  m 2 ) kg  m 2
T = 2 or, C = = = 0.25 .
C T2 (0.20 s)2 s2

13. SUPERPOSITION OF TWO SHM’S
13.1 In same direction and of same frequency.
x1 = A1 sin t
x2 = A2 sin (t + ) , then resultant displacement
x = x1 + x2 = A1 sin t + A2 sin (t + ) = A sin (t + )
 A 2 sin  
where A= A 12  A 22  2A 1A 2 cos  &  = tan–1  A  A cos  
 1 2 
If  = 0, both SHM’s are in phase and A = A1 + A2

If  = , both SHM’s are out of phase and A = | A1 – A2 |
The resultant amplitude due to superposition of two or more than two SHM’s of this case can also be found
by phasor diagram also.

13.2 In same direction but are of different frequencies.
x1 = A1 sin 1t
x2 = A2 sin 2 t
then resultant displacement x =x1 + x2 = A1 sin 1t + A2 sin 2t This resultant motion is not SHM.
13.3 In two perpendicular directions.
x = A sin t
y = B sin (t + )
Case (i) : If  = 0 or  then y = ± (B/A) x. So path will be straight line & resultant displacement will be
r = (x2 + y2)½ = (A2 + B2 )½ sint
which is equation of SHM having amplitude A 2  B2

Case (ii) : If  = then. x = A sin t
2
y = B sin (t + /2) = B cos t
x2 y2
so, resultant will be + = 1. i.e. equation of an ellipse and if A = B, then superposition will be an
A2 B2
equation of circle. This resultant motion is not SHM.
13.4 Superposition of SHM’s along the same direction (using phasor diagram)
If two or more SHM’s are along the same line, their resultant can be obtained by vector addition by making
phasor diagram.
1. Amplitude of SHM is taken as length(magnitude) of vector.
2. Phase difference between the vectors is taken as the angle between these vectors. The magnitude
of resultant vector gives resultant amplitude of SHM and angle of resultant vector gives phase con-
stant of resultant SHM.
For example; x = A sin t
1 1
x = A sin (t + )
2 2
A2
A1
Phasor Diagram
If equation of resultant SHM is taken as x = A sin (t + )

A 2 sin 
A= A 12  A 22  2A 1A 2 cos   tan  =
A 1  A 2 cos 
Example 20. Find the amplitude of the simple harmonic motion obtained by combining the motions
x1 = (2.0 cm) sint
and x2 = (2.0 cm) sin (t + /3).
Solution : The two equations given represent simple harmonic motions along X-axis with amplitudes A1 = 2.0 cm
and A2 = 2.0 cm. The phase difference between the two simple harmonic motions is /3. The resultant
simple harmonic motion will have an amplitude A given by

A= A 12  A 22  2A 1A 2 cos  = ( 2.0cm) 2  ( 2.0 cm)2  2( 2.0 cm) 2 cos = 3.5 cm
3

Example 21. x = 3 sin t ; x = 4 cos t
1 2
Find (i) amplitude of resultant SHM. (ii) equation of the resultant SHM.
Solution : First write all SHM’s in terms of sine functions with positive amplitude. Keep “t” with positive sign.
 x = 3 sin t
1
x = 4 sin (t + /2)
2

A= 3 2  4 2  2  3  4 cos = 9  16 = 25 = 5
2

4 sin
2 4
tan  =   = 53º equation x = 5 sin (t + 53º)
 3
3  4 cos
2
Example 22 x = 5 sin (t + 30º)
1
x = 10 cos (t)
2
Find amplitude of resultant SHM.
Solution : x = 5 sin (t + 30º)
1

x = 10 sin (t + ) 10
2 2
A= 5 2  10 2  2  5  10 cos 60 º 60º
5
= 25  100  50 = 175 = 5 7 Phasor Diagram
Example 23 A particle is subjected to two simple harmonic motions

x1 = A1 sin t
and x2 = A2 sin (t + /3).
Find (a) the displacement at t = 0, (b) the maximum speed of the particle and (c) the maximum
acceleration of the particle.
Solution : (a) At t = 0, x1 = A1 sin t = 0
and x2 = A2 sin (t + /3)
A2 3
= A2 sin (/3) = .
2
Thus, the resultant displacement at t = 0 is
3
x = x1 + x2 = A2
2
(b) The resultant of the two motions is a simple harmonic motion of the same angular frequency
. The amplitude of the resultant motion is
A= A 12  A 22  2A 1A 2 cos(  / 3 ) = A 12  A 22  A 1A 2 .
The maximum speed is
umax = A  =  A 12  A 22  A 1A 2
(c) The maximum acceleration is
amax = A 2 = 2 A 12  A 22  A 1A 2 .
Example 24. A particle is subjected to two simple harmonic motions in the same direction having equal amplitudes
and equal frequency. If the resultant amplitude is equal to the amplitude of the individual motions,
find the phase difference between the individual motions.

Solution : Let the amplitudes of the individual motions be A each. The resultant amplitude is also A. If the
phase difference between the two motions is ,
A= A 2  A 2  2A. A. cos 

A=A 2(1  cos ) = 2A cos
2
 1
cos =
2 2
 = 2/3.
Problem 1. Write the equation of SHM for the situations shown below:
t=0
(a) -A 0 A
t=0
(b) -A 0 A
t=0
(c)
-A 0 A/2 A
Solution : (a) At t = 0 , x = +A
x = A sin(t + )
A = A sin ()
 = /2
 
x = A sin  t   = Acos (t)
 2
(b) At t = 0 , x = – A
x = A sin(t + )
– A = A sin 
3
=
2
 3 
x = A sin  t  
 2 
x = – A cos (t)
A
(c) At t = 0 , x =
2
x = A sin (t + )
A
= A sin(t + )
2
1
= sin    = 30° , 150
2
Particle is moving towards the mean position and in negative direction.
velocity v = A cos (t + )
At t = 0 , v = –ve
v = Acos 
hence  = 150°
x = A sin(t + 150º)
Ans. (a) x = A cost ; (b) x = A cost ; (c) x = A sin(t + 150º)

Problem 2. Block A of mass m is performing SHM of amplitude a. Another block B of mass m is gently placed
on A when it passes through mean position and B sticks to A. Find the time period and amplitude of
new SHM.
u
m
Solution :
Amplitude = a
v
2m
Amplitude = A
m
Time period of mass m = 2
K
2m
Time period of mass 2m = 2
K
At mean position, Kinetic energy = Total Energy
1 2 1 2 2
For mass m : mu = m  a ................. (1)
2 2
2
1 1    2
2mv = 2m   A ........... (2)
2
For mass 2m :
2 2  2
By Conservation of momentum
mu = 2mv
u
v=
2
2 2
1 u 1    2
 2m   = 2m   A ................ (3)
2 2 2  2
Divide equation (1) & (3)
2a 2
4=
A2
a
New Amplitude A =
2
2m a
Ans. T = 2 Amplitude =
K 2
a
Problem 3. Repeat the above problem assuming B is placed on A at a distance from mean position.
2
u
m m
Solution : T = 2 Amplitude = a
K
mean a/2
v
2m 2m
T = 2 Amplitude = A
K
mean
By conservation of momentum
u
mu = 2mv  v =
2

a
Kinetic Energies at
2
 a 
2
1 1 2 a 2    
mu = m 
2
For mass m : ................. (1)
2 2   2  
1     2 a 
2 2
1    A     ......... (2)
For mass 2m :
2
2mv = 2m 
2 2  2    2  
1 u2 1 2  2 a2 
2m = 2m  A   ............. (3)
2 4 2 2  4 
Dividing equation (1) & (3)
a2
a2 
4
2 = 2 a2
A 
4
5 2m 5
New Amplitude A = a Ans. T = 2 , Amplitude = a
8 K 8
Problem 4. The block is allowed to fall, slowly from the position where spring is in its //////////////////////////
natural length. Find, maximum extension in the string.
K 0
Solution : Since the block falls slowly from rest the maximum extension occurs when m
mg = Kx
0
mg mg
x = is maximum extension Ans.
0 K K
Problem 5. In the above problem if block is released from there, what would be maximum extension.
Solution : Let x = maximum extension

0 /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
applying conservation of energy

L0
1 2
mgx = Kx
o 2 0
The velocity at the point of maximum extension is zero. m

x0
2 mg 2 mg
x = is maximum extension Ans.
0 K K m
m2
Problem 6. Block of mass m is in equilibrium as shown in figure. Another block of mass m is
2 1
kept gently on m . Find the time period of oscillation and amplitude.
2
K
//////////////////////////

m1 m2 m2
Solution : Time period T = 2 m1g
K
K
At initial position since velocity is zero m1+m2 Equilibrium
it is the extreme position. position
m1g
Amplitude A =
K
m1  m 2 m1g
Ans. T = 2 Amplitude =
K K ////////////////////////// //////////////////////////
//////////////////////////
Problem 7. Block of mass m is in equilibrium and at rest. The mass m moving with velocity u
2 1
vertically downwards collides with m and sticks to it. Find the energy of oscillation.
2
m1
u
Solution : Let the velocity of m & m be v after collision m2
1 2
By conservation of momentum
//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
m u = (m +m )v
1 1 2
m1u
v = m m
1 2
2
1 1 m1
2
Hence, KE = (m +m )v = u2
2 1 2 2 m1  m 2
x1
x2
m g = Kx m2 Equilibrium
2 1
(m + m )g = Kx Position
1 2 2 m1+m2
2
1 1  m1g  1 m12 g2
K(x – x ) = K  
2
PE =  PE =
2 2 1 2  K  2 K
Therefore energy of oscillation is -
E = KE + PE
1 m 2u 2 2
m g2 1  m12u 2 m g2 
2
E= + 1  =   1  Ans.
2 m1  m2 2K 2  m1  m 2 K 
Problem 8. A box is placed on a smooth inclined plane and it is free to move. A simple pendulum is attached in
the block. Find its time period.

Solution : Let F = Pseudo force
p
Ts
For equilibrium position i
mg n Tcos
sin T
Tsin + F = mgsin  
P
Tsin + ma = mgsin
since a = gsin
Tsin + mgsin = mgsin 
mg mgsin
Tsin = 0
mgcos 
 = 0
Hence in equilibrium position the string is perpendicular to incline plane.

Therefore effective ‘g’ is
g = gcos 
eff
Time period

T = 2 g
eff

 g
T = 2 g cos  Ans.
gcos

Problem 9. x = 5 sin t
1
x = 5 sin (t + 53º)
2
x = – 10 cos t
3
Find amplitude of resultant SHM
Solution : x = 5sint
1
x = 5 sin (t + 53º)
2
x = – 10 cos t
3
we can write x = 10 sin(t + 270°)
3
Finding the resultant amplitude by vector notation.
53°
5 
6
R
10
Resultant Amplitude | R | = 8 2  6 2 = 10 Ans.


WAVE S
Wave motion is the phenomenon that can be observed almost everywhere around us, as well it appears
in almost every branch of physics. Surface waves on bodies of matter are commonly observed. Sound
waves and light waves are essential to our perception of the environment. All waves have a similar
mathematical description, which makes the study of one kind of wave useful for the study of other
kinds of waves. In this chapter, we will concentrate on string waves, which are type of a mechanical
waves. Mechanical waves require a medium to travel through. Sound waves, water waves are other
examples of mechanical waves. Light waves are not mechanical waves, these are electromagnetic
waves which do not require medium to propagate.
Mechanical waves originate from a disturbance in the medium (such as a stone dropping in a pond) and
the disturbance propagates through the medium. The forces between the atoms in the medium are
responsible for the propagation of mechanical waves. Each atom exerts a force on the atoms near it,
and through this force the motion of the atom is transmitted to the others. The atoms in the medium do
not, however, experience any net displacement. As the wave passes, the atoms simply move back and
forth. Again for simplicity, we concentrate on the study of harmonic waves (that is those that can be
represented by sine and cosine functions).
TYPES OF MECHANICAL WAVES

Mechanical waves can be classified according to the physical properties of the medium, as well as in
other ways.
1. Direction of particle motion :
Waves can be classified by considering the direction of motion of the particles in the medium as wave
passes. If the disturbance travels in the x direction but the particles move in a direction, perpendicular
to the x axis as the wave passes it is called a transverse wave. If the motion of the particles were
parallel to the x axis then it is called a longitudinal wave. A wave pulse in a plucked guitar string is a
transverse wave. A sound wave is a longitudinal wave.
2. Number of dimensions :
Waves can propagate in one, two, or three dimensions. A wave moving along a taut string is a one
dimensional wave. A water wave created by a stone thrown in a pond is a two dimensional wave. A
sound wave created by a gunshot is a three-dimensional wave
3. Periodicity :
A stone dropped into a pond creates a wave pulse, which travels outward in two dimensions. There may
be more than one ripple created, but there is still only one wave pulse. If similar stones are dropped in
the same place at even time intervals, then a periodic wave is created.
4. Shape of wave fronts : The ripples created by a stone dropped into a pond are circular in shape. A
sound wave propagating outward from a point source has spherical wavefronts. A plane wave is a three
dimensional wave with flat wave fronts.
(Far away from a point source emitting spherical waves, the waves appear to be plane waves.)
A solid can sustain transverse as well as longitudinal wave. A fluid has no well-defined form or structure
to maintain and offer far more resistance to compression than to a shearing force. Consequently, only
longitudinal wave can propagate through a gas or within the body of an ideal (non viscous) liquid.
However, transverse waves can exist on the surface of a liquid. In the case of ripples on a pond, the
force restoring the system to equilibrium is the surface tension of the water, whereas for ocean waves,
it is the force of gravity.
Also, if disturbance is restricted to propagate only in one direction and there is no loss of energy during
propagation, then shape of disturbance remains unchanged.
RESONANCE WAVES ON A STRING - 23

DESCRIBING WAVES :
Two kinds of graph may be drawn - displacement-distance and displacement-time.
A displacement - distance graph for a transverse mechanical wave shows the displacement y of the
vibrating particles of the transmitting medium at different distance x from the source at a certain instant
i.e. it is like a photograph showing shape of the wave at that particular instant.
The maximum displacement of each particle from its undisturbed position is the amplitude of the wave.
In the figure 1, it is OA or OB.
One wavelength

Displacement A
O
Distance x
B
Crest Trough Crest Trough
The wavelength  of a wave is generally taken as the distance between two successive crests or two
successive trough. To be more specific, it is the distance between two consecutive points on the wave
which have same phase.
A displacement-time graph may also be drawn for a wave motion, showing how the displacement of one
particle at a particular distance from the source varies with time. If this is simple harmonic variation
then the graph is a sine curve.
WAVE LENGTH, FREQUENCY, SPEED
If the source of a wave makes f vibrations per second, so too will the particles of the transmitting
medium. That is, the frequency of the waves equals frequency of the source.
When the source makes one complete vibration , one wave is generated and the disturbance spreads
out a distance  from the source. If the source continues to vibrate with constant frequency f, then f
waves will be produced per second and the wave advances a distance f  in one second. If v is the wave
speed then
v = 
This relationship holds for all wave motions.
Travelling wave :
Imagine a horizontal string stretched in the x direction. Its equilibrium shape is flat and straight. Let y
measure the displacement of any particle of the string from its equilibrium position, perpendicular to
the string. If the string is plucked on the left end, a pulse will travel to the right. The vertical displacement
y of the left end of the string (x = 0) is a function of time.
i.e. y (x = 0, t) = f(t)
If there are no frictional losses, the pulse will travel undiminished, retaining its original shape. If the
pulse travels with a speed v, the ‘position’ of the wave pulse is x = vt. Therefore, the displacement of the
x
particle at point x at time t was originated at the left end at time t – . [y, (x, t) is function of both x and
v
x x
t]. But the displacement of the left end at time t is f(t) thus at time t – , it is f(t – ).
v v
Therefore :
x x
y(x, t) = y (x = 0, t –) = f (t – )
v v
This can also be expressed as
f f
 (vt – x)  – (x – vt)
v v
y (x, t) = g(x – vt)
using any fixed value of t (i.e. at any instant), this shows shape of the string.
If the wave is travelling in – x direction, then wave equation is written as
x
y(x, t) = f(t + )
v
The quantity x – vt is called phase of the wave function. As phase of the pulse has fixed value
x – vt = const.
dx
Taking the derivative w.r.t. time =v
dt
where v is the phase velocity although often called wave velocity. It is the velocity at which a particular
phase of the disturbance travels through space.
In order for the function to represent a wave travelling at speed v, the three quantities x, v and t must
appear in the combination (x + vt) or (x – vt). Thus (x – vt)2 is acceptable but x 2 – v2 t2 is not.
Example 1. A wave pulse is travelling on a string at 2 m/s. Displacement y of the particle at x = 0 at any
2
time t is given by y = 2 . Find :
t 1
(i) Expression of the function y =(x, t) i.e. displacement of a particle at position x and time t.
(ii) Shape of the pulse at t = 0 and t = 1s.
 x
Solution : (i) By replacing t by  t   , we can get the desired wave function i.e.
 v
2
y= 2
 x
t   1
 2
(ii) We can use wave function at a particular instant, say t = 0, to find shape of the wave pulse
using different values of x.
2
at t=0 y= 2
x Y
1
4
at x = 0 y = 2 2
x = 2 y = 1
x = –2 y = 1
x = 4 y = 0.4 1
x = –4 y = 0.4
X
0
Using these value, shape is drawn. –4 –2 2 4
Similarly for t = 1s, shape can be drawn. What do you conclude about direction of motion of the
wave from the graphs? Also check how much the pulse has moved in 1s time interval. This is
equal to wave speed. Here is the procedure :
2
y= 2
 x
1    1
 2 
at t = 1s
at x=2 y=2 (maximum value)
at x=0 y=1
at x=4 y=1

Y
t=1
t=0
1
X
0
–2 2 4 6
The pulse has moved to the right by 2 units in 1s interval.

x
Also as t – = constt.
2
Differentiating w.r.t. time
1 dx dx
1– . =0  = 2.
2 dt dt

TRAVELLING SINE WAVE IN ONE DIMENSION (WAVE ON STRING) :
 x
The wave equation y  f  t   is quite general. If holds for arbitrary wave shapes, and for transverse
 v
as well as for longitudinal waves.
A complete description of the wave requires specification of f(x). The most important case, by far, in
physics and engineering is when f(x) is sinusoidal, that is, when the wave has the shape of a sine or
cosine function. This is possible when the source, that is moving the left end of the string, vibrates the
left end x = 0 in a simple harmonic motion. For this, the source has to continuously do work on the
string and energy is continuously supplied to the string.
The equation of motion of the left end may be written as
f (t) = A sin t
where A is amplitude of the wave, that is maximum displacement of a particle in the medium from its
equilibrium position  is angular frequency, that is 2f where f is frequency of SHM of the source.
The displacement of the particle at x at time t will be
 x  x
y  f t   or y = A sin   t   y = A sin (t – kx)
 v  v
 2 2 1
where k =  is called wave number. T = = is period of the wave, that is the time it takes
v   f
to travel the distance between two adjacent crests or through (it is wavelength ).
The wave equation y = A sin (t – kx) says that at x = 0 and t = 0, y = 0. This is not necessarily the
case, of source. For the same condition, y may not equal to zero. Therefore, the most general expression
would involve a phase constant , which allows for other possibilities,
y = A sin (t – kx + )
A suitable choice of  allows any initial condition to be met. The term kx – wt +  is called the phase
of the wave. Two waves with the same phase (on phase differing by a multiple of 2) are said to be “in
phase”. They execute the same motion at the same time.
The velocity of the particle at position x and at time t is given by
y
 A cos (t – kx + )
t
The wave equation has been partially differentiated keeping x as constant, to specify the particle. Note
dx
that wave velocity is different from particle velocity while waves velocity is constant for a medium
dt
and it along the direction of string, whereas particle velocity is perpendicular to wave velocity and is
dependent upon x and t.

Example 2. A sinusoidal wave travelling in y(cm)
the positive x direction has an 40
am plit ude of 15 c m ,
wavelength 40 c m an d
frequency 8 Hz. The vertical 15
displacement of the medium at
t = 0 and x = 0 is also 15 cm, x(cm)
as shown.
(a) Find the angular wave

num ber, period, an gular
frequency and speed of the
wave.
(b) Determine the phase constant , and write a general expression for the wave function.
2 2 rad 
Solution : (a) k= = 40 cm = rad/cm
 20
1 1
T= = s  = 2f = 16 s –1
f 8
v = f = 320 cm/s
(b) It is given that A = 15 cm
and also y = 15 cm at x = 0 and t = 0
then using y = A sin (t – kx + )
15 = 15 sin   sin  = 1

or = rad.
2
Therefore, the wave function is

y = A sin (t – kx + )
2
 1   rad  
= (15 cm) sin (16 s )t   .x  
  20 cm  2
Example 3. A sinusoidal wave is travelling along a rope. The oscillator that generates the wave completes
60 vibrations in 30 s. Also, a given maximum travels 425 cm along the rope in 10.0 s. What is
the wavelength?
425 60
Solution : v= = 42.5 cm/s. f= = 2 Hz
10 30
v
= = 21.25 cm.
f

THE LINEAR WAVE EQUATION :
By using wave function y = A sin (t – kx + ), we can describe the motion of any point on the string.
Any point on the string moves only vertically, and so its x coordinate remains constant. The transverse
velocity vy of the point and its transverse acceleration ay are therefore
 dy  y
vy =  dt   = A cos (t – kx + ) ....(1)
  x constant t
 dv y  v y  2 y
ay =  dt    2 = –2 A sin (t – kx + ) ....(2)
  x constant t t

and hence vy, max = A
ay, max = 2A
The transverse velocity and transverse acceleration of any point on the string do not reach their maximum
value simultaneously. Infact, the transverse velocity reaches its maximum value (A) when the
displacement y = 0, whereas the transverse acceleration reaches its maximum magnitude (2A) when
y=±A
 dy  y
further  dx   = –kA cos (t – kx + ) ....(3)
  t constant x
2y
= = – k 2 A sin (t – kx + ) ....(4)
x 2
y  y
From (1) and (3) =–
t k x
 vP = – vw × slope
i.e. if the slope at any point is negative, particle velocity is positive and vice-versa, for a wave moving
along positive x axis i.e. vw is positive.
y
For example, consider two points A and B on
the y-x curve for a wave, as shown. The wave
is moving along positive x-axis. A
B
Slope at A is positive therefore at the given
moment, its velocity is negative. That means x
it is coming downward. Reverse is the situation x1 x2
for particle at point B.
Now using equation (2) and (4)
2y k 2  2y 2y 1 2y
  
x 2 2 t 2 x 2 v 2 t 2
This is known as the linear wave equation or differential equation representation of the travelling wave
model. We have developed the linear wave equation from a sinusoidal mechanical wave travelling through
a medium, but it is much more general. The linear wave equation successfully describes waves on
strings, sound waves and also electromagnetic waves.
Example 4. Verify that wave function

2
y=
( x  3t ) 2  1
is a solution to the linear wave equation. x and y are in cm.
Solution : By taking partial derivatives of this function w.r.t. x and to t
2y 12( x  3t )2  4
 , and
x 2 [( x  3t )2  1]3
2y 108 ( x  3t )2  36

t 2 [( x  3t )2  1]3
2y 1 2x
or 
x 2 9 t 2
Comparing with linear wave equation, we see that the wave function is a solution to the linear
wave equation if the speed at which the pulse moves is 3 cm/s. It is apparent from wave
function therefore it is a solution to the linear wave equation.


THE SPEED OF TRANSVERSE WAVES ON STRINGS
The speed of a wave on a string is given by
T
v

where T is tension in the string (in Newtons) and  is mass per unit length of the string (kg/m).
It should be noted that v is speed of the wave w.r.t. the medium (string).
In case the tension is not uniform in the string or string has nonuniform linear mass density then v is
speed at a given point and T and  are corresponding values at that point.
Example 5. Find speed of the wave generated in the string as in the situation shown.
Assume that the tension is not affected by the mass of the cord.
Solution : T = 20 × 10 = 200 N 500 gm/m
200
v  20 m / s
0 .5
20 kg
Example 6. A taut string having tension 100 N and linear mass density
0.25 kg/m is used inside a cart to generate a wave pulse starting
at the left end, as shown. What should be the velocity of the
cart so that pulse remains stationary w.r.t. ground.
T
Solution : Velocity of pulse =  20 m / s

  
Now v PG  v PC  v CG

0 = 20 i + v CG

v CG = – 20i m/s

POWER TRANSMITTED ALONG THE STRING BY A SINE WAVE
When a travelling wave is established on a string, energy is transmitted along the direction of propagation of
the wave, in form of potential energy and kinetic energy
Average Power P = 22 f2 A2 v
t
Energy Transferred = P
0
av dt
Energy transferred in one time period = Pav T

This is also equal to the energy stored in one wavelength.
Intensity : Energy transferred per second per unit cross sectional area is called intensity of the wave.
Power P 1
 = Cross sectional area  s  = 2 A2v
2
This is average intensity of the wave.
Energy density : Energy per unit volume of the wave
Pdt 
= 
svdt v

Example 7. A string with linear mass density m = 5.00 × 10–2 kg/m is under a tension of 80.0 N. How much
power must be supplied to the string to generate sinusoidal waves at a frequency of 60.0 Hz
and an amplitude of 6.00 cm?
Solution : The wave speed on the string is
1/ 2
T  80.0 N 
v= =  2

 = 40.0 m/s
  5.00  10 kg / m 
Because  = 60 Hz, the angular frequency  of the sinusoidal waves on the string has the value
 = 2f = 2(60.0 Hz) = 377 s–1
Using these values in following Equation for the power, with A = 6.00 × 10–2 m,. gives
1
p= 2A2 v
2
1
= (5.00 × 10–2 kg/m) (377s–1)2 × (6.00 × 10–2 m) 2 (40.0 m/s)
2
= 512 W.
y
Example 8. Two waves in the same medium are represented by
y-t curves in the figure. Find ratio of their average 5
wave 1
intensities?
2 wave 2
1 12 A 12 f12  A 12 1 25 25
t
Solution :  = . = =
2 22 A 22 f22  A 22 44 16

THE PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION
When two or more waves simultaneously pass through a point, the disturbance at the point is given by
the sum of the disturbances each wave would produce in absence of the other wave(s).
In general, the principle of superposition is valid for small disturbances only. If the string is stretched
too far, the individual displacements do not add to give the resultant displacement. Such waves are
called nonlinear waves. In this course, we shall only be talking about linear waves which obey the
superposition principle.
To put this rule in a mathematical form, let y1(x, t) and y2(x, t) be the displacements that any element
of the string would experience if each wave travelled alone. The displacement y(x, t) of an element of
the string when the waves overlap is then given by
y(x, t) = y1(x, t) + y2(x, t)
The principal of superposition can also be expressed by stating that overlapping waves algebraically
add to produce a resultant wave. The principle implies that the overlapping waves do not in any way
alter the travel of each other.
If we have two or more waves moving in the medium the resultant waveform is the sum of wave functions
of individual waves.
Fig: a sequence of pictures showing two pulses
travelling in opposite directions along a stretched string.
(a)
W hen the two disturbances overlap they give a
complicated pattern as shown in (b). In (c), they have
passed each other and proceed unchanged.
An Illustrative examples of this principle is phenomena (b)

of interference and reflection of waves.
(c)

Example 9. Two waves passing through a region are represented by
y1 = 5 mm sin [(2cm–1) x – (50  s–1) t]
and y2 = 10 mm sin [( cm–1)x – (100 s–1) t].
Find the displacement of the particle at x = 1 cm at time t = 5.0 ms.
Solution : According to the principle of superposition, each wave produces its disturbance independent of the
other and the resultant disturbance is equal to the vector sum of the individual disturbance. The
displacements of the particle at x = 1 cm at time t = 5.0 ms due to the two waves are,
y1 = 5 mm sin [(2cm–1) x – (50  s–1) t]
y1 = 5 mm sin [(2cm–1) × 1cm – (50  s–1) 5 × 10–3 sec]
 
= 5 mm sin 2 –  = – 5 mm
 4
and y2 = 10 mm sin [( cm–1)x – (100 s–1) t].
y2 = 10 mm sin [( cm–1) ×1 cm – (100 s–1) 5 × 10–3 sec]
 
= 10 mm sin  –  = 10 mm
 2
The net displacement is : y = y1 + y2 = 10 mm – 5 mm = 5 mm

INTERFERENCE OF WAVES GOING IN SAME DIRECTION
Suppose two identical sources send sinusoidal waves of same angular frequency  in positive x-
direction. Also, the wave velocity and hence, the wave number k is same for the two waves. One source
may be situated at different points. The two waves arriving at a point then differ in phase. Let the
amplitudes of the two waves be A1 and A2 and the two waves differ in phase by an angle . Their
equations may be written as
y1 = A1 sin (kx – t)
and y2 = A2 sin (kx – t + ).
According to the principle of superposition, the resultant wave is represented by
y = y1 + y2 = A1 sin (kx – t) + A2 sin (kx – t + ).
we get y = A sin (kx – t + )
where, A= A 12  A 22  2A 1A 2 cos  (A is amplitude of the resultant wave)
A 2 sin 
Also, tan  = ( is phase difference of the resultant wave with the first wave)
A 1  A 2 cos 
Constructive and Destructive Interference
Constructive Interference :
When resultant amplitude A is maximum
A = A1 + A2
when cos  = + 1 or  = 2n
where n is an integer.
Destructive interference :
When resultant amplitude A is minimum
or A = |A1 – A2|
When cos  = – 1 or  = (2n + 1)
where n is an integer.
Example 10. Two sinusoidal waves of the same frequency travel in the same direction along a string. If
A1 = 3.0 cm, A2 = 4.0 cm, 1 = 0, and 2 = /2 rad, what is the amplitude of the resultant wave?
Solution : Resultant amplitude = 3 2  4 2  2  3  4  cos 90 º = 5 cm.


REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION OF WAVES
A travelling wave, at a rigid or denser boundary, is reflected with a phase reversal but the reflection at an
open boundary (rarer medium) takes place without any phase change. The transmitted wave is never
inverted, but propagation constant k is changed.
INCIDENT WAVE INCIDENT WAVE

yi = Ai sin(t – k1x) yi = Ai sin( t – k1 x)
TRANSMITTED WAVE TRANSMITTED WAVE
yt = At sin(t – k2x) yt = At sin( t – k2x)
REFLECTED WAVE REFLECTED WAVE

yr = Ar sin(t + k1x + ) yr = A r sin(t + k 1x)
Fig. : Reflection at denser boundary Fig. : Reflection at rarer boundary
Amplitude of reflected and transmitted waves :

v1 and v2 are speeds of the incident wave and reflected wave in mediums respectively then
v 2  v1 2v 2
Ar = Ai At = .Ai
v1  v 2 v1  v 2
Ar is positive if v2 > v1, i.e., wave is reflected from a rarer medium.
Example 11. A harmonic wave is travelling on string 1. At a junction with string 2 it is partly reflected and
partly transmitted. The linear mass density of the second string is four times that of the first
string, and that the boundary between the two strings is at x = 0. If the expression for the
incident wave is, yi = Ai cos (k 1 x – 1t)
What are the expressions for the transmitted and the reflected waves in terms of Ai, k 1 and 1?
Solution : Since v = T/ , T 2 = T 1 and 2 = 41
v1
we have, v2 = ... (i)
2
The frequency does not change, that is,
1 = 2 ....(ii)
Also, because k = /v, the wave numbers of the harmonic waves in the two strings are related by,
2 1 1
k 2 = v = v / 2 = 2 v = 2k 1 ....(iii)
2 1 1
The amplitudes are,

 2v 2   2( v 1 / 2)  2
At =  v  v  Ai =  v  ( v / 2)  Ai = A ....(iv)
 1 2   1 1  3 i
 v 2  v1   ( v 1 / 2)  v 1  Ai
and Ar =  v  v  Ai =  v  ( v / 2)  Ai = ....(v)
 1 2   1 1  3
Now with equation (ii), (iii) and (iv), the transmitted wave can be written as,
2
A cos (2k 1 x – 1t)
yt = Ans.
3 i
Similarly the reflected wave can be expressed as,
Ai
= cos (k 1x + 1t + ) Ans.
3


STANDING WAVES :
Suppose two sine waves of equal amplitude and frequency propagate on a long string in opposite
directions. The equations of the two waves are given by
y1 = A sin (t – kx) and y2 = A sin (t + kx + ).
These waves interfere to produce what we call standing waves. To understand these waves, let us
discuss the special case when  = 0.
The resultant displacements of the particles of the string are given by the principle of superposition as
y = y1 + y2
= A [sin (t – kx) + sin(t + kx)] = 2A sin t cos kx
or, y = (2A cos kx) sin t. ....
This is the required result and from this it is clear that :
1. As this equation satisfies the wave equation,
2y 1 2y

x 2 v2  t2
it represents a wave. However, as it is not of the form f(ax ± bt), the wave is not travelling and
so is called standing or stationary wave.
2. The amplitude of the wave
As = 2A cos kx
is not constant but varies periodically with position (and not with time as in beats).
3. The points for which amplitude is minimum are called nodes and for these
 3 5
cos kx = 0, i.e., kx = , ,
2 2 2
 3 5  2 
i.e., x = , , , .... as k   
4 4 4  
i.e., in a stationary wave, nodes are equally spaced.
4. The points for which amplitude is maximum are called antinodes and for these,
cos kx = ± 1, i.e., kx = 0, , 2, 3, ......
 2 3  2 
i.e., x = 0, , , ,.... as k   
2 2 2  
i.e., like nodes, antinodes are also equally spaced with spacing (/2) and A max = ± 2A.
Furthermore, nodes and antinodes are alternate with spacing (/4).
5. The nodes divide the medium into segments (or loops). All the particles in a segment vibrate in
same phase, but in opposite phase with the particles in the adjacent segment. Twice in one
period all the particles pass through their mean position simultaneously with maximum velocity
(As), the direction of motion being reversed after each half cycle.
Node
t=0
t = T/8
t = T/4
t = 3T/8
t = T/2
t = 5T/8
t = 3T/4
t = 7T/8
t=T
Antinode
(a)

6. Standing waves can be transverse or longitudinal, e.g., in strings (under tension) if reflected
wave exists, the waves are transverse-stationary, while in organ pipes waves are longitudinal-
stationary.
7. As in stationary waves nodes are permanently at rest, so no energy can be transmitted across
them, i.e., energy of one region (segment) is confined in that region. However, this energy
oscillates between elastic potential energy and kinetic energy of the particles of the medium.
When all the particles are at their extreme positions KE is minimum while elastic PE is maximum
(as shown in figure A), and when all the particles (simultaneously) pass through their mean
position KE will be maximum while elastic PE minimum (Figure B). The total energy confined
in a segment (elastic PE + KE), always remains the same.
v=0 v = max. = As string

string
v = min = 0
y y
x x
Elastic PE = max = E Elastic PE = min = 0

Kinetic energy = min = 0 Kinetic energy = max = E
(A) (B)
Example 12. Two waves travelling in opposite directions produce a standing wave. The individual wave functions
are
y1 = (4.0 cm) sin(3.0x – 2.0t)
y2 = (4.0 cm) sin (3.0x + 2.0t)
where x and y are in centimeter.
(a) Find the maximum displacement of a particle of the medium at x = 2.3 cm.
(b) Find the position of the nodes and antinodes.
Solution : (a) When the two waves are summed, the result is a standing wave whose mathematical
representation is given by Equation, with A = 4.0 cm and k = 3.0 rad/cm;
y = (2A sin kx) cos t = [(8.0 cm) sin 3.0 x] cos 2.0 t
Thus, the maximum displacement of a particle at the position x = 2.3 cm is
ymax = [(8.0 cm) sin 3.0x]x = 2.3 cm
= (8.0 m) sin (6.9 rad) = 4.6 cm
(b) Because k = 2/ = 3.0 rad/cm, we see that  = 2/3cm. Therefore, the antinodes are located at
  
x=n   cm (n = 1, 3, 5, .....)
 6.0 
and the nodes are located at
   
x=n   cm (n = 1, 2, 3, .....)
2  3.0 
Example 13. Two travelling waves of equal amplitudes and equal frequencies move in opposite direction along a
string. They interfere to produce a standing wave having the equation.
y = A cos kx sin t
in which A = 1.0 mm, k = 1.57 cm –1 and  = 78.5 s–1. (a) Find the velocity and amplitude of the
component travelling waves. (b) Find the node closest to the origin in the region x > 0. (c) Find the
antinode closest to the origin in the region x > 0. (d) Find the amplitude of the particle at x = 2.33 cm.
Solution : (a) The standing wave is formed by the superposition of the waves
A A
y1 = sin (t – kx) and y2 = sin (t + kx).
2 2
The wave velocity (magnitude) of either of the waves is

 78.5 s 1
v= = = 50 cm/s; Amplitude = 0.5 mm.
k 1.57 cm 1
(b) For a node, cos kx = 0.
The smallest positive x satisfying this relation is given by
 3.14
kx = /2or, x= = = 1 cm
2k 2  1.57 cm 1
(c) For an antinode, |cos kx| = 1.
The smallest positive x satisfying this relation is given by

kx =  or, x= = 2 cm
k
(d) The amplitude of vibration of the particle at x is given by | A cos kx |. For the given point,
7 
kx = (1.57 cm–1) (2.33 cm) = =+ .
6 6
Thus, the amplitude will be
3
(1.0 mm) | cos ( + /6) | = mm = 0.86 mm.
3

VIBRATION OF STRING :
(a) Fixed at both ends :
Suppose a string of length L is kept fixed at the ends x = 0 and x = L. In such a system suppose we send a
continuous sinusoidal wave of a certain frequency, say, toward the right. When the wave reaches the right
end. It gets reflected and begins to travel back. The left-going wave then overlaps the wave, which is still
travelling to the right. When the left-going wave reaches the left end, it gets reflected again and the newly
reflected wave begins to travel to the right. overlapping the left-going wave. This process will continue and,
therefore, very soon we have many overlapping waves, which interfere with one another. In such a system, at
any point x and at any time t, there are always two waves, one moving to the left and another to the right. We,
therefore, have
y1(x, t) = ym sin (kx – t) (wave travelling in the positive direction of x-axis)
and y2(x, t) = ym sin (kx + t) (wave travelling in the negative direction of x-axis).
The principle of superposition gives, for the combined wave
y’(x, t) = y1(x, t) + y2(x, t)
= ym sin (kx – wt) + ym sin (kx + t)
= (2ym sin kx) cos t
It is seen that the points of maximum or minimum amplitude stay at one position.
Nodes : The amplitude is zero for values of kx that give sin kx = 0 i.e. for,
kx = n, for n = 0, 1, 2, 3,.....
Substituting k = 2 in this equation, we get

x=n , for n = 0, 1, 2, 3,.....
2

The positions of zero amplitude are called the nodes. Note that a distance of or half a wavelength
2
separates two consecutive nodes.
Antinodes :
The amplitude has a maximum value of 2ym, which occurs for the values of kx that give |sin kx| = 1. Those
values are
kx = (n + 1/2) for n = 0, 1, 2, 3,....
Substituting k = 2 in this equation, we get.

x = (n + 1/2) for n = 0, 1, 2, 3,....
2

as the positions of maximum amplitude. These are called the antinodes. The antinodes are separated by /
2 and are located half way between pairs of nodes.
For a stretched string of length L, fixed at both ends, the two ends of the ends is chosen as position x = 0,
then the other end is x = L. In order that this end is a node; the length L must satisfy the condition

L=n , for n = 1, 2, 3,....
2
This condition shows that standing waves on a string of length L have restricted wavelength given by
2L
= , for n = 1, 2, 3,.....
n
The frequencies corresponding to these wavelengths follow from Eq. as
v
f=n , for n = 1, 2, 3,.....
2L
where v is the speed of travelling waves on the string. The set of frequencies given by equation are called the
natural frequencies or modes of oscillation of the system. This equation tells us that the natural frequencies
v
of a string are integral multiples of the lowest frequency f = , which corresponds to n = 1. The oscillation
2L
mode with that lowest frequency is called the fundamental mode or the first harmonic. The second harmonic
or first overtone is the oscillation mode with n = 2. The third harmonic and second overtone corresponds to
n = 3 and so on. The frequencies associated with these modes are often labeled as 1, 2, 3 and so on. The
collection of all possible modes is called the harmonic series and n is called the harmonic number.
Some of the harmonic of a stretched string fixed at both the ends are shown in figure.
A
(a)
Fundamental
or first harmonic
f0 = v/2L
A
A A (b)
second harmonic
or first overtone =
N f1 = 2f0 = 2v/2L
A A
(c)
A A A third harmonic
or 2nd
N N overtone =
A A A f2 = 3f0, = 3v/2L
(d)
A A A A
fourth harmonic
or 3rd
N N N overtone =
A A A A
f3 = 4f0, = 4v/2L
Example 14. A middle C string on a piano has a fundamental frequency of 262 Hz, and the A note has fundamental
frequency of 440 Hz. (a) Calculate the frequencies of the next two harmonics of the C string. (b) If the
strings for the A and C notes are assumed to have the same mass per unit length and the same
length, determine the ratio of tensions in the two strings.
Solution :. (a) Because f1 = 262 Hz for the C string, we can use Equation to find the frequencies f 2 and f3;
f2 = 2f1 = 524 Hz
f3 = 3f1 = 786 Hz
Using Equation for the two strings vibrating at their fundamental frequencies gives
1 TA 1 TC
f1A =  f1C =
2L  2L 
2 2
f1A TA TA  f1A   440 Hz 
    =  
f1C = TC TC =  f1C 
  262 Hz 
= 2.82. Ans.

Example 15. A wire having a linear mass density 10–3 kg/m is stretched between two rigid supports with a tension
of 90 N. The wire resonates at a frequency of 350 Hz. The next higher frequency at which the same
wire resonates is 420 Hz. Find the length of the wire.
Solution : Suppose the wire vibrates at 350 Hz in its nth harmonic and at 420 Hz in its (n + 1)th harmonic.
n F
350 s–1 = 2 L 
....(i)
(n  1) F
and 420 s–1 = 2L 
....(ii)
420 n 1
This gives = or, n = 5.
350 n
Putting the value in (i),
5 90 5 1500 15
350 =  350 = × 300  =  m = 2.1 m
2 10 – 3 2 700 7

(b) Fixed at one end :
Standing waves can be produced on a string which is fixed at one end and whose other end is free to move
in a transverse direction. Such a free end can be nearly achieved by connecting the string to a very light
thread.
If the vibrations are produced by a source of “correct” frequency, standing waves are produced. If the end x =
0 is fixed and x = L is free, the equation is again given by
y = 2A sin kx cos t
with the boundary condition that x = L is an antinode. The boundary condition that x = 0 is a node is
automatically satisfied by the above equation. For x = L to be an antinode,
sin kL = ± 1
 1 2L  1
or, kL =  n    or, = n   
 2   2 
1
 1 v n
2Lf 1 2
or, =n+ or, f =  n   2L = T /  .....
v 2  2 2L
These are the normal frequencies of vibration. The fundamental frequency is obtained when n = 0, i.e.,
f0 = v/4L (a) Fundamental

N
A
The overtone frequencies are
First
3v (b) Overtone
f1 = = 3f0 N N
4L A A
5v Second
f2 = = 5f0 (c)
Overtone
4L A N A
N
A
We see that all the harmonic of the fundamental are not the allowed frequencies for the standing waves. Only
the odd harmonics are the overtones. Figure shows shapes of the string for some of the normal modes.

LAWS OF TRANSVERSE VIBRATIONS OF A STRING - SONOMETER WIRE
1 1 2 f L
(a) Law of length f so f  L ; if T &  are constant
L 2 1
1 1 f T
(b) Law of tension f  T so f  T ; L &  are constant
2 2
1 1 2 f 
(c) Law of mass f so f   ; T & L are constant
 2 1

Problem 1. A wave pulse moving along the x axis is represented by the wave function
2
y(x, t) =
x  3t 2  1
where x and y are measured in cm and t is in seconds.
(i) In which direction is the wave moving?
(ii) Find speed of the wave.
(iii) Plot the waveform at t = 0, t = 2s.
2
Solution : y =
x  3t 2  1
(i) As wave is moving in +ve x direction because
y = (x, t) = f(t – x/v) = f/v(vt – x)
(ii) Now x – v t is compared with x – 3t
 v = 3 cm/sec.
Ans. (i) Positive x axis (ii) 3 cm/s.
6
Problem 2. At t = 0, a transverse wave pulse in a wire is described by the function y = where x and 3
x 3
y are in meters write the function y(x, t) that describes this wave if it is travelling in the positive
x direction with a speed of 4.5 m/s.
6
Solution : y= 2 = f(x)
x 3
6 6
As y(x, t) = f(x – vt) = Ans.
( x  4 .5 t ) 2  3 x  4.5t 2  3
Problem 3. The wave function for a travelling wave on a string is given as

y (x, t) = (0.350 m) sin (10 t – 3x +
)
4
(a) What are the speed and direction of travel of the wave?
(b) What is the vertical displacement of the string at t = 0, x = 0.1 m?
(c) What are wavelength and frequency of the wave?

Solution : Y (x, t) = (0.350m) sin (10t – 3  x + )
4
comparing with equation ;

Y = A sin (t – kx + )  = 10  , k = 3, f =
4
 10
(a) speed = = = 3.33 m/sec and along +ve x axis
k 3
   3 
(b) y (0.1, 0) = 0.35 sin (10  x O – 3  (0.1) + ) = 0.35 sin    = – 5.48 cm
4  4 10 
2 2
(c) k= =3   cm = 0.67 cm
 3
 10 / 3
and = f=
= 5 Hz.
 2/3
Problem 4. Show that the wave function y = eb(x – vt) is a solution of the linear wave equation.
y y
Solution : Y = eb(x–v t) = beb(x–v t) and = (bv)eb(xv– v t)
x t
2y 2y
=b e 2 b(x–v t)
and = (bv)2 eb(x – v t)
x 2 t 2
2y
2
1  y
obviously ; = 2 which is a Linear wave equation.
x 2 v 2 t

Problem 5. A uniform rope of mass m and length L hangs from a ceiling. (a) Show that the speed of a
transverse wave on the rope is a function of y, the distance from the lower end, and is given by
v= gy . (b) Show that the time a transverse wave takes to travel the length of the rope is given
by t = 2 L / g .
Solution :
(a) As mas per unit length
m T
µ=  V=  Tension at P = yg
 
yg
 V= = yg

dy
(b) Now = yg
dt
 t
dy

O y
= 
g dt t = 2 /g
o
Problem 6. Two sinusoidal waves of the same frequency are to be sent in the same direction along a taut string.
One wave has an amplitude of 5.0 mm, the other 8.0 mm. (a) What phase difference 1 between the
two waves results in the smallest amplitude of the resultant wave? (b) What is that smallest amplitude?
(c) What phase difference 2 results in the largest amplitude of the resultant wave? (d) What is that
largest amplitude? (e) What is the resultant amplitude if the phase angle is (1 – 2)/2?
Solution : (a) For smallest amplitude ;
AR = | A1 – A2 | and that is possible when 1 =  between A1 and A2
(b) AR = | A1 – A2 | = 3 mm
(c) for largest amplitude ;
AR = | A1 + A2 | and that is possible when  2 = 0 between A1 and A2
(d) AR = | A1 + A2 | = 13 mm
1   2 o 
(e) when  = = = 2
2 2
 1/2
 AR = [A12 + A22 + 2A1 A2 cos ]
2
= 9.4 mm
Ans. (a)  rad; (b) 3.0 mm; (c) 0 rad; (d) 13 mm; (e) 9.4 mm
Problem 7. A string fixed at both ends is 8.40 m long and has a mass of 0.120 kg. It is subjected to a tension of
96.0 N and set oscillating. (a) What is the speed of the waves on the string? (b) What is the longest
possible wavelength for a standing wave? (c) Give the frequency of the wave.
T 96
Solution : (a) V = = = 82 m/sec.
  0.12 
 
 8 .4 
(b) for longest possible wavelength ;


2
 = 2 = 2 × 8.4 = 16.8 m
v 82
(c) V =  = ) ¦ = = = 4.88 HZ.
 16.8
Ans. (a) 82.0 m/s, (b) 16.8 m, (c) 4.88 Hz.


1. PROPAGATION OF SOUND WAVES :
Sound is a mechanical three dimensional and longitudinal wave that is created by a vibrating source such as
a guitar string, the human vocal cords, the prongs of a tuning fork or the diaphragm of a loudspeaker. Being
a mechanical wave, sound needs a medium having properties of inertia and elasticity for its propagation.
Sound waves propagate in any medium through a series of periodic compressions and rarefactions of pres-
sure, which is produced by the vibrating source.
Consider a tuning fork producing sound waves.
When Prong B moves outward towards right it compresses the air in front of it, causing the pressure to rise
slightly. The region of increased pressure is called a compression pulse and it travels away from the prong
with the speed of sound.
A B normal
v atmospheric
 pressure
compression
pulse
After producing the compression pulse, the prong B reverses its motion and moves inward. This drags away
some air from the region in front of it, causing the pressure to dip slightly below the normal pressure. This
region of decreased pressure is called a rarefaction pulse. Following immediately behind the compression
pulse, the rarefaction pulse also travels away from the prong with the speed of sound.
A B
. . .
. . . v
. . .
}
rarefaction compression pulse

pulse
If the prongs vibrate in SHM, the pressure variations in the layer close to the prong also varies simple
harmonically and hence increase in pressure above normal value can be written as
P = P0 sin t
where P0 is the maximum increase in pressure above normal value.
As this disturbance travel towards right with wave velocity v, the excess pressure at any position x at time t
will be given by
P = P0 sin (t – x/v) (1.1)

Using p = P, p0 = P0 , the above equation of sound wave can b written as :
p = p0 sin (t – x/v) (1.2)
Example 1.
Find the following for given wave equation.
P = 0.02 sin [(3000 t – 9 x] (all quantities are in S.. units.)
(a) Frequency (b) Wavelength (c) Speed of sound wave
(d) If the equilibrium pressure of air is in 105 Pa then find maximum and minimum pressure.
Solution :
(a) Comparing with the standard form of a travelling wave
p = p0 sin [ (t – x/v)]
we see that  = 3000 s–1. The frequency is
RESONANCE SOUND WAVE - 40

 3000
f= = Hz
2 2
Also from the same comparison, /v = 9.0 m–1.
 3000 s 1 1000
or, v= = m/s
9.0 m 1 9.0 m 1 3
v 1000 / 3m / s 2
The wavelength is  = = 3000 / 2 Hz  9 m
f
(b) The pressure amplitude is p0 = 0.02 N/m 2. Hence, the maximum and minimum pressures at a point
in the wave motion will be (1.0 × 105 ± 0.02) N/m2.
2. FREQUENCY AND PITCH OF SOUND WAVES

FREQUENCY :
Each cycle of a sound wave includes one compression and one rarefaction, and frequency is the number of
cycles per second that passes by a given location. This is normally equal to the frequency of vibration of the
(tuning fork) source producing sound. If the source, vibrates in SHM of a single frequency, sound produced
has a single frequency and it is called a pure tone..
However a sound source may not always vibrate in SHM (this is the case with most of the common sound
sources e.g. guitar string, human vocal card, surface of drum etc.) and hence the pulse generated by it may
not have the shape of a sine wave. But even such a pulse may be considered to be obtained by superposition
of a large number of sine waves of different frequency and amplitudes. We say that the pulse contain all
these frequencies.
AUDIBLE FREQUENCY RANGE FOR HUMAN :
A normal person hears all frequencies between 20 & 20 KHz. This is a subjective range (obtained experimen-
tally) which may vary slightly from person to person. The ability to hear the high frequencies decreases with
age and a middle-age person can hear only upto 12 to 14 KHz.
INFRASONIC SOUND :
Sound can be generated with frequency below 20 Hz called infrasonic sound.
ULTRASONIC SOUND :
Sound can be generated with frequency above 20 kHz called ultrasonic sound.
Even through humans cannot hear these frequencies, other animals may. For instance Rhinos communicate
through infrasonic frequencies as low as 5Hz, and bats use ultrasonic frequencies as high as 100 KHz for
navigating.
PITCH :
Frequency as we have discussed till now is an objective property measured its units is Hz and which can be
assigned a unique value. However a person’s perception of frequency is subjective. The brain interprets fre-
quency primarily in terms of a subjective quality called Pitch. A pure note of high frequency is interpreted as
high-pitched sound and a pure note of low frequency as low-pitched sound
Example 2.
A wave of wavelength 4 mm is produced in air and it travels at a speed of 300 m/s. Will it be audible ?
Solution :
From the relation v = , the frequency of the wave is
v 300 m / s
= = = 75000 Hz.
 4  10 3 m
This is much above the audible range. It is an ultrasonic wave and will not be audible to humans, but it will be
audible to bats.

3. PRESSURE WAVE AND DISPLACEMENT WAVE :
We can describe sound waves either in terms of excess pressure (equation 1.1) or in terms of the longitudi-
nal displacement suffered by the particles of the medium w.r.t. mean position.
If s = s0 sin (t – x/v) represents a sound wave where,
s = displacement of medium particle from its mean position at x,
s = s0 sin (t – kx) ...(3.1)
Change in volume = V = (x + s)A – xA = sA

V sA s
 
V xA x
BV
P  
V
B s
P  
x
Bds
dp  
dx
dp = –B (–k s0) cos (t – kx)
dp = Bks0 cos (t – kx)
dp = (dp)max cos (t – kx)
p = p0 sin (t – kx + /2) .... (3.2)
where p = dp = variation in pressure at position x and
p0 = Bks0 = maximum pressure variation
Equation 3.2 represents that same sound wave where, P is excess pressure at position x, over and above
the average atmospheric pressure
and pressure amplitude p0 is given by P0 = BKs0 .....(3.3)
(B = Bulk modulus of the medium, K = angular wave number)
 Note from equation (3.1) and (3.2) that the displacement of a medium particle and excess pressure

at any position are out of phase by . Hence a displacement maxima corresponds to a pressure
2
minima and vice-versa.
Example 3.
A sound wave of wavelength 40 cm travels in air. If the difference between the maximum and minimum
pressures at a given point is 2.0 × 10–3 N/m2, find the amplitude of vibration of the particles of the medium.
The bulk modulus of air is 1.4 × 105 N/m2.

Solution :
The pressure amplitude is
2.0  10 3 N / m 2
p0 = = 10–3 N/m2.
2
The displacement amplitude s0 is given by
p0 = B k s0
p0 p0 
or, s0 = B k = 2  B
10 3 N / m 2  ( 40  10 2 m) 100
= = Å
4
2    14  10 N / m 2 7
= 4.54 Å
4. SPEED OF SOUND WAVES

4.1 Velocity of sound waves in a linear solid medium is given by
Y
v ....(4.1)

where Y = young’s modulus of elasticity and  = density.
4.2. Velocity of sound waves in a fluid medium (liquid or gas) is given by
B
v ....(4.2)

where,  = density of the medium and B = Bulk modulus of the medium given by,
dP
B=–V .....(4.3)
dV
Newton’s formula : Newton assumed propagation of sound through a gaseous medium to be an isothermal
process.
PV = constant
dP P
 
dV V
and hence B = P using equ. ...(4.3)
and thus he obtained for velocity of sound in a gas,
P RT
v  where M = molar mass
 M
the density of air at 0º and pressure 76 cm of Hg column is  = 1.293 kg/m 3. This temperature and pressure
is called standard temperature and pressure at STP. Speed of sound in air is 280 m/s. This value is some
what less than measured speed of sound in air 332 m/s then Laplace suggested the correction.
Laplace’s correction : Later Laplace established that propagation of sound in a gas is not an isothermal
but an adiabatic process and hence PV  = constant
dP P
  
dV V
dP
where, B = – V = P
dV
and hence speed of sound in a gas,
P RT
v=  .... (4.4)
 M

4.3 Factors affecting speed of sound in atmosphere.
(a) Effect of temperature : as temperature (T) increases velocity (v) increases.
v T
For small change in temperature above room temperature v increases linearly by 0.6 m/s for every
1°C rise in temp.
R
v  T1/ 2
M
v 1 T

v 2 T
1 v
v    T
2 T
v  (0.6) T
(b) Effect of pressure :
P RT
The speed of sound in a gas is given by v = 
 M
(c) Effect of humidity : With increase in humidity density decreases. This is because the molar mass
of water vapour is less than the molar mass of air.
So at constant temperature, if P changes then  also changes in such a way that P/ remains constant.
Hence pressure does not have any effect on velocity of sound as long as temperature is constant.
Example 4.
Find the speed of sound in H2 at temperature T, if the speed of sound in O2 is 450 m/s at this temperature.
Solution :
RT
v
M
since temperature, T is constant,
v ( H2 ) MO 2 32
v (O2 ) = MH2 = =4
2
v (H2) = 4 × 450 = 1800 m/s Ans.
P
Aliter : The speed of sound in a gas is given by u = . At STP, 22.4 liters of oxygen has a mass of 32 g

whereas the same volume of hydrogen has a mass of 2 g. Thus, the density of oxygen is 16 times the
density of hydrogen at the same temperature and pressure. As  is same for both the gases,
v (hydrogen )  ( oxygen )
v ( oxygen ) =  (hydrogen )
or, v(hydrogen) = 4v(oxygen)

= 4 × 450 m/s = 1800 m/s. Ans.
5. INTENSITY OF SOUND WAVES :

Like any other progressive wave, sound waves also carry energy from one point of space to the other. This
energy can be used to do work, for example, forcing the eardrums to vibrate or in the extreme case of a sonic
boom created by a supersonic jet, can even cause glass panes of windows to crack.
The amount of energy carried per unit time by a wave is called its power and power per unit area held
perpendicular to the direction of energy flow is called intensity.

For a sound wave travelling along positive x-axis described by the equation.
s = s0 sin (t – kx + )
P = p0 cos (t – kx + )
s
= s0 cos (t – kx + )
t
s
Instantaneous power P = F.v = pA
t
P = p0 cos (t – kx + ) As0 cos (t – kx + )
Paverage = <P>
= p0 As0 <cos2 (t – kx + )>
p 0 s 0 A B
=  v=
2 
B = v2  p0 = Bks0 = = v2 ks0
1  p  p 20 A pAv2 s02
Paverage = p 0 A  02  = =
2  v k  2 v 2
p 02 A 2
maximum power = Pmax = = (pA) v v p, max = pAv2s02
v
Av2 s02
Total energy transfer = Pav × t = ×t
2
Average intensity = average power / area
the average intensity at position x is given by
1 2 s02B P2 v
<> = = 0 .... (5.1)
2 v 2B
Substituting B = v2, intensity can also be expressed as
P02
= .... (5.2)
2v
Note :
1 1 a
 If the source is a point source then I  2
and s0  and s = sin (t – kr + )
r r r
1 1
 If a sound source is a line source then I  and s0  and
r r
a
s= sin (t – kr + )
r
Example 5.
The pressure amplitude in a sound wave from a radio receiver is 2.0 × 10–3 N/m2 and the intensity at a point
is 10–6 W/m2. If by turning the “Volume” knob the pressure amplitude is increased to 3 × 10–3 N/m2, evaluate
the intensity.
Solution :
The intensity is proportional to the square of the pressure amplitude.

  p' 0 
Thus, =  

  p0 
 
 p' 0   3 
or  =   = 
  × 10–6 W/m2 = 2.25 × 10–6 W/m2.
 p0   2.0 

Example 6.
A circular plate of area 0.4 cm2 is kept at distance of 2m from source of power  W. Find the amount of energy
received by plate in 5 secs.
Solution :
The energy emitted by the speaker in one second is  J. Let us consider a sphere of radius 2.0 m centered
at the speaker. The energy J falls normally on the total surface of this sphere in one second. The energy
falling on the area 0.4 cm2 of the microphone in one second
0.4  10 –4
= ×  = 2.5 × 10–6 J
4  22
The energy falling on the microphone in 5.0 sec is
2.5 × 10–6 J × 5 = 12.5 µJ.
Example 7.
Find the displacement amplitude of particles of air of density 1.2 kg/m 3, if intensity, frequency and speed of
sound are 8 × 10–6 w/m2, 5000 Hz and 330 m/s respectively.
Solution :
The relation between the intensity of sound and the displacement amplitude is
P02
= ,
2v
P0 = 2vI
P0 2vI
s0 = = v
Bk v 2 2f
I 1
=
v 2  f
or, s0 = 6.4 nm.
6. LOUDNESS :
Audible intensity range for humans :
The ability of human to perceive intensity at different frequency is different. The perception of intensity is
maximum at 1000 Hz and perception of intensity decreases as the frequency decreases or increases from
1000 Hz.
 For a 1000 Hz tone, the smallest sound intensity that a human ear can detect is 10–12 watt./m2. On the other
hand, continuous exposure to intensities above 1W/m 2 can result in permanent hearing loss.
 The overall perception of intensity of sound to human ear is called loudness.
 Human ear do not perceives loudness on a linear intensity scale rather it perceives loudness on logarithmic
intensity scale.
For example ;
If intensity is increased 10 times human ear does not perceive 10 times increase in loudness. It roughly
perceived that loudness is doubled where intensity increased by 10 times. Hence it is prudent to define a
logarithmic scale for intensity.
DECIBEL SCALE :
The logarithmic scale which is used for comparing two sound intensity is called decibel scale.
The intensity level  described in terms of decibels is defined as

  
 =10 log    (dB)
 0

Here 0 is the threshold intensity of hearing for human ear
i.e.  = 10–12 watt/m2.
 In terms of decibel threshold of human hearing is 1 dB
 Note that intensity level  is a dimensionless quantity and is not same as intensity expressed in W/m 2.
Example 8.
If the intensity is increased by a factor of 20, by how many decibels is the intensity level increased.
Solution :
Let the initial intensity be  and the intensity level be  1 and when the intensity is increased by 20 times, the
intensity level increases to  2.
Then  1 = 10 log (/0)
and  2 = 10 log (20 /0)
Thus,  2 –  1 = 10 log (20 /)
= 10 log 20
= 13 dB.
Example 9.
How many times the pressure amplitude is increased if sound level is increased by 40 dB ?
Solution :
1
 1 = 10 log 
0
2 2
 2 = 10 log    2 –  1 = 10 log 
0 1
 2  2
or 40 = 10 log10     1 = 10 = 10
4 4
 1
2 P02
P02
P02 2 = 104  = 100
P01 P01
P01 = 102 P01
Example 10.
How many times the pressure amplitude is increased, if sound level is increased by 40 dB.
Solution :
The sound level in dB is
  
 = 10 log10   .
 0 
If  1 and  2 are the sound levels and 1 and 2 are the intensities in the two cases,
  2   1  
 2 –  1 = 10 log10     log10   
  0  0 
 2 
or, 40 = 10 log10  
 1 
2
or, 1 = 10 .
4
As the intensity is proportional to the square of the pressure amplitude,

p 02 2
we have p 01 = 1 = 10000 = 100.

6. INTERFERENCE OF SOUND WAVES :
If p1 = pm1 sin (t – kx1 + 1)
and p2 = pm2 sin (t – kx2 + 2)
resultant excess pressure at point O is
p = p1 + p2
 p = p0 sin (t – kx + )
where, p0 = 2
pm 1
2
 pm 2
 2p m1 pm 2 cos  ,  = | k (x1 – x2) + (2 – 1) | ...(6.1)
(i) For constructive interference
 = 2n  p0 = pm1 + pm2
(ii) For destructive interference

 = (2n+ 1)  p0 = | pm1 – pm2 |
2
If  is only due to path difference, then  = x, and

Condition for constructive interference : x = n, n = 0, ± 1, ± 2

Condition for destructive interference : x = (2n + 1)  n = 0, ± 1, ± 2
2
from equation (6.1)
P02  Pm2 1  Pm2 2  2Pm1Pm 2 cos 
Since intensity,  (Pressure amplitude)2,
we have, for resultant intensity,  = 1 + 2 + 2 1 2 cos  ....(6.2)
If 1 = 2 = 0

 = 20 (1 + cos )   = 40 cos2 ....(6.3)
2
Hence in this case,
for constructive interference :  = 0, 2, 4.... and max = 40
and for destructive interference : = , 3 ... and min = 0
6.1 Coherence : Two sources are said to be coherent if the phase difference between them does not
change with time. In this case their resultant intensity at any point in space remains constant with
time. Two independent sources of sound are generally incoherent in nature, i.e. phase difference
between them changes with time and hence the resultant intensity due to them at any point in
space changes with time.
Example 11.
Figure shows a tube having sound source at one end and observer at other end. Source produces frequencies
upto 10000 Hz. Speed of sound is 400 m/s. Find the frequencies at which person hears maximum intensity.
Solution :
The sound wave bifurcates at the junction of the straight and the rectangular parts. The wave through the
straight part travels a distance p1 = 10 cm and the wave through the rectangular part travels a distance
p2 = 3 ×10 cm = 30 cm before they meet again and travel to the receiver. The path difference between the two
waves received is, therefore.
p = p2 – p1 = 30 cm – 10 cm = 20 cm
v 400 m / s
The wavelength of either wave is = . For constructive interference, p= n, where n is an integer..
 

v n.v
or, p = n.  =
 p
400
 = = 4000 n
0.1
Thus, the frequencies within the specified range which cause maximum of intensity are
4000 × 1 Hz, 4000 × 2 Hz
Example 12.
A source emitting sound of frequency 165 Hz is placed in front of a wall at a distance of 2 m from it. A detector
is also placed in front of the wall at the same distance from it. Find the distance between the source and the
detector for which the detector detects phase difference of 2 between the direct and reflected wave. Speed of
sound in air = 330 m/s.
Solution :
The situation is shown in figure. Suppose the detector is placed at
a distance of x meter from the source. The direct wave received
from the source travels a distance of x meter. The wave reaching the
detector after reflection from the wall has travelled a distance of
2[(2)2 + x2/4]1/2 meter. The path difference between the two waves is
  1/ 2 
 2 x2  
 = 2 (2)    x meter..
  4  
= for  = 2 ..........(i)
 330 m / s
The wavelength is  = = = 2 m.
v 165 s 1
1/ 2
 2 x2 
Thus, by (i) 2 (2)   –x=2
 4 
1/ 2
 x2 
4  
x x2 x2
or, =1+ or, 4+ =1+ +x
 4  2 4 4
or, x=3
Thus, the detector should be placed at a distance of 3 m from the source. Note that there is no abrupt phase
change.
7. REFLECTION OF SOUND WAVES :

Reflection of sound waves from a rigid boundary (e.g. closed end of an organ pipe) is analogous to reflection
of a string wave from rigid boundary; reflection accompanied by an inversion i.e. an abrupt phase change of
. This is consistent with the requirement of displacement amplitude to remain zero at the rigid end, since a
medium particle at the rigid end can not vibrate. As the excess pressure and displacement corresponding to
the same sound wave vary by /2 in term of phase, a displacement minima at the rigid end will be a point of
pressure maxima. This implies that the reflected pressure wave from the rigid boundary will have same phase
as the incident wave, i.e., a compression pulse is reflected as a compression pulse and a rarefaction pulse
is reflected as a rarefaction pulse.
On the other hand, reflection of sound wave from a low pressure region (like open end of an organ pipe) is
analogous to reflection of string wave from a free end. This point corresponds to a displacement maxima, so
that the incident & reflected displacement wave at this point must be in phase. This would imply that this
point would be a minima for pressure wave (i.e. pressure at this point remains at its average value), and
hence the reflected pressure wave would be out of phase by  with respect to the incident wave. i.e. a
compression pulse is reflected as a rarefaction pulse and vice-versa.

8. LONGITUDINAL STANDING WAVES :
Two longitudinal waves of same frequency and amplitude travelling in opposite directions interfere to produce
a standing wave.
If the two interfering waves are given by
p1 = p0 sin (t – kx)
and p2 = p0 sin (t + kx + )
then the equation. of the resultant standing wave would be given by
 
p = p1 + p2 = 2p0 cos (kx + ) sin (t + )
2 2

 p = p´0 sin (t + ) .... (8.1)
2
This is equation of SHM in which the amplitude p´0 depends on position as

p’0 = 2p0 cos (kx + ) ....(8.2)
2
Points where pressure remains permanently at its average value; i.e. pressure amplitude is zero is called a
pressure node, and the condition for a pressure node would be given by
p´0 = 0

i.e. cos(kx + )=0
2
 
i.e. kx + = 2n ± , n = 0, 1, 2,..... ..... (8.3)
2 2
Similarly points where pressure amplitude is maximum is called a pressure antinode and condition for a
pressure antinode would be given by
p´0 = ± 2p0

i.e. cos(kx + )=±1
2

or (kx + ) = n n = 0, 1, 2,..... ....(8.4)
2
 Note that a pressure node in a standing wave would correspond to a displacement antinode; and a pressure
anti-node would correspond to a displacement node.
 (when we label eqn (8.1) as SHM, what we mean is that excess pressure at any point varies simple-
harmonically. If the sound waves were represented in terms of displacement waves, then the equation of
standing wave corresponding to (8.1) would be
 
s = s´0 cos(t + ) where s´0 = 2s0 sin (kx + )
2 2
This can be easily observed to be an equation of SHM. It represents the medium particles moving simple
harmonically about their mean position at x.)
9. VIBRATION OF AIR COLUMNS :

Standing waves can be set up in air-columns trapped inside cylindrical tubes if frequency of the tuning fork
sounding the air column matches one of the natural frequency of air columns. In such a case the sound of the
tuning fork becomes markedly louder, and we say there is resonance between the tuning fork and air-
column. To determine the natural frequency of the air-column, notice that there is a displacement node
(pressure antinode) at each closed end of the tube as air molecules there are not free to move, and a
displacement antinode (pressure-node) at each open end of the air-column.
In reality antinodes do not occurs exactly at the open end but a little distance outside. However if diameter
of tube is small compared to its length, this end correction can be neglected.

9.1 Closed organ pipe
(In the diagram, Ap = Pressure antinode, As = displacement antinode, Np = pressure node,
Ns = displacement node.)
p
s
AP NS AS
NP
Fundamental mode :
The smallest frequency (largest wavelength) that satisfies the boundary condition for resonance (i.e.
displacement node at left end and antinode at right end is 0 = 4, where  = length of closed pipe the
corresponding frequency.
v v
0 = = is called the fundamental frequency. ..(9.1)
 4L
p s
Ap Np Ap Np Ns As Ns As
First Overtone : Here there is one node and one antinode apart from the nodes and antinodes at the ends.
4 0
1 = =
3 3
and corresponding frequency,
v
1 =  = 30
1
This frequency is 3 times the fundamental frequency and hence is called the 3rd harmonic.
nth overtone :
In general, the nth overtone will have n nodes and n antinodes between the two ends. The corresponding
wavelength is
4 0
n = = and nn  ( 2n + 1)0 ....(9.2)
2n  1 2n  1
This corresponds to the (2n + 1)th harmonic. Clearly only odd harmonic are allowed in a closed pipe.
9.2 Open organ pipe :
Np Ap Np
P
Fundamental mode :
The smallest frequency (largest wave length) that satisfies the boundary condition for resonance
(i.e. displacement antinodes at both ends) is,
0 = 2
corresponding frequency, is called the fundamental frequency
v
0 = ....(9.3)
2

As Ns As Ns As p
s
Np Ap Np Ap Np
1st Overtone : Here there is one displacement antinode between the two antinodes at the ends.
2 0
1 =   =
2 2
and, corresponding frequency
v
1 =  = 20
1
This frequency is 2 times the fundamental frequency and is called the 2nd harmonic.
nth overtone : The nth overtone has n displacement antinodes between the two antinode at the ends.
2 0
n = = and n = (n + 1) 0 ....(9.4)
n 1 n 1
This correspond to (n + 1)th harmonic: clearly both even and odd harmonics are allowed in an open pipe.
9.3 End correction : As mentioned earlier the displacement antinode at an open end of an organ pipe
lies slightly outside the open end. The distance of the antinode from the open end is called end
correction and its value is given by
Np Ap Np
P
2r
e = 0.6 r
e=0.6r
where r = radius of the organ pipe.

with end correction, the fundamental frequency of a closed pipe (fc) and an open organ pipe (f0) will be
given by
v v
fc = 4(  0.6 r ) and f0 = 2(  1.2 r ) ....(9.5)
Example 13.
Fundamental frequency of a organ pipe filled with N2 is 1000 Hz. Find the fundamental frequency if N2 is
replaced by H2.
Solution :
Suppose the speed of sound in hydrogen is vH and that in nitrogen is vN. The fundamental frequency of an
organ pipe is proportional to the speed of sound in the gas contained in it. If the fundamental frequency with
hydrogen in the tube is , we have
n vH MN
= vN = (Since both N2 and H2 are diatomic,  is same for both)
1000 Hz MH
n 28
or, 1kHz =  n = 1000 14 Hz. Ans.
2

Example 14.
A tube open at only one end is cut into two tubes of non equal lengths. The piece open at both ends has of
fundamental frequency of 450 Hz and other has fundamental frequency of 675 Hz. What is the 1 st overtone
frequency of the original tube.
Solution :
v v
450 = 2 675 = 4
1 2
length of original tube = (1 + 2)
its first obtained frequency,
v v (2700  900 )
n1 = 4(   ) = = = 168.75
1 2  v v  42700  900 
4  
 900 675  4 
Ist overtone = 3n1 = 506.25
Example 15.
The range audible frequency for humans is 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. If speed of sound in air is 336 m/s. What can
be the maximum and minimum length of a musical instrument, based on resonance pipe.
Solution :
v
For an open pipe, f = n
2
v
 = .n
2f
Similarly for a closed pipe,
v
= (2n + 1)
4f
v 336
min = 4 f (2n + 1)min = = 4.2 mm
max 4  20000
v v
max = 2f nmax = n = 8.4 (m) × nmax
min 2  20 max
clearly there is no upper limit on the length of such an musical instrument.
Example 16.
A closed organ pipe has length ‘ ‘. The air in it is vibrating in 3rd overtone with maximum amplitude ‘ a‘.
Find the amplitude at a distance of  /7 from closed end of the pipe.
Solution :
The figure shows variation of displacement of particles in a closed organ pipe for 3rd overtone.
7 4  
For third overtone  = or  = or =
4 7 4 7

Hence the amplitude at P at a distance from closed end is ‘a’ because there is an antinode at that
7
point

10. INTERFERENCE IN TIME : BEATS
When two sound waves of same amplitude and different frequency superimpose, then intensity at any point
in space varies periodically with time. This effect is called beats.
If the equation of the two interfering sound waves emitted by s1 and s2 at point O are,
p1 = p0 sin (2f1 t – k1x1 + 1)
p2 = p0 sin (2f2 t – k2x2 + 2) s1
Let –k1x1 + 1 = 1 and – k2x2 + 2 = 2 x1
By principle of superposition O
s2 x2
1   2  –
= 2p0 sin ((f1 + f2)t + ) cos ((f1 – f2) t + 1 2 )
2 2
 f1  f2 
i.e., the resultant sound at point O has frequency   while pressure amplitude p´ (t) varies with time as
 2  0
 1   2 
p´0 (t) = 2p0 cos ( f1  f2 )t  2 


 f1  f2 
Hence pressure amplitude at point O varies with time with a frequency of  .
 2 
Hence sound intensity will vary with a frequency f 1 – f2.
This frequency is called beat frequency (fB) and the time interval between two successive intensity maxima
(or minima) is called beat time period (TB)
f B = f 1 – f2
1
TB = f  f (10.1)
1 2
IMPORTANT POINTS :
(i) The frequency | f1 – f2 | should be less than 16 Hz, for it to be audible.
(ii) Beat phenomenon can be used for determining an unknown frequency by sounding it together with
a source of known frequency.
(iii) If the arm of a tuning fork is waxed or loaded, then its frequency decreases.
(iv) If arm of tuning fork is filed, then its frequency increases.
Example 17.
A tuning fork is vibrating at frequency 100 Hz. When another tuning fork is sounded simultaneously, 4 beats
per second are heard. When some mass is added to the tuning fork of 100 Hz, beat frequency decreases.
Find the frequency of the other tuning fork.
Solution :
|f – 100| = 4  f = 96 or 104
when 1st tuning fork is loaded its frequency decreases and so does beat frequency
 100 > f
 f = 96 Hz.
Example 18.
Two strings X and Y of a sitar produces a beat of frequency 4Hz. When the tension of string Y is slightly
increased, the beat frequency is found to be 2Hz. If the frequency of X is 300Hz, then the original
frequency of Y was.
(A) 296 Hz (B) 298 Hz (C) 302 Hz (D) 304 Hz.
Ans. (A)

Example 19.
A string 25 cm long fixed at both ends and having a mass of 2.5 g is under tension. A pipe closed from one
end is 40 cm long. When the string is set vibrating in its first overtone and the air in the pipe in its fundamental
frequency, 8 beats per second are heard. It is observed that decreasing the tension in the string decreases
the beat frequency. If the speed of sound in air is 320 m/s. Find tension in the string.
Solution :
2.5
 = 0.1 g / cm = 10–2 Kg/m
25
Ist overtone
1 T
 s = 25 cm = 0.25 m  fs =
s 
pipe in fundamental freq
V
 p = 160 cm = 1.6 m  fp = 
p
 by decreasing the tension , beat freq is decreased
1 T 320
 fs > fp  fs –fp = 8  2
 = 8  T = 27.04 N
0.25 10 1 .6
Example 20.
The wavelength of two sound waves are 49cm and 50 cm respectively. If the room temperature is 30 °C then
the number of beats produced by them is approximately (velocity of sound in air at 00C = 332 m/s).
(A) 6 (B) 10 (C) 14 (D) 18
Solution :
303  1 1 
(C) v = 332  Beat frequency = f1 – f2 = v     
273  1 2 
303  1 1 
= 332    × 100  14 Ans.
273  49 50 

11. DOPPLER’S EFFECT
When there is relative motion between the source of a sound/light wave & an observer along the line joining
them, the actual frequency observed is different from the frequency of the source. This phenomenon is called
Doppler’s Effect. If the observer and source are moving towards each other, the observed frequency is greater
than the frequency of the source. If the observer and source move away from each other, the observed
frequency is less than the frequency of source.
(v = velocity of sound wrt. ground. , c = velocity of sound with respect to medium, vm = velocity of medium,
vO = velocity of observer, vs = velocity of source.)
(a) Sound source is moving and observer is stationary :

If the source emitting a sound of frequency f is travelling with velocity vs along the line joining the
source and observer,
 v 
observed frequency, f =  v  v f
 ...(11.1)
 s 
 v  vs 
and Apparent wavelength  =    ...(11.2)
 v 
 In the above expression, the positive direction is taken along the velocity of sound, i.e. from source to
observer. Hence vs is positive if source is moving towards the observer, and negative if source is moving away
from the observer.
(b) Sound source is stationary and observer is moving with velocity v 0 along the line joining
them :
The source (at rest) is emitting a sound of frequency ‘f’ travelling with velocity ‘v’ so that
wavelength is
 = v/f, i.e. there is no change in wavelength. How ever since the observer is moving with a
velocity v0 along the line joining the source and observer, the observed frequency is
 v  v0 
f = f   ...(11.3)
 v 
 In the above expression, the positive direction is taken along the velocity of sound, i.e. from source to
observer. Hence vO is positive if observer is moving away from the source, and negative if observer is moving
towards the source.
(c) The source and observer both are moving with velocities v s and v0 along the line joining
them :
vv 
f = f  v  v 
0
The observed frequency, ...(11.4)
 s 
 v  vs 
and Apparent wavelength  =    ...(11.5)
 v 
 In the above expression also, the positive direction is taken along the velocity of sound, i.e. from source to
observer.
 In all of the above expression from equation 11.1 to 11.5, v stands for velocity of sound with respect to ground.
If velocity of sound with respect to medium is c and the medium is moving in the direction of sound from
source to observer with speed vm, v = c + vm , and if the medium is moving opposite to the direction
of sound from observer to source with speed vm, v = c – vm

Example 21.
A whistle of frequency 540 Hz is moving in a circle of radius 2 ft at a constant angular speed of 15 rad/s. What
are the lowest and height frequencies heard by a listener standing at rest, a long distance away from the
centre of the circle? (velocity of sound in air is 1100 ft/sec.)
Solution :
The whistle is moving along a circular path with constant angular velocity . The linear velocity of the whistle
is given by A
vS = R
O P
where, R is radius of the circle.
B
At points A and B, the velocity vS of whistle is parallel to line OP; i.e., with respect to observer at P, whistle
has maximum velocity vs away from P at point A, and towards P at point B. (Since distance OP is large
compared to radius R, whistle may be assumed to be moving along line OP).
Observer, therefore, listens maximum frequency when source is at B moving towards observer:
v
fmax = f v  v
s
where, v is speed of sound in air. Similarly, observer listens minimum frequency when source is at A, moving
away from observer:
v
fmin = f v  v
s
For f = 540 Hz, vs = 2 ft × 15 rad/s = 30 ft/s, and v = 1100 ft/s,
we get (approx.)
fmax = 555 Hz and, fmin = 525 Hz.
Example 22.
A train approaching a hill at a speed of 40 km/hr sounds a whistle of frequency 600 Hz when it is at a distance
of 1 km from a hill. A wind with a speed of 40 km/hr is blowing in the direction of motion of the train. Find,
(a) the frequency of the whistle as heard by an observer on the hill.
(b) the distance from the hill at which the echo from the hill is heard by the driver and its frequency.
(Velocity of sound in air = 1200 km/hr.)
Solution :
A train is moving towards a hill with speed vs with respect to the ground. The speed of sound in air, i.e. the
speed of sound with respect to medium (air) is c, while air itself is blowing towards hill with velocity vm (as
observed from ground). For an observer standing on the ground, which is the inertial frame, the speed of
sound towards hill is given by
v = c + vm
(a) The observer on the hill is stationary while source is approaching him. Hence, frequency of whistle
heard by him is
v
f´ = f v  v
s
for f = 600 Hz, vs = 40 km/hr, and V = (1200 + 40) km/hr, we get
1240
f´ = 600 . = 620 Hz.
1240  40
(b) The train sounds the whistle when it is at distance x from the hill. Sound moving with velocity v with
respect to ground, takes time t to reach the hill, such that,
x x
t= v  cv ....(i)
m
After reflection from hill, sound waves move backwards, towards the train. The sound is now moving
opposite to the wind direction. Hence, its velocity with respect to the ground is
v’ = c – vm
Suppose when this reflected sound (or echo) reaches the train, it is at distance x’ from hill. The time
taken by echo to travel distance x’ is given by
x' x'
t´ = v  c  v ....(ii)
m

Thus, total time (t + t´) elapses between sounding the whistle and echo reaching back. In the same
time, the train moves a distance (x – x’) with constant speed vs, as observed from ground. That is,
x – x´ = (t + t´) vs.
Substituting from (i) and (ii), for t and t´, we find
vs vs c  vm  vs vs  c  vm
x – x´ = x+ x´ or, x= x´
c  vm c – vm c  vm c  vm
For x = 1 km, c = 1200 km/hr, vs = 40 km/hr, and vm = 40 km/hr, we get
1200  40  40 40  1200  40
×1= x´
1200  40 1200  40
1160
or, x´ = = 0.935 km.
1240
Thus, the echo is heard when train is 935 m from the hill.
Now, for the observer moving along with train, echo is a sound produced by a stationary source, i.e.,
the hill. Hence as observed from ground, source is stationary and observer is moving towards source
with speed 40 km/hr. Hence vO = – 40 km/hr. On the other hand, reflected sound travels opposite to
wind velocity. That is, velocity of echo with respect to ground is v´. Further, the source (hill) is
emitting sound of frequency f´ which is the frequency observed by the hill.
Thus, frequency of echo as heard by observer on train, is given by
v´ v O (1160  ( 40 ))
f´´ = f´  f´´ = × 620 = 641 Hz
v´ 1160
Example 23.
A train producing frequency of 640 Hz is moving towards point c with speed 72 km/hr. A person is sitting
1732 m from point c as shown. Find the frequency heard by person if speed of sound is 330 m/s.
Solution :
The observer A is at rest with respect to the air and the source is
travelling at a velocity of 72 km/h i.e.,
20 m/s. As is clear from the figure, the person receives the sound
of the whistle in a direction BA making an angle  with the track
1732
where tan  = = 3 , i.e.  = 60º. The component of the
1000
velocity of the source (i.e., of the train) along this direction is
20 cos  = 10 m/s. As the source is approaching the person with
this component, the frequency heard by the observer is
v 330
´ = = × 640 Hz = 660 Hz.
v  u cos  330  10
Example 24.
In the figure shown a source of sound of frequency 510 Hz moves with constant velocity vs = 20 m/s in
the direction shown. The wind is blowing at a constant velocity vw = 20 m/s towards an observer who is
at rest at point B. The frequency detected by the observer corresponding to the sound emitted by the
source at initial position A, will be (speed of sound relative to air = 330 m/s)
(A) 485 Hz (B) 500 Hz (C) 512 Hz (D) 525 Hz

Solution : (D)
Apparent frequency
(u  v w ) 510 (330  20 ) 350
n = n (u  v  v cos 60) = 330  20  20 cos 60 = 510 × = 525 Hz Ans.
w s 340


Fluid mechanics deals with the behaviour of fluids at rest and in motion. A fluid is a substance that deforms
continuously under the application of shear (tangential) stress no matter how small the shear stress may be:
Thus, fluid comprise the liquid and gas (or vapour) phases of the physical forms in which matter exists.
We may alternatively define a fluid as a substance that cannot sustain a shear stress when at rest.
1. Density of a Liquid
Density () of any substance is defined as the mass per unit volume or
mass m
= =
volume V
2. Relative Density (RD)

In case of a liquid, sometimes an another term relative density (RD) is defined. It is the ratio of density of the
substance to the density of water at 4°C. Hence,
Density of subs tan ce
RD = Density of water at 4C
RD is a pure ratio. So, it has no units. It is also sometimes referred as specific gravity.
Density of water at 4°C in CGS is 1g/cm 3. Therefore, numerically the RD and density of substance (in CGS)
are equal. In SI units the density of water at 4°C is 1000 kg/m 3.
Example 1. Relative density of an oil is 0.8. Find the absolute density of oil in CGS and SI units.
Solution : Density of oil (in CGS) = (RD)g/cm 3

= 0.8 g/cm3
= 800 kg/m3
3. Pressure in a Fluid
When a fluid (either liquid or gas) is at rest, it exerts a force perpendicular to any surface in contact with it,
such as a container wall or a body immersed in the fluid.
While the fluid as a whole is at rest, the molecules that makes up the fluid are in motion, the force exerted
by the fluid is due to molecules colliding with their surrounding.
RESONANCE FLUID MECHANICS - 59

If we think of an imaginary surface within the fluid, the fluid on the two sides of the surface exerts equal and
opposite forces on the surface, otherwise the surface would accelerate and the fluid would not remain at rest.
Consider a small surface of area dA centered on a point on the fluid, the normal force exerted by the fluid on
each side is dF . The pressure P is defined at that point as the normal force per unit area, i.e.,
dF
P=
dA
If the pressure is the same at all points of a finite plane surface with area A, then
F
P=
A
where Fis the normal force on one side of the surface. The SI unit of pressure is pascal
where 1 pascal = 1Pa = 1.0 N/m 2
One unit used principally in meterology is the Bar which is equal to 105 Pa
1 Bar = 105 Pa
Note : Fluid pressure acts perpendicular to any surface in the fluid no matter how that surface is oriented. Hence,
pressure has no intrinsic direction of its own, its a scalar. By contrast, force is a vector with a definite
direction.
Atmospheric Pressure (P0)

It is pressure of the earth's atmosphere. This changes with weather and elevation. Normal atmospheric
pressure at sea level (an average value) is 1.013 × 105 Pa
Absolute pressure and Gauge Pressure

The excess pressure above atmospheric pressure is usually called gauge pressure and the total pressure is
called absolute pressure. Thus,
Gauge pressure = absolute pressure – atmospheric pressure
Absolute pressure is always greater than or equal to zero. While gauge pressure can be negative also.
Variation in pressure with depth

If the weight of the fluid can be neglected, the pressure in a fluid is the same throughout its volume. But often
the fluid's weight is not negligible and under such condition pressure increases with increasing depth below
the surface.
Let us now derive a general relation between the pressure P at any point in a fluid at rest and the elevation
y of that point. We will assume that the density  and the acceleration due to gravity g are the same
throughout the fluid. If the fluid is in equilibrium, every volume element is in equilibrium.
Consider a thin element of fluid with height dy. The bottom and top surfaces each have area A, and they are
at elevations y and y + dy above some reference level where y = 0. The weight of the fluid element is
dW = (volume) (density) (g) = (A dy) () (g)

or dW = gAdy
What are the other forces in y-direction on this fluid element ? Call the pressure at the bottom surface P, the
total y component of upward force is PA. The pressure at the top surface is P + dP and the total y-component
of downward force on the top surface is (P + dP)A. The fluid element is in equilibrium, so the total y-
component of force including the weight and the forces at the bottom and top surfaces must be zero.
 Fy = 0
 PA – (P + dP)A – gA dy = 0
dP
or  – g
dy

This equation shows that when y incereases, P decreases, i.e., as we move upward in the fluid pressure
decreases.
If P1 and P2 be the pressures at elevatinos y1 and y2 and if  and g are constant, then integration Equation (i),
we get
or P2 – P1 = – g (y2 – y1) ...........(ii)
It's often convenient to express Equation (ii) in terms of the depth below the surface of a fluid. Take point 1 at
depth h below the surface of fluid and let P represents pressure at this point. Take point 2 at the surface of the
fluid, where the pressure is P0 (subscript for zero depth). The depth of point 1 below the surface is,
h = y2 – y1
and equation (ii) becomes
P0 – P = – g (y2 – y1) = – gh
 P = P0 + gh ..........(iii)
Thus pressure increases linearly with depth, if  and g are uniform. A graph between P and h is shown below.
Further, the pressure is the same at any two points at the same level in the fluid. The shape of the container
does not matter.
Example 2. The m anom et er shown below is us ed to m easur e t he dif f erence in water level
between the two tanks. Calculate this difference for the conditions indicated.

Solution : P a + h 1 g – 40 1g + 40g = P a + h 2 g
h 2 g – h 1 g = 40 g – 40  1g
as  1 = 0.9
(h 2 – h 1) g = 40g – 36g
h 2 – h 1 = 4 cm
Example 3. I n a g i v e n U - t u b e ( o p e n a t o n e - e n d ) f i n d o u t r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n P a n d P a.
Given d 2 = 2 × 13.6 gm/cm 3 d 1 = 13.6 gm/cm 3
y=25 cm d2 P
x=26cm
d1
Solution : Pressure in a liquid at same level is same i.e. at A – A–,

Pa  d2 yg  xd1g  P
Pa
y d2 P
x
A A
d
In C.G.S. 1
P a + 13.6 × 2 × 25 × g + 13.6 × 26 × g = P
P a + 13.6 × g [50 + 26] = P
2P a = P [P a = 13.6 × g × 76]
Example 4. Find out pressure at points A and B. Also find angle ‘’.
Solution : Pressure at A – P A = P atm –  1 gl sin 

Pressure at B P B = P atm +  2 gh 
But P B is also equal to P B = P A +  3 gl sin 
Hence - P atm +  2 gh = P A +  3 gl sin 
P atm +  2 gh = P atm –  1 gl sin  +  3 gl sin 
 2h
sin  = (   ) .
3 1

Example 5. W ater and liquid is filled up behind a square wall of side . Find out
(a) Pressures at A, B and C (b) Forces in part AB and BC

Solution : (a) As there is no liquid above ‘A’,
So pressure at A, P A = 0
Pressure at B, P B = gh 1
Pressure at C, P C = gh 1 + 2gh 2
(b) Force at A = 0
Take a strip of width ‘dx’ at a depth ‘x’ in part AB.
Pressure is equal to gx.
Force on strip = pressure × area
dF = gx dx
Total force upto B
h1
gxh12 1000  10  10  5  5
F =  gxdx
0
=
2
=
2
= 1.25 × 10 6 N
In part BC for force take a elementary strip of width dx in portion BC. Pressure is equal to
=gh 1 + 2g(x – h 1)
Force on elementary strip = pressure × area
dF = [gh 1 + 2g(x – h 1)]  dx
Total force on part BC

F = h1
[ gh1  2 g ( x  h1 )]  dx

  x2 
=  gh 1x  2 g   h1x   
  2   h 1
  2  h12 
= gh 1h 2  + 2g  2  h1  h12 
 
2g
= gh 1h 2 + [ 2 + h 12 – 2h 1]
2
= gh 1h 2 +g ( – h 1) 2
= gh 2 [h 1 + h 2] = gh 2 2
= 1000 × 10 × 5 × 10 × 10
= 5 × 10 6 N

Pascal's Law
It states that "perssure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to every portion of the fluid
and the walls of the containing vessel".
A well known application of Pascal's law is the hydraulic lift used to support or lift heavy objects. It is
schematically illustrated in figure.
A piston with small cross cection area A1 exerts a force F1 on the surface of a liquid such as oil. The applied
F1
pressure P  A is transmitted through the connection pipe to a larger piston of area A 2. The applied
1
pressure is the same in both cylinders, so
F F A2
P 1  2 or F2  .F1
A1 A 2 A1
Now, since A2 > A1 , therefore, F2 > F1. Thus hydraulic lift is a force multiplying device with a multiplication
factor equal to the ratio of the areas of the two pistons. Dentist's chairs, car lifts and jacks, elevators and
hydraulic brakes all are based on this principle.
Example 6. Figure shows a hydraulic press with the larger piston of diameter 35 cm at a height of 1.5 m relative
to the smaller piston of diameter 10 cm. The mass on the smaller piston is 20 kg. What is the force
exerted on the load by the larger piston ? The density of oil in the press is 750 kg/ m3.
(Take g = 9.8m/s2)
20  9.8
Solution : Pressure on the smaller piston = 2 2
N / m2
  (5  10 )
F
Pressure on the larger piston = 2 2
N / m2
  (17.5  10 )
The difference between the two pressures = hg
where h = 1.5 m and  = 750 kg/m3
20  9.8 F
Thus, 2 2 – = 1.5 ×750 × 9.8 = 11025
  (5  10 )   (17.5  10 2 )2
 F = 1.3 × 103 N
Note : atmospheric pressure is common to both pistons and has been ignored.

Example 7. The area of cross-section of the two arms of a hydraulic press are 1 cm 2 and 10 cm 2
respectively (figure). A force of 50 N is applied on the water in the thicker arm. What force
should be applied on the water in the thinner arm so that the water may remain in
equilibrium?
Solution : In equilibrium, the pressures at the two surfaces should be equal as they lie in the same
horizontal level. If the atmospheric pressure is P and a force F is applied to maintain the
equilibrium, the pressures are
50N F
P0 + and P 0 + respectively..
10cm2 1 cm 2
This givens F = 5 N.
Important points in Pressure

1. At same point on a fluid pressure is same in all direction . In the figure,
P1 = P2 = P3 = P4
2. Forces acting on a fluid in equilibrium have to be perpendicular to its surface . Because it cannot sustain
the shear stress.
3. In the same liquid pressure will be same at all points at the same level. For example, in the figure:
P1  P2
P3 = P4 and P5 = P6
Further P3 = P4
 P0 + 1 gh1 = P0 + 2 gh2
1
or 1h1 = 2 h2 or h


4. Torricelli Experiment (Barometer) :
It is a device used to measure atmospheric pressure .In principle any liquid can be used to fill the barometer
, but mercury is the substance of choice because its great density makes possible an instrument of rea-
sonable size.
P1 = P2
Here, P1 = atmospheric pressure (P0)
and P2 = 0 +  gh =  gh
Here  = density of mercury
P0  gh
Thus, the mercury barometer reads the atmosheric pressure(P0)

directly from the height of the mercury column .
For example if the height of mercury in a barometer is 760 mm. then atmospheric pressure will be ,
P0  gh
= (13.6 × 103)(9.8)(0.760)
= 1.01×105 N/m2
5. Manometer :
It is a device used to measure the pressure of a gas inside a container. The U- shaped tube often con-
tains mercury
P1 = P2
Here P1 = pressure of the gas in the container (P)
and P2 = atmospheric pressure (P0) +gh
P = P0 + hg
This can also be written as
P – P0 = gauge pressure = gh
Here,  is the density of the liquid used in U - tube .
Thus by measuring h we can find absolute (or gauge) pressure in the vessel.

6. Free body diagram of a liquid :
The free body diagram of the liquid(showing the vertical forces only) is shown in fig (b) For the equilibrium
of liquid .
Net downward force = net upward force

 P0A + W = (P0+ gh)A
or W = ghA
7. Pressure Difference in Accelerating Fluids

Consider a liquid kept at rest in a beaker as shown in figure (a). In this case we know that pressure do not
change in horizontal direction (x- direction), it decreases upwards along y - direction So, we can write the
equations ,
dP dP
0 and  g
dx dy
But, suppose the beaker is acceleratad and it has componets of acceleration ax and ay in x and y directions
respectively , then the pressure decreases along both x and y directions. The above equation in that case
reduces to
dP dP
 a x and  (g  a y )
dx dy
These equations can be derived as under .Consider a beaker filled with some liquid of density  accelerating
upwards with an acceleration ay along positive y - direction , Let us draw the free boby diagram of a small
element of fluid of area A and length dy as shown in figure . Equation of motion for this element is ,
PA – W – (P + dP) A = (mass)(ay)
or –W – (dP) A = (A dy)(ay)

or –(Ag dy) – (dP) A = (A dy)(ay)
dP
or  (g  a y )
dy
Similarly, if the beaker moves along positive x- direction with acceleration ax,the equation of motion for the
fluid element shown in figure is
PA – (P + dP) A = (mass) (ax)
or – (dP) A = (A dx) ax
dP
or  a x
dx
8. Free Surface of a Liquid Accelerated in Horizontal Direction

Consider a liquid placed in a beaker which is accelerating horizontally with an acceleration ‘a’. Let A and
B be two points in the liquid at a separation x in the same horizontal line . As we have seen in this case
dP
 a
dx
dp = a dx
or
Integrating this with proper limits, we get
PA – PB = ax
Furter PA = P0 +gh1
and PB = P0 + gh2
substituting in Eq. (iii) we get
g (h1 – h2) = ax
h1  h2 a
  tan 
x g
a
tan  
g

Alternate Method
Consider a fluid particle of mass m at point P on the surface of liquid. From the accelerating frame of
reference, two forces are acting on it ,
(i) pseudo force(ma)
(ii) Weight (mg)
As we said earlier also, net force in equilibrium should
be perpendicular to the surface .
ma
 tan  
mg
a
or tan  
g
Example 8. An open rectangular tank 1.5 m wide 2m deep and 2m long is half filled with water. It is
accelerated horizontally at 3.27 m/sec 2 in the direction of its length. Determine the depth
of water at each end of tank. [g = 9.81 m/sec 2]
a 1
Solution : tan  = g =
3
Depth at corner ‘A’
= 1 – 1.5 tan
= 0.5 m Ans.
Depth at corner ‘B’
= 1 + 1.5 tan  = 1.5 m Ans.
9. Archimedes 'Principle
If a heavy object is immersed in water , it seems to weigh less than when it is in air . This is because the
water exerts an upward force called buoyant force . It is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body
A body wholly or partially submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the
weight of the displaced fluid.
This result known as Archimedes 'principle .
Thus, the magnitude of buoyant force (F) is given by,
F = ViLg
Here, Vi = immersed volume of solid
L = density of liquid
and g = acceleration due to gravity
Proof
Consider an arbitraily shaped body of volume V placed in a container filled with a fluid of density L .The body
is shown completely immersed , but complete immersion is not essential to the proof . To begin with,
imagine the situation before the body was immersed. The region now occupied by the body was filled with
fluid, whose weight was VLg. Because the fluid as a whole was in hydrostatic equilibrium, the net up-
wards force (due to difference in pressure at different depths) on the fluid in region was equal to the weight of
the fluid occuping that region.

Now , consider what happens when the body has displaced the fluid . The pressure at every point on the
surface of the body is unchanged from the value at the same location when the body was every point on This
is because the pressure at any point depends only on the depth of that point the surface. Hence, the net
force exerted by the surrounding fluid on the body is exactly the same as that exerted on the region before
the body was present.But we now latter to be VLg,the weight of the displaced fluid Hence, this must also
be the buoyant force exerted of the body . Archimedes' principle is thus proved.
10. Law of Floatation

Consider an object of volume V and density s floating in a liquid of density L. Let Vi be the object immersed
in the liquid.
For equilibrium of object ,
Weight = Upthrust
 Vsg = ViLg
Vi s
 
V L
This is the fraction of volume immersed in liquid .
Vi s
Percentage of volume immersed in liquid = ×100 =  ×100
V L
Three possibilties may now arise.

(i) If s < L ,only fraction of body will be immersed in the liquid. This fraction will be given by the above
equation.
(ii) If s = L, the whole of the rigid body will be immersed in the liquid. Hence the body remains floating in
the liquid wherever it is left .
(iii) If s > L,the body will sink .
Apparent Weight of a Body inside a Liquid

If a body is completely immersed in a liquid its effective weight gets decreased. The decrease in its weight
is equal to the upthrust on the body . Hence ,
W app = W actual – Upthrust
or W app = Vsg – VLg
Here, V = total volume of the body
s = density of body
and L = density of liquid
Thus, W app = Vg(s – L)
,, If the liquid in which body is immersed, is water,then
Weight in air
= Relative density of body (R.D)
Decrease in weight
This can be shown as under :
Weight in air Weight in air Vsg s

= = V g = = RD
Decrease in weight Upthrust w w
Buoyant Force in Accelerating Fluids

Suppose a body is dipped inside a liquid of density L placed in an elevator moving with an acceleration

a .The buoyant force F in this case becomes ,
F = VLgeff
 
Here , geff = | g – a |
For example , if the lift is moving upwards with an acceleration a, value of geff is g + a and if it is moving
downwards with acceleration a , the geff is g – a In a freely falling lift geff is zero (as a = g ) and hance,net
buoyant force is zero . This is why , in a freely falled with some liquid, the air bubbles do not rise up (which
otherwise move up due to buoyant force).

Example 9. Density of ice is 900kg/m 3 . A piece of ice is floating in water of density 1000 kg / m 3 .Find the
fraction of volume of the piece of ice out side the water .
Solution : Let V be the total volume and Vi the volume of ice piece immersed in water .For equilibrium of ice
piece,
weight = upthrust
 Vig = Viwg
Here i = density of ice = 900kg/m 3
and w= density of water = 1000kg/m 3
Substituting in above equation, we water
Vi 900
  0.9
V 1000
i.e, the fraction of volume outside the water,
f = 1– 0.9 = 0.1
Example 10. A piece of ice is floating in a glass vessel filled with water. How the level of water in the vessel
change when the ice melts ?
Solution : Let m be the mass of ice piece floating in water .
In equilibrium, weight of ice piece = upthrust
mg = Viwg
m
or Vi 
w
Here , Vi is the volume of ice piece immersed in water
When the ice melt, let V be the vloume of water formed by m mass of ice . Then ,
m
Vi 
w
From Eqs. (i) and (ii) we see that
Vi = V
Hence, the level will not change .
Example 11. A piece of ice having a stone frozen in it floats in a glass vessel filled with water . How will the level
of water in the vessel change when the ice melts ?
Solution : Let, m1 = mass of ice ,
m2 = mass of stone
s = density of stone
and w = density of water
In equilibrium ,when the piece of ice floats in water , weight of (ice+stone ) = upthrust
m1 m2
(m1 + m2)g = Vi wg  Vi =  + 
w w
Here ,Vi = Volume of ice immersed

when the ice melts m1 mass of ice converts into water and stone of mass m 2 is completely
submerged .
Volume of water formed by m 1 mass of ice,
m1
V1 
w
Volume of stone (which is also equal to the volume of water displaced)
m2
V2 
s
Since , s > w Therefore , V1 + V2 <Vi
or, the level of water will decrease .

Example 12. An ornament weighing 50 g in air weighs only 46 g is water . Assuming that some copper is mixed
with gold to prepare the ornament . Find the amomunt of copper in it . Specific gravity of gold is 20
and that of copper is 10.
Solution : Let m be the mass of the copper in ornament . Then mass of gold in it is (50 – m).
m  mass 
Volume of copper V1   volume  
10  density 
50  m
and volume of gold V2 
20
when immersed in water (w = 1g/cm3)
Decrease in weight = upthrust
 (50 – 46 )g = (V1 +V2)wg
m 50  m
or 4 
10 20
or 80 = 2m + 50 – m
 m = 30g
Example 13. The tension in a string holding a solid block below the surface of a liquid (of density greater then that
of solid ) as shown in figure is T0 when the system is at rest. What will be the tension in the string if
the system has an upward acceleration a ?
Solution : Let m be the mass of block . Initially for the equilibrium of block ,
F = T0 + mg
Here, F is the upthrust on the block .
Where the lift is accelerated upwards, geff becomes g + a instead of g . Hence,
ga
F'  F 
 g 
From Newton's second law,
F' – T – mg = ma
Solving Eqs. (i) , (ii) and (iii),we get
 a
T = T0 1  
 g
Example 14. A metal piece of mass 10 g is suspended by a vertical spring. The spring elongates 10 cm
over its natural length to keep the piece in equilibrium. A beaker containing water is now
placed below the piece so as to immerse the piece completely in water. Find the elongation
of the spring. Density of metal = 9000 kg/m 3. Take g = 10 m/s 2.

Solution : Let the spring constant be k. W hen the piece is hanging in air, the equilibrium condition
gives
k (10 cm) = (0.01 kg) (10 m/s 2)
or k (10 cm) = 0.1 N. .............(i)
The volume of the metal piece
0.01kg 1
= = × 10 –5 m 3.
9000 kg / m3 9
This is also the volume of water displaced when the piece is immersed in water. The force
of buoyancy
= weight of the liquid displaced
1
= × 10 –5 m 3 × (1000 kg/m 3) × (10 m/s 2)
9
= 0.011 N.
If the elongation of the spring is x when the piece is immersed in water, the equilibrium
condition of the piece gives,
kx = 0.1 N – 0.011 N = 0.089 N. ..............(ii)
0.089
By (i) and (ii), x = cm = 0.0089 cm.
10
Example 15. A cubical block of plastic of edge 3 cm floats in water. The lower
surface of the cube just touches the free end of a vertical spring
fixed at the bottom of the pot. Find the maximum weight that can be
put on the block without wetting it. Density of plastic = 800 kg/m 3
and spring constant of the spring = 100 N/m. Take g = 10 m/s 2.
Solution : The specific gravity of the block = 0.8. Hence the height inside water = 3 cm × 0.8 = 2.4
cm. The height outside water = 3 cm – 2.4 = 0.6 cm. Suppose the maximum weight that
can be put without wetting it is W. The block in this case is completely immersed in the
water. The volume of the displaced water
= volume of the block = 27 × 10 –6 m 3.
Hence, the force of buoyancy
= (27 × 10 –6 m 3) × 1(1000 kg/m3) × (10 m/s 2) = 0.27 N.
The spring is compressed by 0.6 cm and hence the upward force exerted by the spring
= 100 N/m × 0.6 cm = 0.6 N.
The force of buoyancy and the spring force taken together balance the weight of the block
plus the weight W put on the block. The weight of the block is
W = (27 × 10 –6 m) × (800 kg/m 3) × (10 m/s 2) = 0.22 N.
Thus, W = 0.27 N + 0.6 N – 0.22 N = 0.65 N.
Example 16. A wooden plank of length 2 m and uniform cross-section is hinged at one end to the
bottom of a tank as shown in figure. The tank is filled with water up to a height of  m. The
specific gravity of the plank is 0.5. Find the angle  that the plank makes with the vertical
in the equilibrium position. (Exclude the case  = 0)

Solution : The forces acting on the plank are shown in the figure. The height of water level is
. The length of the plank is 2. The weight of the plank acts through the centre B of the
plank. We have OB = . The buoyant force F acts through the point A which is the middle
point of the dipped part OC of the plank.
OC 
We have OA = = 2 cos  .
2
Let the mass per unit length of the plank be .
Its weight mg = 2g.
  
The mass of the part OC of the plank =   .
 cos  
1  2
The mass of water displaced = = .
0.5 cos  cos 
2g
The buoyant force F is, therefore, F = .
cos 
Now, for equilibrium, the torque of mg about O should balance the torque of F about O.
So, mg (OB) sin = F(OA) sin
 2     1 1
or, (2) =     or, cos 2= or, cos = ,
 cos    2 cos   2 2
or,  = 45°.
Example 17. A cylindrical block of wood of mass m, radius r & density  is floating in water with its axis
vertical. It is depressed a little and then released. If the motion of the block is simple
harmonic. Find its frequency.
Solution : Suppose a height h of the block is dipped in the water in equilibrium position. If r be the
radius of the cylindrical block, the volume of the water displaced = r 2h. For floating in
equilibrium,
 r 2 hg = W ..............(i)
where  is the density of water and W the weight of the block.
Now suppose during the vertical motion, the block is further dipped through a distance x
at some instant. The volume of the displaced water is  r 2 (h + x). The forces acting on the
block are, the weight W vertically downward and the buoyancy  r 2(h + x) g vertically
upward.
Net force on the block at displacement x from the equilibrium position is
F = W – r 2 (h + x)g = W – r 2 hg – r 2xg
Using (i) F = – r 2 gx = – kx,
where k = r 2 g.
Thus, the block executes SHM with frequency.
1 k 1 r 2g
v = = .
2 m 2 m
Example 18. A large block of ice cuboid of height ‘’ and density  ice = 0.9  w, has a large vertical hole
along its axis. This block is floating in a lake. Find out the length of the rope required to
raise a bucket of water through the hole.
Solution : Let area of ice-cuboid excluding hole = A
weight of ice block = weight of liquid displaced
A  ice  g = A  w ( – h) g
9 9   
=  – h  h =  – =  
10 10  10 

11. Flow of Fluids
Steady Flow
If the velocity of fluid particles at any point does not vary with time, the flow is said to be steady. Steady flow
is also called streamlined or laminar flow .The velocity points may be different. Hence in the figure ,
  
v 1 = constant, v 2 = constant, v 3 = constant
  
but v1  v 2  v 3
12. Principle of Continuty
It states that, when an incompressible and non-viscous liquid flows in a stream lined motion through a tube
of nonuniform cross section ,then the product of the area of cross section and the velocity of flow is same
at every point in the tube .
Thus, A1v1 = A2 v2
or Av = constant
1
or v
A
This is basically the law of conservation of mass in fluid dynamics .
Proof
Let us condier two cross sections P and Q of area A1 and A2 of a tube through which a fluid is flowing .Let v1
and v2 be the speeds at these two cross sections. Then being an incompressible fluid , mass of fluid going
through P in a time interval t = mass of fluid passing through Q in the same interval of time t .
 A1v1 t = A2v2 t or A1 vi = A2v2
Therefore, the velocity of the liquid is smaller in the wider

part of the tube and larger in the narrower parts .
or v2 > v1 as A2 < A1
dV
Note : The product Av is the volume flow rate , the rate at which volume crosses a section of the tube .
dt
Hence
dV
= volume flow rate = Avv
dt
The mass flow rate is the mass flow per unit time through a cross section . This is equal to density ()
dV
times the volume flow rate .
dt
we can generalize the continuity equation for the case in which the fluid is not incompressible . If 1 and
2 are the densities at sections1 and 2 then,
1 A 1 v1= 2 A2 v2
so, this is the continuity equation for a compressible fluid

13. Energy of a flowing fluid
There are following three types of energies in a flowing fluid .
(i) Pressure energy
if P is the pressure on the area A of a fluid, and the liquid moves through a distance due to this pressure, then
pressure energy of liquid = work done
= force ×displacement
= PAI
The volume of the liquid is AI .
PAI
 Pressure energy per unit volume of liquid = =P
AI
(ii) Kinetic energy
1
If a liquid of mass m and volume V is flowing with velocity v, then the kinetic energy is mv2
2
 kinetic energy per unit volume of liquid
1 m 2 1 2
=   v = v
2 v 2
Here,  is the density of liquid .
(iii) Potential energy

If a liquid of mass m is at a height h from the reference line (h = 0 ), then its potential energy is mgh.
m
 Potential energy per unit volume of the liquid =   gh = gh
v
14. Bernoulli's Equation

The Bernoulli's equation is "Sum of total energy per unit volume (pressure + kinetic + potential) is
constant for an Ideal fluid".
1 2
P+ v + gh = constant (J/m 3)
2
Bernoulli's equation relates the pressure, flow speed and height for flow of an ideal (incompressible and
nonviscous) fluid .The pressure of a fluid depends on height as the static situation, and it also depens on the
speed of flow .
To derive Bernoulli's equation, we apply the work- energy theorem to the fluid in a section of the fluid element
Consider the element of fluid that at some intial time lies between two cross sections a and b. The speeds
at the lower and upper ends are v1 and v2 In a small time interval, the fluid that is initially at a
moves to aa' distance aa' = ds1 = v1 dt and the fluid that is initally at b moves to b' distance bb' = ds2 = v2dt
,The cross- section areas at the two ends are A1 and A2 as shown. The fluid is incompressible hence, by the
continuity equation, the volume of fluid dV passing through and cross- section during time dt is the same .
That is, dv = A1 ds1 = A2 ds2

Work done on the Fluid Element
Let us calculate the work done on this element during interval dt. The pressure at the two ends are
P1 and P2, the force on the cross section at a is P1 A1 and the force at b is P2 A2 .The net work done dW on
the element by the surrounding fluid during this displacement is ,
dW = P1A1 ds1– P2A2 ds2 = (P1–P2 )dV
Change in potential Energy

At the beginning of dt the potential energy for the mass between a and a' is dmgh1 = (dV)gh1 .At the end of
dt the potential energy for the mass between b and b' is (dm)gh2 = (dv)gh2 .The net change in potential
energy dU during dt is ,
dU =  (dV) g (h2 – h1)
Change in Kinetic Energy
1
At the beginning of dt the fluid between a and a' has volume A1ds1, mass A1 ds1 and kinetic energy (A1
2
1
ds1 ) v12 . At the end of dt the fluid between b and b' has kinetic energy (A2 ds2 ) v 22 . The net change in
2
kinetic energy dK during time dt is.
1
dK =  (dV)( v 22  v12 )
2
Combining Eqs. (i),(ii) and (iii) in the energy equation,
dW = dK + dU
We obtain,
1
(P1 – P2) dV = dV ( v 22  v12 )+  (h2 – h1 )
2
1
or P1 – P2 = ( v 22  v12 ) + g (h2 – h1)
2
This is Bernoulli's equation. It states that the work done on a unit Volume of fluid by the surrounding fluid is
equal to the sum of the changes in kinetic and potential energies per unit volume that occur during the flow.
We can also express Eq. (iv) in a more convenient form as .
1 1
P1 + gh1 +  v12 = P2 + gh2 +  v 22
2 2
The subscripts 1and 2 refer to any two points along the flow tube ,so we can also write
1 2
 + gh + v = constant
2
Note: When the fluid is not moving (v1 = 0 = v2 ) Bernoulli' s equation reduces to ,
P1 + gh1= 2 + gh2
 P1 – P2 = g(h2 – h1)
This is the pressure relation we derived for a fluid at rest .
Example 19. Calculate the rate of flow of glycerine of density 1.25 × 103 kg / m3 through the conical section of
a pipe ,if the radii of its ends are 0.1m and 0.04 m and the pressure drop across its length is 10
N/m .
Solution : From continuity equation ,
A1 v1 = A2 v2
2
v1 A2 r22  r2   0.04  4
or    
v 2 = A 1 = r12 =  r1  =  0.1  = 25

From Bernoulli's equation ,
1 1
P1 +  v12 = P2 +  v 22
2 2
2(P1  P2 )
or v 22 – v 12 = 
2  10
or v 22 – v 12 = = 1.6 × 10-2 m 2 /s
1.25  10 3
Solving Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get
v2  0 .128 m/s
 Rate of volume flow through the tube
 
Q = A2v2 = r22 v2
=(0.04) (0.128)
2
= 6.43 × 10-4 m3/s
15. Applications Based on Bernoulli's Equation

(a) Venturimeter
Figure shows a venturimeter used to measure flow speed in a pipe of nonuniform cross- section .We apply
Bernoulli's equation to the wide (point 1) and narrow (point 2) parts of the pipe , with h1 = h2
1 1
P1 +  v12 = P2 +  v 22
2 2
A 1v1
From the continuity equation v2 = A
2
Substituting and rearranging, we get
1  A12 
  1
P1 – P2 =  v12  A2 
2  2 
The pressure difference is also equal to pgh, where h is the difference in liquid level in the two tubes.Substituting
in Eq. (i)we get
2gh
2
v1 =  A1 
   1
 A2 
The discharge or volume flow rate can be obtained as ,
2gh
dV 2
= A1 v1= A1  A1 
dt    1
 A2 

(b) Seed of Efflux
Suppose, the surface of a liquid in a tank is at a height h from the orifice O on its sides,through which the
liquid issues out with velocity v. The speed of the liquid coming called the speed of efflux . If the dimensions
of the tank be sufficiently large, the velocity of the liquid at its surface may be taken to be zero and since the
pressure there as well as at the orifice O is the same viz atmospheric it plays no part in the flow of the liquid,
which thus occurs purely in consequence of the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid itself. So that, considering
a tube of flow , starting at the liquid surface and ending at the orifice , as shown in figure .Applying Bernoulli's
equation we have
Total energy per unit volume of the liquid at the surface

= KE + PE + pressure energy = 0 + gh + P0
and total energy per unit volume at the orifice
1 2
= KE + PE + pressure = v + 0 + P0
2
Since total energy of the liquid must remain constant in steady flow, in accordance with
Bernoulli's equation we have
1 2
gh + P0 = v + P0 or v = 2gh
2
Evangellista Torricelli showed that this velocity is the same as the liquid will attain in falling freely through
the height (h) from the surface to the orifice. This is known as Torricelli's theoern and may be stated as.
"The velocity of efflux of a liquid issuing out of an orifice is the same as it would attain if allowed to fall freely
through the vertical height between the liquid surface and orifice.
16. Range (R)
Let us find the range R on the ground
Cosidering the vertical motion of the liquid ,
1 2 2(H  h)
(H – h ) = gt or t=
2 g
Now , considering the horizontal motion,
 2(H  h) 
 
R = vt R= 2gh  g  or R = 2 h(H  h)
 
From the expresion of R, following conclusions can be drawn,
(i) Rh = RH-h
as Rh = 2 h(H  h) and RH-h = 2 h(H  h )
H
This can be maximum at h = and Rmax = H.
2
Proof : R2 = 4 (Hh –h2)
dR 2
For R to be maximum, =0
dh
H
or H – 2h = 0 or h=
2
H H H
That is, R is maximum at h= and Rmax= 2 H   = H
2 2 2

Time taken to empty a tank
We are here interested in finding the time required to empty a tank if a hole is made at the bottom ofTttheittank.
Consider a tank filled with a liquid of density  upto a height H. A small hole of area of cross section a is made
at the bottom of the tank . The area of cross- section of the tank is A .
Let at some instant of time the level of liquid in the tank is y . Velocty of efflux at this instant of time would be
v= 2gy
 dV1 
Now , at this instant volume of liquid coming out of the hole per second is  .
 dt 
 dV2 
Volume of liquid coming down in the tank per second is  .
 dt 
dV1 dV2
me taken to empty a t =
dt dt
 dy   dy 
 av= A     a 2gy = A   
 dt   dt 
t A 0
 dt = – y
1/ 2
or a 2g dy
0 H
2A H A 2H
 t = a 2g [ y ] 0  t=
a g
Example 20. Water flows in a horizontal tube as shown in figure. The pressure of water changes by 600
N/m 2 between x and y where the areas of cross-section are 3cm 2 and 1.5cm 2 respectively.
Find the rate of flow of water through the tube.
Solution : Let the velocity at x = v x and that at y = v y.
vy 3 cm2
By the equation of continuity, = = 2.
vx 1.5 cm2
By Bernoulli’s equation,
1 1 1 1 3
Px +  v x2 = P y + v y2 or, Px – Py = (2v y) 2 – v y2 = v y2
2 2 2 2 2
N 3  kg 
or, 600 = 1000  v 2
2 m3
m 2   x
or, vx = 0.4 m 2 / s 2 = 0.63 m/s.

The rate of flow = (3 cm 2) (0.63 m/s) = 189 cm 3/s.

Example 21. A cylindrical container of cross-section area, A is filled up with water upto height ‘h’.
Water may exit through a tap of cross section area ‘a’ in the bottom of container. Find out
(a) Velocity of water just after opening of tap.

(b) The area of cross-section of water stream coming out of tape at depth h 0 below
tap in terms of ‘a’ just after opening of tap.
(c) Time in which container becomes empty.
1/ 2
a
(Given :    0.02 , h = 20 cm, h = 20 cm )
A 0
Solution : Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1) and (2) -
1 1
P a + gh + v 2 = P a + v 22
2 1 2
Through continuity equation :
av 2 1 1
Av 1 = av 2, v 1 = gh + v 12 = v 22
a 2 2
2gh
on solving - v 2 = a 2 = 2m/sec. ....(1)
1
A2
(b) Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (2) and (3)
1 1
v 2 + gh 0 = v 32
2 2 2
Through continuity equation -
av 2
av 2 = a’ v 3  v3 =
a'
2
1 1  av 2 

 v 22 + gh 0 = 
2 2  a' 

2
1 1 a
× 2 × 2 + gh 0 =   ×2 ×2
2 2  a' 
2 2
a 9.8  .20 a a
  = 1 +    = 1.98  a’ =
 a'  2  a'  1.98

(c) From (1) at any height ‘h’ of liquid level in container, the velocity through tap,
2gh
v= = 20 h
0.98
we know, volume of liquid coming out of tap = decrease in volume of liquid in
container.
For any small time interval ‘dt’
av 2dt = – A · dx
t 0
A dx
a 20 x dt = – A dx
0

 dt = –
a 
h
20 x
A A
t =
a 20 2 x  0
h
 t =
a 20 2 h
A h 2A 0.20 2A
= × 2 × = = × 0.1
a 20 a 20 a
1/ 2
a A 1
Given   = 0.02 or = = 2500
A a 0.0004
Thus t = 2 × 2500 × 0.1 = 500 second.
Example 22. A tank is filled with a liquid upto a height H .A small hole is made at the bottom of this tank Let t 1
be the time taken to empty first half of the tank and t2 is the time taken to empty rest half of the tank
t1
then find t .
2
Solution : Substiuting the proper limits in Eq. (i), derived in the theroy, we have
t1 A H/ 2
 dt  – a
0 2g 
H
y1/ 2dy
2A 2A  H
or
H
t1 = a 2g [ y]H/2 or t1 = a 2g  H


2  or t1 =
A
a
H
g  2  1
t2 A 0
Similarly  dt= – a
0 2g 
H/ 2
y 1/ 2 = dy
A H
or t2 =
a g
We get
t1 t1
t2 = 2 1 or t 2 = 0.414
Note : From here we see that t1 < t2 This is because initially the pressure is high and the liquid comes out with


“ Tension force generated in (applied by) the liquid surface is called surface tension force”
In the fluid mechanics we have studied about the inner part of liquid, but in this chapter we will concentrate
only on the surface of the liquid. The forces on the surface molecules are slightly different than the forces on
inner molecules. Lets see how !
Explanation of surface tension on the basis of intermolecular forces :
Actually surface tension is created due to cohesive forces, which is attractive force between the molecules
of same substance.
Figure shows a container filled with a liquid. Consider a molecule ‘A’ which is inside the liquid. Equal cohesive
force from all the direction acts on it. So net cohesive force on it is zero.
So cohesive force is meaningless for the liquid inside. That ‘s why we didn’t used it in fluid mechanics.
Now lets consider a molecule ‘B’ on the surface. Water molecules are only below it, but there is no water
molecule above it. So only the water molecules below it applies cohesive forces, and the resulting cohesive
force is downwards.
Due to this downward force, a tension is generated in the surface, just like due to suspended weight, tension
is generated in the rope.
The tension generated in the surface is called surface tension force. Due to surface tension, the liquid
surface behaves like a stretched membrane (rubber sheet) and try to minimize its area.
Explanation of surface tension on the basis of energy :

As we have seen, the molecule inside the liquid is attracted by the surrounding liquid molecules from all the
directions. So it will has more negative energy (say –10). But the molecule on the surface is surrounded by
liquid molecules only in lower half. So it will have less negative energy (say –5)
Less negative means more energy. So the molecules of surface have more energy than the molecule inside.
For stability, the energy should be minimum possible. For minimum energy, the surface molecules should be
minimum and hence surface area should be minimum. So the surface tries to minimize its area and due to
this a tension is generated in the surface.
Some simple evidence of surface tension :
(i)
A piece of stone can be of random shape because solids don’t have surface tension. But a piece of water
(water drop) is in spherical shape. Since there is tension in surface of water. So the water surface act like a
tight membrane (tight bag). To minimize its surface area, the water drop takes spherical shape. For small
RESONANCE SURFACE TENSION - 83

drop gravitational pressure (gh) is negligible so the small drop is almost spherical. But in big drop gravita-
tional pressure (gh) is considerable so the big drop has oval shape.
(ii) If we put a needle very slowly on the water surface, it will float on the surface as if it were put on a tight
membrane. This also proves that there is a tension in the liquid surface due to which it act like a tight
membrane.
(iii)
Figure shows a U shaped fixed wire frame, on which very light slider can slide. Dip the frame in soap solution
and take it out. A thin film of soap solution is formed between the frame and slider, which is purely a surface.
Now if we release the slider, it will move upwards, this shows that there is a tension in the liquid surface. The
liquid surface applied tension force (pulling force) on the slider in contact, due to which the slider try to move
upward. To keep the slider in equilibrium, we have to hang some weight. This is very close example. From
this, we can also measure surface tension force.
Consider three cases (i), (ii) and (iii). In which case, the surface tension force on the slider is more ?
Practically it is observed that in case (i) surface tension force on slider is
least, it is more in case (ii) and most in case (iii). In case (iii), we have to
hang more weight to keep the slider in equilibrium. From this example it is
clear that surface tension force depends on contact length which is
greatest in case (iii)
Surface tension force (F)  contact length ()
F = (T) 

Here T is a constant which is called surface tension constant. T depends on the properties of liquid and also
on the medium which is on the other side of liquid.
• If we increase the temperature, surface tension constant (T) decreases.

• If we add highly soluble substances like NaCl, ZnSO4 etc. then surface tension constant (T) increases.
• If we add sparingly soluble substances like soap, phenol, then surface tension (T) decreases.
Result :
Surface applies tension force (pulling force) on the other part of surface and also on any object (like slider)
which is in contact.
Surface tension force
F = (T) () where  = contact length = length of Boundary line between the two surfaces
F
also T = so the definition of surface tension (T) can be written as

The surface tension of a liquid can be measured as the force per unit length on an imaginary line drawn on
the liquid surface, which acts perpendicular to the line on its either side at every point and tangentially to
the liquid surface.
Example 1.
Figure shows the container of radius R filled with water. Consider
an imaginary diametric line dividing the surface in two parts: Left
half and right half. Find surface tension force between the left half
surface and the right half surface.
Solution : Both left half and right half surface will pull each other with a force
F = (T) ()
where  is the length of boundary lines between the two surfaces which is equal to 2R
So F = (T) (2R)
Example 2.
Consider a water drop of radius R. Find surface tension force between the
left half surface and right half surface ?
Solution :
Surface tension force
F = (T) ()
here  = length of boundary line between left half and
right half surface = 2R
So F = (T)(2R)

Example 3.
Between a frame and a light slider, a thin film of soap solution is made.
Whose length is x and width is y. Find surface tension force on the slider.
To keep the slider in equilibrium, how much weight should be suspended ?
Solution.
The surface will act like a tight membrane and pull the slider with a force
F = (T) ()
Since this a film, it will have two surfaces: the front surface and the back surface. On the front surface,
contact length is x, and also on the back surface contact length is x. So total contact length will be  = x +
x = 2x
So surface tension force on slider.
F = (T)(2x)
For equilibrium, this force will be balanced by weight of suspended block.
(T)(2x) = mg
2Tx
m=
g
Example 4.
Consider a bubble of soap solution. Find the surface tension force between the left half surface and right half
surface
Solution :
The bubble also have two surfaces: the inner surface and the outer surface. And in the small thickness
between them, there is some liquid. So the surface tension force will be applied by inner surface as well as
the outer surface [T(2R)].
So total surface tension force between left half and right half surface is
F = (T)(2R) + (T)(2R) = T(4R)

Example 5.
A thin disc of radius R, just touching the liquid surface, forms one arm of a balance. The plate is balanced by
some weight on the other side of the balance. How much extra weight should be added on the other side, so
that the disc can just come out of water ?
Solution:
Surface tension force on the disc is (T)(2R)
(T )(2R)
For balance (T) (2R) = (m)g  m =
g
Example 6.
In the previous question, in place of disc a ring is used whose inner radius is R1 and outer radius is R2. Now
how much extra weight should be added on the other side, so that the ring can just come out of water ?
Solution:
Surface tension force on the disc is (T) 2R1 + R2 )
(T )2(R1  R 2 )
For balance (T) 2R1 + R2 ) = (m)g  m = g
Example 7. (Only for JEE Advanced)
A long thin straight uniform wire of negligible radius is supported on the surface of a liquid. The width of the
container is 2d and the wire is kept at its centre, parallel to its length (as shown in figure). The surface of the
liquid is depressed by a vertical distance y(y << d) at the centre as shown in figure. If the wire has mass  per
unit length, what is the surface tension of the liquid? Ignore end effects.

y
2
Sol. Balancing upward an downward forces

2(T sin) = ()g
y
as angle is very small sin  tan  
d
y
2(T) = ()g
d
gd
T = 2y
Surface energy :
Potential energy stored due to surface tension force is called surface energy.
To understand this, suppose a thin film of soap solution is formed between the
fix frame and the slider. Both front and the back surface will pull the slider with
a force of F = 2(T)
Now we move the slider forward by a distance x.
During this :
Work done by surface tension force = –(2T)(x)
(As surface tension force is opposite of displacement)
 Work done against surface tension force = +(2T)x
 Increase in surface potential energy = +(2T)x
where 2x = increasing surface area (increase in front area = x, increase in back area = x)
Increase in surface potential energyU = (T)(A) = (T) (increase in surface area)
or generally, we can say that
Surface energy U = (T)(A) = (T) (surface area)

U F
also T= and previously we have seen that T =
A 
So Surface tension is surface energy per unit surface area
Surface tension is also tension force generated on the surface per unit length.
Example 8.
1000 small water drops, each of radius r, combine and form a big drop. In this process, find decrease in
surface energy.
Solution :
Suppose radius of big drop is R. During this process, mass will be conserved, so volume will also be conserved.
(Volume) initial = (Volume) final
4 3 4 
 r   1000   R 3   R = 10r
 3   3 
loss in surface energy
Uloss = TAloss = T( (4r2) × 1000 – 4(10r)2 )
Uloss = (T) (900 × 4r2)
this energy loss will be converted into heat. So increase in temperature of the drop can be found from
T(900 × 4r2) = msT , From this get the increase in temperature T.

Example 9.
If a number of little droplets of water, each of radius r, coalesce to form a single drop of radius R, show that
the rise in temperature will be given be
3T  1 1 
  
J r R
where T is the surface tension of water and J is the mechanical equivalent of heat. Here r, R and T are in CGS
system
Solution :
suppose n small water drop combine and form a big drop. During this process so volume will also be conserved
(Volume) initial = (Volume) final
4 3 4 R3
 r   n = R 3  n=
3  3 r3
Loss in surface energy
Uloss = TAloss = T(4r3×n – 4R2)
R3
Put n=
r3
 3 
T  4r 2  R  4R 2 
get Uloss =  3 
 r 
31 1
Uloss = T 4R   
r R
1 1 
T(4R3)    = ms  when m = (vol)
r R
1 1  4 3
T(4R3)    = (1 gm/cm3)  R  (1 cal/gm ºC)T
r R 3 
3T  1 1 
get  = 
J  r R 
SHAPE OF LIQUID SURFACE :
If we fill water in glass tube, the surface becomes concave in shape, if water is filled in silver tube, the surface
becomes horizontal and if Hg is filled in glass tube, the surface becomes convex.
Shape of liquid surface is called meniscus. At point of contact, angle between the tangent to the liquid
surface and solid surface submerged in liquid is called angle of contact ().
In figure (i) angle of contact is acute.
In figure (ii), angle of contact is 90° and in figure (iii) angle of contact is obtuse. Angle of contact can also be
observed when a liquid drop is put on a plate as shown below :

The shape of liquid surface depends on cohesive and adhesive forces.
Cohesive force : The force of attraction between the molecules of the same substance is called cohesive
force. The cohesive forces is effective if distance between molecules is less than 10–9 m. If distance between
molecule is greater than 10–9 m then cohesive force is negligible. The sphere drawn around a particular
molecule as centre and range of cohesive forces (10–9 m) as radius is called sphere of influence (sphere
of molecular activity). The centre of molecule is attracted by only the molecules lying inside the sphere of
influence.
Example : cohesive force between water molecules.
On the corner molecule (see the figure (i) (a) bellow), all the neighbouring water molecules will apply cohesive
force, so net cohesive force (Fc) on it can be assumed to be centered at 45° angle with vertical.
Other examples of Cohesive force :
(i) Two drops of a liquid coalesce into one when brought in mutual contact because of the cohe
sive force.
(ii) It is difficult to separate two sticky plates of glass wetted with water because a large force has
to be applied against the cohesive force between the molecules of water.
(iii) It is very difficult to break a drop of mercury into small droplets because of large cohesive force
between mercury molecules.
Adhesive force : The force of attraction between different substances is called adhesive force.
Example Adhesive force between water and glass tube.
On the corner molecule, adhesive force will be towards the glass wall as shown in figure (i) (a) bellow.
Other examples of adhesive force :
Examples.
(i) Adhesive force enables us to write on the black board with a chalk.
(ii) Adhesive force helps us to write on the paper with ink.
(iii) Large force of adhesion between cement and bricks helps us in construction work.
(iv) Due to force of adhesive, water wets the glass plate.
(v) Fevicol and gum are used in gluing two surfaces together because of adhesive force.
Fc
Case-   If water is filled in a glass tube, Fad >then the resultant force will be as shown in (i) (b). As the
2
water surface always adjusts itself perpendicular to the resultant force. So the surface will be concave.
Fc
Case -II : If water is filled in silver tube , Fad =so resultant will be vertically downwards. So liquid surface
2
will be horizontal. (perpendicular to resultant force).

Fc
Case -III : If Hg is filled in glass tube, Fad < so resultant force will be as shown in (iii) (b). As the surface
2
adjusts itself perpendicular to the resultant force so surface will be convex.
PRESSURE EXCESS INSIDE A LIQUID DROP :
Due to stretched rubber, the air The water surface also acts like a stretched rubber.
inside gets compressed. So pressure So due to tension in the surface the water inside get
of air inside will be greater than compressed
pressure of air outside
So the pressure of water inside will be greater than the outside atmospheric pressure. This extra pressure is
called pressure excess.
To find pressure excess, make free body diagram of the half part. The forces on this hemisphere are :

(i) Pushing force on the left half liquid due to right half liquid will be (Pin)(r2)
(ii) Pushing force due to atmospheric pressure will be (P0) × (facing area) = P0(r2)
(iii) Surface tension force on left half surface due to right half surface will be (T)(2r)
Applying force balance :

(Pin)(r2) = P0(r2) + (T)(2r)
2T 2T
 Pin = P0 + , here is called pressure excess. So pressure inside the drop will be greater than
r r
2T
pressure outside the drop by
r
2T
Generally we can say that pressure at concave part will be greater than pressure at convex part by
r
where r is radius of curvature of the surface between them.
Example 10.
Water is filled in a capillary tube of radius R. If the surface of water is hemispherical ( = 0), then find pressure
at a point ‘A’ which is at h depth below the surface.

Sol.
2T
Water is on convex part. So pressure of water just below the surface will be less by . So pressure at
R
2T
point A is P0   pgh . Here surface of water was hemispherical (contact angle  = 0) so radius of curvature
R
of the surface = radius of the tube = R.
Example 11.
In the previous question, suppose contact angle is not zero , but it is  (the surface not hemispherical) now
find pressure at point ‘A’
Sol
Draw normal (radial lines) at point A and B of periphery. The point (C) where radial lines meet is
called centre of curvature. If contact angle is  ,from  ACM, rC = R sec
So radius of curvature of the surface rC = R sec.
Point to remember :
If the liquid surface is hemispherical ( = 0) then rc = R
If liquid surface is not hemispherical (  0) then rc = R sec 
2T
So pressure at A is P0   gh
R sec

Example 12.
A small air bubble (cavity of air) of radius r is at depth ‘h’ .Find the pressure inside the bubble.
Solution : Out of water and air (inside the bubble) air is on concave part.
Pressure excess inside a liquid bubble kept in air :-
4T
So pressure inside the liquid bubble = P0 
r
4T
So pressure excess inside the liquid bubble =
r
Alternative method :-
Draw free body diagram of half part of bubble. The force on this hemisphere are :
(i) Pushing force on the left half liquid due to right half liquid will be (Pin)(r2)
(ii) Pushing force due to atmospheric pressure will be (P0) × (facing area) = P0(r2)
(iii) Surface tension force on both inner and outer surface will be (T)(2r) × 2

Applying force balance :
4T
(Pin)(r2) = P0(r2) + (T)(2r) × 2  Pin = P0 + ,
r
4T
So pressure excess inside a liquid bubble =
r
Example 13.
Two soap bubbles are formed on the ends of the tube as shown . If valve is opened , in which direction will the
air flow ?
Solution :
 4T 
Radius of curvature of smaller bubble ‘B’ is less so pressure inside the smaller bubble will be more  P0  .
 r 
Air will flow from high pressure to low pressure , so it will flow from smaller bubble to bigger bubble .The small
bubble will grow smaller and the big bubble will grow bigger.

Example 14.
Two soap bubbles of radius r1 and r2 combine .Find radius of curvature of the common surface separating
them.
4T 4T 4T
Sol. P0     P0
r2 rc r1
1 1 1
 
rc r2 r1
r1 r2
rc 
r1  r2
Example 15. (Only for JEE Advance)

A soap bubble of radius r and surface tension constant T is given a charge, so that its surface charge density
is . Due to charge, the radius os the soap bubble becomes double then find ''. (atmospheric pressure = P0)
Sol. Initial pressure inside the bubble
4T
Pi = P0 +
r
Now a uniform surface charge in given to the bubble
4T
The surface tension is a pulling force, which increases pressure inside the bubble (by )
r
But the charges given to the surface will repel each other. So due to the charge given, pressure inside the
2
bubble will decrease (by )
20
So, final pressure inside the bubble
4T  2
Pf = P0 + 
rf 2 0
As the temperature of the gas inside the bubble if constant so,
PiVi = PfVf
 2T   4 3   4T  2  4 3
 P0    r  =  P0     r 
 3 f 
 r 3   rf 2 0 
Here Put rf = 2r
 12T 
So, get  =  7P0   2 0 .
 r 
Example 16. (Only for JEE Advance)

A minute spherical air bubble is rising slowly through a column of mercury contained in a deep jar. If the
radius of the bubble at a depth of 100 cm is 0.1 mm, calculate its depth where its radius is 0.126 mm, given
that the surface tension of mercury is 567 dyne/cm. Assume that the atmospheric pressure is 76 cm of
mercury.

Sol. The total pressure inside the bubble at depth h1 is (P is atmospheric pressure)
2T
= (P + h1 g) + = P1
r1
2T
and the total pressure inside the bubble at depth h2 is = (P + h2 g) + = P2
r2
Now, according to Boyle’s Law
4 4
P1V1 = P2V2 where V1=  r 13 , and V2 = r23
3 3
 2T  4  2T  4
(P  h1 g)   (P  h2  g)  
Hence we get r1  3  r1 = r2  3  r2
3 3
 
 2T   2T 
or, (P  h1 g)   3 (P  h 2  g)   3
 r1  r1 =  r2  r2
Given that : h1 = 100 cm, r1 = 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm, r2 = 0.126 mm = 0.0126 cm, T = 567 dyne/cm, P = 76 cm
of mercury. Substituting all the values, we get
h2 = 9.48 cm.
CAPILLARY ACTION :
A glass tube of very small diameter is called capillary
If we dip the capillary tube in water, due to the concave surface, pressure just below the surface becomes
2T
P0 – r , while on the other points at the same horizontal level, pressure is P0. Due to this less pressure
c
water level in the tube rises up, till pressure becomes equal at the same horizontal level (At point A and B)
2T
P0   gh = P
rc 0
2T
 h = gr
c
where rc = radius of curvature of the water surface. If the water surface is hemispherical ( = 0), then rc = R
but if water surface is not hemispherical ( 0), then rc = R sec
2T cos 
 h=
gR
From this formula, we can say that
If  < 90° then h =  ve, so water in capillary will rise up (Ex. water in glass tube).

If  = 0 so h = 0, so water in the capillary will not rise. (Ex. water in silver tube).
If  > 90°, h = –ve, so liquid in capillary will go down. (Ex. mercury in glass tube).
Deriving capillary rise from force balance :
As we dip the capillary in water, the surface pulls the capillary walls in downwards direction, so the capillary
walls pulls the surface in upward direction as shown in figure, due to which water will rise up till the forces get
balanced.
Lets draw free body diagram of the water raised up . Forces on it are :
(i) The surface pulls the capillary in downward direction, so as a reaction, the capillary pulls the surface
in upward direction. Their horizontal components will be cancelled out and their vertical components
will be added up. So net surface tension force will be vertically upwards and will be (T)(2R)cos .
(ii) The weight of raised water; we can neglect the weight of meniscus. So the weight of
raised water = ()(R2h)g
For equilibrium, forces should be balanced.
(T)(2R)cos = ()(R2h)g
2T
 h= cos
gR
1
From this equation we can say that h  So if the capillary is thin, water will raise to more height.
R
If pure water is inside a glass tube,
2T
then   0 so h =
gR
Although in the previous derivation the volume of meniscus is negligeable , but if we have to consider the
2 3
volume of meniscus then the volume of water raised will be r2 (h + r) – r so applying force balance
3
2 3  r 2T
(T)(2R)cos = ()(r2 (h + r) – r )g solving  h   = cos
3  3  gR
Practical Applications of Capillarity

1. The oil in a lamp rises in the wick by capillary action.
2. The tip of nib of a pen is split up, to make a narrow capillary so that the ink rises upto the tip of nib
continuously.

3. Sap and water rise upto the top of the leaves of the tree by capillary action.
4. If one end of the towel dips into a bucket of water and the Other end hangs over the bucket the towel
soon becomes wet throughout due to capillary action.
5. Ink is absorbed by the blotter due to capillary action.
6. Sandy soil is more dry than clay. It is because the capillaries between sand particles are not so fine as
to draw the water up by capillaries.
7. The moisture rises in the capillaries of soil to the surface, where it evaporates. To preserve the moisture
in the soil, capillaries must be. broken up. This is done by ploughing and leveling the fields
8. Bricks are porous and behave like capillaries.
Example 17.
A capillary of internal radius 4 mm, is dipped in water. To how much height, will the water rise in the capillary.
(Twater = 70 × 10–3 N/m, g = 10 m/sec2, water 103 kg/m3, contact angle   0)
Sol. Capillary rise
2T 2  70  10 3
h= cos   3 ...(1)
gR 10  10  4  10 3
h = 3.5 mm
Example 18.
If all the glass capillaries have same internal radius, then in which of the capillary, water will rise to move
height ?
 2T 
Sol. The height of water in the capillary  h  cos   doesn’t depend on shape of the capillary. So water will
  gr 
raise to same height in all the tubes.
(However the length of water column in the tubes can be different)
If capillary tube of insufficient length is used :

Suppose a thin capillary tube of radius 0.35 mm is dipped in water. T water = 70 × 10–3 N/m,   0.
In this case water will rise up to a height
2T 2  70  10 3
h= cos = = 4cm
gR 10 3  10  0.35  10 3

Now suppose we use shorter capillary of same radius, but its length is only 2 cm. It is slightly dipped in the
water.
To balance the pressure, water level will rise up in the capillary, it will reach upto the upper end of the tube,
and now the contact angle will change till the pressure at same horizontal level is balanced. Balancing
pressure at point A (inside the capillary) and point B (outside)
2T 2T
P0 – cos + gh = P0  h= cos 
R gR
2  70  10 3
2 × 10–2 = cos
10 3  10  0.35  10 3
1
cos =   = 60°
2
So water level will reach to the topmost point of the capillary (= 2cm) and now contact angle will change to
60°. Water will not overflow out of upper end in the form of fountain.
Example 19.
In the U-tube, radius of one arm is R and the other arm is 2R. Find the difference in water level if contact angle
is  = 60° and surface tension of water is T.

Sol.
Balancing pressure at points A and B situated in same horizontal level.

2T 2T
P0 – cos  + gh = P0 – cos 
R 2R
here  = 60°, solving we get
T
h =
2gR
Example 20.
There is a small hole of diameter 0.1 mm at the bottom of a large container. To what minimum height we can
fill water in it, so that water doesn’t come out of hole. (T water = 75 × 10–3 N/m) water = 103 kg/m3, g = 10m/sec2
Solution :
The lower surface of water, which will try to come out will be spherical. Pressure just outside the spherical
surface is :
2T
P0 + gh – cos = P0
R
2T
h= cos 
gR
2T
(h)max = (cos )max and (cos)max = 1
gR
2T 2  75  10 3
So (h)max = =
gR 10  10  0.1 10 3
3
(h)max = 15 cm
SOME OTHER APPLICATIONS OF SURFACE TENSION
(i) The wetting property is made use of in detergents and waterproofing. When the detergent
materials are added to liquids, the angle of contact decreases and hence the wettability
increases. On the other hand, when water proofing material is added to a fabric, it increases
the angle of contact, making the fabric water-repellant.
(ii) The antiseptics have very low value of surface tension. The low value of surface tension prevents
the formation of drops that may otherwise block the entrance to skin or a wound. Due to low
surface tension the antiseptics spreads properly over the wound. The lubricating oils and paints
also have low surface tension. So they can spread properly.
(iii) Surface tension of all lubricating oils and paints is kept low so that they spread over a large area.
(iv) Oil spreads over the surface of water because the surface tension of oil is less than the surface
tension of cold water.
(v) A rough sea can be calmed by pouring oil on its surface.
Miscellaneous Problems:

A barometer contains two uniform capillaries of radii 1.44 × 10–3 m and 7.2 × 10–4 m. If the height of the liquid
in the narrow tube is 0.2 m more than that in the wide tube, calculate the true pressure difference. Density of
liquid = 103 kg/m3, surface tension = 72 × 10–3 N/m and g = 9.8 m/s2.
Sol. Let the pressure in the wide and narrow capillaries of radii r1 and r2 respectively be P1 and P2.
Then pressure just below the meniscus in the wide and narrow tubes respectively are
 2T   2T  2T
 P1   and  P2   [excess pressure = ].
 r1   r2  r
 2T   2T 
Difference in these pressures =  P1  r  –  P2  r  = hg
 1   2 
 True pressure difference = P1 – P2
1 1
= hg + 2T  r  r 
 1 2
 1 1 
= 0.2 × 103 × 9.8 + 2 × 72 × 10–3  3
 4 
1.44  10 7.2  10 
= 1.86 × 103 = 1860 N/m2

A liquid of specific gravity 1.5 is observed to rise 3.0 cm in a capillary tube of diameter 0.50 mm and the liquid
wets the surface of the tube. Calculate the excess pressure inside a spherical bubble of 1.0 cm diameter
blown from the same liquid. Angle of contact = 0º.
Sol. The surface tension of the liquid is
rhg
T=
2
(0.025 cm) (3.0 cm) (1.5 gm / cm3 ) (980 cm / sec 2 )

=
2
= 55 dyne/cm.
Hence excess pressure inside a spherical bubble
4T 4  55 dyne / cm
p= = (0.5 cm) = 440 dyne/cm2 .
R

A glass U-tube is such that the diameter of one limb is 3.0 mm and that of the other is 6.00 mm. The tube is
inverted vertically with the open ends below the surface of water in a beaker. What is the difference between
the heights to which water rises in the two limbs? Surface tension of water is 0.07 nm –1. Assume that the
angle of contact between water and glass is 0º.
Sol.
Equating pressure at point A and B which are in same horizontal level
2T 2T 2T 1 1
P–  gh = P –   
r1 r2  h=
g  r1 r2 
Given that T = 0.07 Nm –1 ,  = 1000 kgm–3
3 3 3
r1 = mm = cm = m = 1.5 × 10–3 m, r2 = 3 × 10–3 m
2 20 20  100
2  0.07  1 1 
 h=    m = 4.76 × 10–3 m = 4.76 mm
1000  9.8  1.5  10 3 3  10 3 

Two parallel plates which are separated by a very small distance d , are dipped in water. To how much height
will the water raise between the plates ( Assume contact angle   0 )
Sol. Lets draw free body diagram of the water raised up . Forces on it are :
(i) The plates pull the surface in upward direction with a force 2T
(ii) The weight of raised water = ()(hd)g For equilibrium, forces should be balanced.
2T
2T = ()(hd)g  h=  gd
T T T
Also = gh ; so we can say that pressure excess due to cylindrical surface = = r
d/ 2 d/ 2 c

2T
pressure excess due to spherical surface = r
c
T
pressure excess due to cylindrical surface = r
c
Alternative method :
2T 2T
 P0   gh = P h=
d 0  gd

A thin capillary of inner radius r1 and outer radius r2 (The inner tube is solid ) is dipped in water. To how much
height will the water raise in the tube ? ( Assume contact angle   0 )
Sol. Applying force balance
T [2r1 + 2r2] = [r22 h – r12h] g

2T
h = (r  r )g
2 1

A drop of water volume 0.05 cm 3 is pressed between two glass-plates, as a consequence of which, it
spreads and occupies an area of 40 cm 2. If the surface tension of water is 70 dyne/cm, find the normal
force required to separate out the two glass plates in newton.
Sol.
T T 2T
Pressure inside the surface Pin = P0  r  P0  t / 2  P0  t ,
C
 2T  2TA
So, net inwards force = P0 A – Pin A =  P0 – A– P A=
 t  0 t
V
Here volume between the plates V = A × t  t Putting the value of t
A
4 2 3
2 A 2 T 2  ( 40  10 )  (70  10 )
F= = 6 = 45 N ; So this much force is required to separate the plates
V 0.05  10

Example 27 (Only for JEE Advanced)
A glass plate of length 10 cm, breadth 1.54 cm and thickness 0.20 cm weighs 8.2 gm in air. It is held
vertically with the long side horizontal and the lower half under water. Find the apparent weight of the plate.
Surface tension of water = 73 dyne per cm, g = 980 cm/sec2.
Sol. The forces acting on the plate are
(i) buoyancive force of water acting upward
1.54  10  0.2
B =l Vsub g = 1 × × 980 = 1509.2 dyne.
2
(ii) Weight of the system acting downward
= (8.2) × 980 dyne
(iii) Force of surface tension acting downward
= 2 ( + b)T = 2 (10 + 0.2 ) 73 = 1489.2
So net downward force = mg + (surface tension force) – B = (8.2) × 980 + 1489.2 – 1509.2
= 8016.008 dyne = 8.1796 gm force

A glass tube of circular cross-section is closed at one end. This end is weighted and the tube floats vertically
in water, heavy end down. How far below the water surface is the end of the tube? Given : Outer radius of the
tube 0.14 cm, mass of weighted tube 0.2 gm, surface tension of water 73 dyne/cm and
g = 980 cm/sec2.
Sol. Let  be the length of the tube inside water. The forces acting on the tube are :
(i) buoyancive force of water acting upward
22
B = r2 × 1 × 980 = × (0.14)2  × 980 = 60.368  dyne.
7
(ii) Weight of the system acting downward
= mg = 0.2 × 980 = 196 dyne.
(iii) Force of surface tension acting downward
= 2rT
22
=2× × 0.14 × 73 = 64.24 dyne.
7
Since the tube is in equilibrium, the upward force is balanced by the downward forces. That is,
60.368  = 196 + 64.24 = 260.24.
260 .24
 = = 4.31 cm.
60.368


SOLIDS
The materials having a definite shape and volume are known as solids. All solids have the property of
elasticity by virtue of which solids behave as incompressible substances and exhibit rigidity and the mechanical
strength. Solids are classified into two categories namely Crystalline solids and amorphous solids (or glassy
solids).
Crystalline Solids : A solid in which atoms or molecules are arranged in a regular three dimensional pattern
is known as crystalline solid shown in figure (a) For example : quartz, mica, sugar, copper sulphate, sodium
chloride, potassium iodide, cesium chloride, carbon etc.
Amorphous Solids : A solid in which atoms or molecules are not arranged in a regular manner is known as
amorphous solid shown in figure (b) For example : talc powder, glass, rubber, plastics etc.
UNIT CELL AND CRYSTAL LATTICE
Unit cell is the building block of a crystal. It is defined as the smallest pattern of atoms in a lattice, the
repetition of which in three dimensions forms a crystal lattice.
Crystal lattice : It is defined as a regular arrangement of large number of points in space, each point
representing the position of an atom or a group of atoms in a crystal. The crystal lattice is shown in a figure.
ELASTICITY AND PLASTICIT Y
The property of a material body by virtue of which it regains its original configuration (i.e. shape and size)
when the external deforming force is removed is called elasticity. The property of the material body by virtue
of which it does not regain its original configuration when the external force is removed is called plasticity.
Deforming force : An external force applied to a body which changes its size or shape or both is called
deforming force.
Perfectly Elastic body : A body is said to be perfectly elastic if it completely regains its original form when
the deforming force is removed. Since no material can regain completely its original form so the concept of
perfectly elastic body is only an ideal concept. A quartz fiber is the nearest approach to the perfectly elastic
body.
Perfectly Plastic body : A body is said to be perfectly plastic if it does not regain its original form even
slightly when the deforming force is removed. Since every material partially regain its original form on the
removal of deforming force, so the concept of perfectly plastic body is only an ideal concept. Paraffin wax,
wet clay are the nearest approach to a perfectly plastic bodies.
RESONANCE ELASTICITY & VISCOSITY - 106

Cause of Elasticity : In a solid, atoms and molecules are arranged in such a way that each molecule is
acted upon by the forces due to the neighbouring molecules. These forces are known as intermolecular
forces. When no deforming force is applied on the body, each molecule of the solid (i.e. body) is in its
equilibrium position and the inter molecular forces between the molecules of the solid are maximum.
On applying the deforming force on the body, the molecules either come closer or go far apart from each
other. As a result of this, the molecules are displaced from their equilibrium position. In other words,
intermolecular forces get changed and restoring forces are developed on the molecules. When the deforming
force is removed, these restoring forces bring the molecules of the solid to their respective equilibrium
positions and hence the solid (or the body) regains its original form.
STRESS
When deforming force is applied on the body then the equal restoring force in opposite direction is developed
inside the body. The restoring forces per unit area of the body is called stress.
restoring force F
stress = Area of the body  A
The unit of stress is N/m 2 or Nm–2. There are three types of stress
1. Longitudinal or Normal stress

When object is one dimensional then force acting per unit area is called longitudinal stress.
It is of two types : (a) compressive stress (b) tensile stress
Examples :
(i) Consider a block of solid as shown in figure. Let a force F be applied to the face which has

area A. Resolve F into two components :
Fn = F sin  called normal force and Ft = F cos  called tangential force.
Fn F sin 
 Normal (tensile) stress = =
A A
2. Tangential or shear stress
It is defined as the restoring force acting per unit area tangential to the surface of the body. Refer to shown in
figure above
Ft F cos 
Tangential (shear) stress = =
A A
The effect of stress is to produce distortion or a change in size, volume and shape
(i.e. configuration of the body).
3. Bulk stress or All around stress or Pressure : When force is acting all along the
surface normal to the area, then force acting per unit area is known as pressure. The
effect of pressure is to produce volume change. The shape of the body may or may not
change depending upon the homogeneity of body.
Example 1.
Find out longitudinal stress and tangential stress on a fixed block

100 sin 30 º
Sol. Longitudinal or normal stress  l = = 5 N/m2
52
100 cos 30º
Tangential stress  t = = 5 3N / m2
52
Example 2.
10
Find out Bulk stress on the spherical object of radius cm if

area and mass of piston is 50 cm 2 and 50 kg respectively for a
cylinder filled with gas.
mg 50  10
Solution : pgas =  pa = + 1 × 105 = 2 × 105 N/m2
A 50  10  4
Bulk stress = pgas = 2 × 105 N/m2

STRAIN
The ratio of the change in configuration (i.e. shape, length or volume) to the original configuration of the body
is called strain
change in configuration
i.e. Strain,  =
original configuration
It has no unit
Types of strain : There are three types of strain
(i) Longitudinal strain : This type of strain is produced when the deforming force causes a change in length
of the body. It is defined as the ratio of the change in length to the original length of the body.
Consider a wire of length L : When the wire is stretched by a force F, then let the change in length of the wire
is L shown in the figure.
change in length L
 Longitudinal strain ,  = or Longitudinal strain =
original length L
(ii) Volume strain : This type of strain is produced when the deforming force
produces a change in volume of the body shown in the figure. It is defined as the
ratio of the change in volume to the original volume of the body.
If V = change in volume V = original volume

V
v = volume strain =
V
(iii) Shear Strain : This type of strain is produced when the deforming force causes a change in the shape
of the body. It is defined as the angle () through which a face originally perpendicular to the fixed face is
turned as shown in the figure.
x
tan  or  =

HOOKE’S LAW AND MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

According to this law, within the elastic limit, stress is proportional to the strain.
i.e. stress  strain
stress
or stress = constant × strain or = Modulus of Elasticity..
strain

This constant is called modulus of elasticity.
Thus, modulus of elasticity is defined as the ratio of the stress to the strain.
Modulus of elasticity depends on the nature of the material of the body and is independent of its dimensions
(i.e. length, volume etc.).
Unit : The Sl unit of modulus of elasticity is Nm –2 or Pascal (Pa).
TYPES OF MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
Corresponding to the three types of strain there are three types of modulus of elasticity.
1. Young's modulus of elasticity (Y) 2. Bulk modulus of elasticity (K)
3. Modulus of rigidity ().
1. Young's modulus of elasticity

It is defined as the ratio of the normal stress to the longitudinal strain.
Longitudin al stress
i.e. Young's modulus (Y) =
Longitudin al strain
Normal stress = F/A,
Longitudinal strain = L/L
F/ A FL
Y= 
L / L AL
Example 3.
Find out the shift in point B, C and D
FL MgL 10  10  0.1
Sol. LB = LAB =  = = 4 × 10–3 m = 4mm
AY AY 10 7  2.5  1010
100  0.2
LC = LB + LBC = 4 × 10–3 + 7 = 4 × 10–3 + 5 × 10–3 = 9mm
10  4  1010
100  0.15
LD = LC + LCD = 9 × 10–3 + = 9 × 10–3 + 15 × 10–3 = 24 mm
10 7  1 1010

ELONGATION OF ROD UNDER IT’S SELF WEIGHT
Let rod is having self weight ‘W’, area of cross-section ‘A” and length ‘L’. Considering on element at a
distance ‘x’ from bottom.
W
then T  x
L
T.dx
elongation in ‘dx’ element = Ay
L L
Td x W x dy WL
Total elongation s  
0
Ay
 
0
LAy
=
2 Ay
Note : One can do directly by considering total weight at C.M. and using effective length /2.

Example 4.
Find out the elongation in block. If mass, area of cross-section and young
modulus of block are m, A and y respectively.
Sol.
F m
Acceleration, a= then T = ma where  m = x
m 
m F Fx
T= x =
 m 
Tdx
Elongation in element ‘dx’ = Ay
 
Tdx Fxdx F
total elongation,  = 
o
Ay d =  A y
o
= 2 Ay
Note : - Try this problem, if friction is given between block and surface (µ = friction coefficient), and
Case : () F < µmg () F > µmg
F
Ans. In both cases answer will be
2Ay

2. Bulk modulus :
It is defined as the ratio of the normal stress to the volume strain
Pr essure
i.e. K=
Volume strain
The stress being the normal force applied per unit area and is equal to the pressure applied (p).
p pV
K= 
 V V
V
Negative sign shows that increase in pressure (p) causes decrease in volume (V).
Compressibility : The reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity is called compressibility. Unit of compressibility
in Sl is N-1 m2 or pascal-1 (Pa-1).
Bulk modulus of solids is about fifty times that of liquids, and for gases it is 10 –8 times of solids.
Ksolids > Kliquids > Kgases
Isothermal modulus of elasticity of gas K = P (pressure of gas)
Cp
Adiabatic modulus of elasticity of gas K =  × P where  = .
Cv
Example 5.
Find the depth of lake at which density of water is 1% greater than at the surface. Given compressibily
k = 50 × 10–6 /atm.

p V p
Sol. B= =–
V V B

V
We know p = patm + hg
or m = V = const.
d. v + dv.  = 0
d dV
d V + dV .  = 0  =–
 V
 p  1
i.e. =  =
 B  100
1 hg
= [assuming  = const.]
100 B
B 1 1 1 10 5
hg= = 100 k  hg=
100 100  50  10  6
5
10 100  10 3
h= 6 = = 2km Ans.
5000  10  1000  10 50

3. Modulus of Rigidity :
It is defined as the ratio of the tangential stress to the shear strain. Let us
consider a cube whose lower face is fixed and a tangential force F acts on the
upper face whose area is A.
 Tangential stress = F/A.
Let the vertical sides of the cube shifts through an angle , called shear strain
 Modulus of rigidity is given by
Tangential stress F/ A F
 = or =  = A
Shear strain
Example 6.
A rubber cube of side 5 cm has one side fixed while a tangential force equal to 1800 N is applied to opposite
face find the shearing strain and the lateral displacement of the strained face. Modulus of rigidity for rubber is
2.4 × 106 N/m2.
F x
Sol. L = 5 × 10–2 m  
A L
F 1800 180 3
strain  = = =  = 0.3 radian
A 25  10 4
 2.4  10 6 25  24 10
x
= 0.3  x = 0.3 × 5 × 10–2 = 1.5 × 10–2 m = 1.5 mm Ans.
L

VARIATION OF STRAIN WITH STRESS
When a wire is stretched by a load, it is seen that for small value of load, the extension produced in the wire
is proportional to the load. On removing the load, the wire returns to its original length. The wire regains its
original dimensions only when load applied is less or equal to a certain limit. This limit is called elastic limit.
Thus, elastic limit is the maximum stress on whose removal, the bodies regain their original dimensions. In
shown figure, this type of behavior is represented by OB portion of the graph. Till A the stress is proportional
to strain and from A to B if deforming forces are removed then the wire comes to its original length but here
stress is not proportional to strain.

C D
B E OA  Limit of Proportionality
OB  Elastic limit
A
C  Yield Point
Strees
CD  Plastic behaviour
D  Ultimate point
O Strain DE  Fracture
As we go beyond the point B, then even for a very small increase in stress, the strain produced is very large.
This type of behaviour is observed around point C and at this stage the wire begins to flow like a viscous fluid.
The point C is called yield point. If the stress is further increased, then the wire breaks off at a point D called
the breaking point. The stress corresponding to this point is called breaking stress or tensile strength of the
material of the wire. A material for which the plastic range CD is relatively high is called ductile material.
These materials get permanently deformed before breaking. The materials for which plastic range is relatively
small are called brittle materials. These materials break as soon as elastic limit is crossed.
Important points
 Breaking stress = Breaking force/area of cross section.
 Breaking stress is constant for a material
 Breaking force depends upon the area of the section of the wire of a given material.
 The working stress is always kept lower than that of a breaking stress so that safety factor =
breaking stress/working stress may have a large value.
 Breaking strain = elongation or compression/original dimension.
 Breaking strain is constant for material.
Elastic after effect
We know that some material bodies take some time to regain their original configuration when the deforming
force is removed. The delay in regaining the original configuration by the bodies on the removal of deforming
force is called elastic after effect. The elastic after effect is negligibly small for quartz fibre and phosphor
bronze. For this reason, the suspensions made from quartz and phosphor-bronze are used in galvanometers
and electrometers.
For glass fibre elastic after effect is very large. It takes hours for glass fibre to return to its original state on
removal of deforming force.
Elastic Fatigue
The, the loss of strength of the material due to repeated strains on the material is called elastic fatigue. That
is why bridges are declared unsafe after a longtime of their use.
Analogy of Rod as a spring
stress F
y=  y=
strain A 
Ay
or F= 

Ay
= constant, depends on type of material and geometry of rod. F = k

Ay
where k = = equivalent spring constant.

for the system of rods shown in figure (a), the replaced spring system is shown in figure (b) two spring in
series]. Figure (c) represents equivalent spring system.

Figure (d) represents another combination of rods and their replaced spring system.
Example 7.
A mass ‘m’ is attached with rods as shown in figure. This mass is slightly stretched and released whether
the motion of mass is S.H.M., if yes then find out the time period.
k 1k 2 m m(k 1  k 2 )
Sol. keq = k  k T = 2 k eq = 2 k 1k 2
1 2
A 1y1 A2y2
where k1 = 1 and k2 = 2

ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY STORED IN A STRETCHED WIRE OR IN A ROD
Strain energy stored in equivalent spring

1 2
U= kx
2
2 2 2
F Ay 1 Ay F  1 F 
where x= , k= U= = .
Ay  2  A2y2 2 Ay
equation can be re-arranged
1 F2 A
U= × y [A = volume of rod, F/A = stress]
2 A2
1 (stress)2
U= × volume
2 y
1 F F F
again, U= × Ay × A  [ Strain = ]
2 A Ay
1
U= stress × strain × volume
2
2
1 F 1
again, U= Ay  U= y (strain)2 × volume
2 A2y2 2
strain energy 1 (stress)2 1 1

strain energy density = =  y(strain)2 = stress × strain
volume 2 y 2 2
Example 8.
Hanger is mass-less A ball of mass ‘m’ drops from a height ‘h’, which sticks to
hanger after striking. Neglect over turning, find out the maximum extension in rod.
Asumming rod is massless.
Sol. Applying energy conservation

1 k1k 2 x 2
mg (h + x ) =
2 k1  k 2
A 1y1 A2y2
where k1 = 1 k2 = 2
A 1A 2 y1y 2
& K eq 
A 1y1 2  A 2 y1 1
keqx2 – 2mgx – 2mgh = 0
2mg  4m2 g2  8mghk eq mg m 2 g2 2mgh

x= xmax =  
2k eq k eq k 2eq k eq

OTHERWAY BY S.H.M.
k eq
w v= a2  y 2 keq
m
keq 2 2mgh m 2 g2
2gh = a  y 2   2 =a mg 2gh
m k eq k eq y =k
eq
equilibrium
a position
mg m 2 g2 2mgh
max extension
m
=a+y= k + 
eq k eq k eq
POSSON’S RATIO ()

Within elastic limit, the ratio between the lateral strain and the linear strain is a constant. This constant is
called Poisson’s ratio.
lateral strain

longitudinal strain

Lateral Strain : Change in length of the body from its initial length perpendicular to deforming force
D D  (D  D)
lateral strain =  
D D
Longitudinal Strain : Change in length of the body from its initial length in the direction of deforming force
change in length 
Longitudinal strain  =
original length
=

theoretical limit of 
–1 <  < 0.5
Experiemental value of  lies between 0.2 and 0.4
Four important Relations between Y, K,  and 
Y 9 3 1 3K  2 Y
(i)  = (ii)   (iii)  = (iv) K =
2(1  ) Y  K 6K  2 3(1  2)
THERMAL STRESS :
If temp of rod is increased by T, then change in length

 =  T

strain =   T

But due to rigid support, there is no strain. Supports provide force on stresses to keep the length of rod same
stress
y=
strain
If T = (+) tive
thermal stress = y strain = y T

If T = (–) tive
F
 y  T F = Ay  T
A

APPLICATIONS OF ELASTICITY
Some of the important applications of the elasticity of the materials are discussed as follows :
1. The material used in bridges lose its elastic strength with time bridges are declared unsafe after long use.
2. To estimate the maximum height of a mountain :

The pressure at the base of the mountain = hg = stress. The elastic limit of a typical rock is
3 × 108 N m–2
The stress must be less than the elastic limits, otherwise the rock begins to flow.
3  10 8 3  10 8
h< < < 104 m ( = 3 × 103 kg m–3 ; g = 10 ms–2) or h = 10 km
g 3  10 3  10
It may be noted that the height of Mount Everest is nearly 9 km.
TORSION CONSTANT OF A WIRE
r 4
C= Where  is modulus of rigidity r and  is radius and length of wire respectively..
2
(a) Toque required for twisting by angle  = C
1
(b) Work done in twisting by angle , W = C2.
2

VISCOSIT Y
When a solid body slides over another solid body, a frictional-force begins to act between them. This force
opposes the relative motion of the bodies. Similarly, when a layer of a liquid slides over another layer of the
same liquid, a frictional-force acts between them which opposes the relative motion between the layers. This
force is called 'internal frictional-force'.
Suppose a liquid is flowing in streamlined motion on a fixed horizontal surface AB (Fig.). The layer of the
liquid which is in contact with the surface is at rest, while the velocity of other layers increases with distance
from the fixed surface. In the Fig., the lengths of the arrows represent the increasing velocity of the layers.
Thus there is a relative motion between adjacent layers of the liquid. Let us consider three parallel layers a,
b and c. Their velocities are in the increasing order. The layer a tends to retard the layer b, while b tends to
retard c. Thus each layer tends to decrease the velocity of the layer above it. Similarly, each layer tends to
increase the velocity of the layer below it. This means that in between any two layers of the liquid, internal
tangential forces act which try to destroy the relative motion between the layers. These forces are called
'viscous forces'. If the flow of the liquid is to be maintained, an external force must be applied to overcome the
dragging viscous forces. In the absence of the external force, the viscous forces would soon bring the liquid
to rest. The property of the liquid by virtue of which it opposes the relative motion between its
adjacent layers is known as 'viscosity’.
The property of viscosity is seen in the following examples :
(i) A stirred liquid, when left, comes to rest on account of viscosity. Thicker liquids like honey, coaltar,
glycerine, etc. have a larger viscosity than thinner ones like water. If we pour coaltar and water on a
table, the coaltar will stop soon while the water will flow upto quite a large distance.
(ii) If we pour water and honey in separate funnels, water comes out readily from the hole in the funnel
while honey takes enough time to do so. This is because honey is much more viscous than water.
As honey tends to flow down under gravity, the relative motion between its layers is opposed strongly.
(iii) We can walk fast in air, but not in water. The reason is again viscosity which is very small for air but
comparatively much larger for water.
(iv) The cloud particles fall down very slowly because of the viscosity of air and hence appear floating in
the sky.
Viscosity comes into play only when there is a relative motion between the layers of the same
material. This is why it does not act in solids.
FLOW OF LIQUID IN A TUBE: CRITICAL VELOCITY
When a liquid flows 'in a tube, the viscous forces oppose the flow of the liquid, Hence a pressure difference
is applied between the ends of the tube which maintains the flow of the liquid. If all particles of the liquid
passing through a particular point in the tube move along the same path, the flow" of the liquid is called
'stream-lined flow'. This occurs only when the velocity of flow of the liquid is below a certain limiting value
called 'critical velocity'. When the velocity of flow exceeds the critical velocity, the flow is no longer stream-
lined but becomes turbulent. In this type of flow, the motion of the liquid becomes zig-zag and eddy-currents
are developed in it.
Reynold proved that the critical velocity for a liquid flowing in a tube is vc = k/a. where  is density and  is
viscosity of the liquid, a is radius of the tube and k is 'Reynold's number' (whose value for a narrow tube and
for water is about 1000). When the velocity of flow of the liquid is less than the critical velocity, then the flow
of the liquid is controlled by the viscosity, the density having no effect on it. But when the velocity of flow is
larger than the critical velocity, then the flow is mainly governed by the density, the effect of viscosity becom-
ing less important. It is because of this reason that when a volcano erupts, then the lava coming out of it flows
speedly inspite of being very thick (of large viscosity).

VELOCITY GRADIENT AND COEFFICIENT OF VISCOSITY
The property of a liquid by virtue of which an opposing force (internal friction) comes into play when ever there
is a relative motion between the different layers of the liquid is called viscosity. Consider a flow of a liquid over
the horizontal solid surface as shown in fig. Let us consider two layers AB and CD moving with velocities
  
v and v + d v at a distance x and (x + dx) respectively from the fixed solid surface.
According to Newton, the viscous drag or back ward force (F) between these layers depends.
(i) directly proportional to the area (A) of the layer and (ii) directly proportional to the velocity gradient
 dv 
  between the layers.
 dx 
dv dv
i.e. FA or F = – A ...(1)
dx dx
 is called Coefficient of viscosity. Negative sign shows that the
direction of viscous drag (F) is just opposite to the direction of the
motion of the liquid.
SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN VISCOSITY AND SOLID FRICTION
Similarities
Viscosity and solid friction are similar as
1. Both oppose relative motion. Whereas viscosity opposes the relative motion between two adjacent liquid
layers, solid friction opposes the relative motion between two solid layers.
2. Both come into play, whenever there is relative motion between layers of liquid or solid surfaces as the case
may be.
3. Both are due to molecular attractions.
Differences between them 
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Viscosity Solid Friction
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
(i) Viscosity (or viscous drag) between layers of (i) Friction between two solids is independent of
liquid is directly proportional to the area of the area of solid surfaces in contact.
the liquid layers.
(ii) Viscous drag is proportional to the relative (ii) Friction is independent of the relative
velocity between two layers of liquid. velocity between two surfaces.
(iii) Viscous drag is independent of normal (iii)

Friction is directly proportional to the
reaction between two layers of liquid. normal reaction between two surfaces in
contact.
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
SOME APPLICATIONS OF VISCOSITY
Knowledge of viscosity of various liquids and gases have been put to use in daily life. Some applications of
its knowledge are discussed as under 
1. As the viscosity of liquids vary with temperature, proper choice of lubricant is made depending upon season.
2. Liquids of high viscosity are used in shock absorbers and buffers at railway stations.
3. The phenomenon of viscosity of air and liquid is used to damp the motion of some instruments.
4. The knowledge of the coefficient of viscosity of organic liquids is used in determining the molecular weight
and shape of the organic molecules.
5. It finds an important use in the circulation of blood through arteries and veins of human body.
UNITS OF COEFFICIENT OF VISCOSITY

F
From the above formula, we have  
A ( v x / z )
[MLT 2 ] [MLT 2 ]
 dimensions of  = 2 1
 2 1
 [ML1T 1]
[L ][LT / L] [L T ]
Its unit is kg/(meter-second)*
In C.G.S. system, the unit of coefficient of viscosity is dyne s cm –2 and is called poise. In SI the unit of
coefficient of viscosity is N sm –2 and is called decapoise.
1 decapoise = 1 N sm –2 = (105 dyne) × s × (102 cm)–2 = 10 dyne s cm –2 = 10 poise

Example 9.
A man is rowing a boat with a constant velocity ‘v0’ in a river the contact area of boat is ‘A’ and coefficient of
viscosity is . The depth of river is ‘D’. Find the force required to row the boat.
Sol. F – FT = m ares
As boat moves with constant velocity ares = 0
F = FT
dv dv v0  0 v0
But FT =  A , but = =
dz dz D D
Av 0
then F = FT =
D
Example 10.
A cubical block (of side 2m) of mass20 kg slides on inclined plane lubricated with
the oil of viscosity  = 10–1 poise with constant velocity of 10 m/sec. (g = 10 m/sec2)
find out the thickness of layer of liquid.
dv dv v
Sol. F = F =  A = mg sin  =
dz dz h
10
20 × 10 × sin 30° =  × 4 ×
h
40  10 2
h= – [ = 10–1 poise = 10–2 N-sec-m–2 ]
100
= 4 × 10–3 m = 4 mm

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE VISCOSITY
The viscosity of liquids decrease with increase in temperature and increase with the decrease in temperature.
1
That is,  . On the other hand, the value of viscosity of gases increases with the increase in temperature
T
and vice-versa. That is,  T .
STOKE’S LAW
Stokes proved that the viscous drag (F) on a spherical body of radius r moving with velocity v in a fluid of
viscosity  is given by F = 6 r v. This is called Stokes’ law.
TERMINAL VELOCITY
When a body is dropped in a viscous fluid, it is first accelerated and then its acceleration becomes zero and
it attains a constant velocity called terminal velocity.
Calculation of Terminal Velocity

Let us consider a small ball, whose radius is r and density is , falling freely in a liquid (or gas), whose density
is  and coefficient of viscosity  . When it attains a terminal velocity v. It is subjected to two forces :
(i) effective force acting downward 6rv

4 3
= V (–) g = r ( – )g, v
3
(ii) viscous force acting upward 4/3r3 (–) g


= 6  rv..
Since the ball is moving with a constant velocity v i.e., there is no acceleration in it, the net force acting on
it must be zero. That is
4 2 r 2 (  )g
6  rv = p r3 ( – ) g or v=
3 9 
Thus, terminal velocity of the ball is directly proportional to the square of its radius
Important point
Air bubble in water always goes up. It is because density of air () is less than the density of water (). So the
terminal velocity for air bubble is Negative, which implies that the air bubble will go up. Positive terminal
velocity means the body will fall down.
Example 11.
A spherical ball is moving with terminal velocity inside a liquid. Determine the relationship of rate of heat loss
with the radius of ball.
2
 2 gr 2 (0    ) 
Sol. Rate of heat loss = power = F × v = 6   r v × v = 6   r v = 6p  r 
2 
 9  
Rate of heat loss  r5
Example 12.
A drop of water of radius 0.0015 mm is falling in air. If the coefficient of viscosity of air is
1.8 × 10–5 kg /(m-s), what will be the terminal velocity of the drop? (density of water = 1.0 × 103 kg/m2 and g
= 9.8 N/kg.) Density of air can be neglected.
Sol. By Stoke’s law , the terminal velocity of a water drop of radius r is given by
2 r 2 (  ) g
=
9 
where  is the density of water,  is the density of air and  the coefficient of viscosity of air. Here  is
negligible and r = 0.0015 mm = 1.5 × 10–3 mm = 1.5 × 10–6 m. Substituting the values :
2 (1.5  10 6 )2  (1.0  10 3 )  9.8
= × = 2.72 × 10–4 m/s
9 1.8  10 5
Example 13.
A metallic sphere of radius 1.0 × 10–3 m and density 1.0 × 104 kg/m3 enters a tank of water, after a free fall
through a distance of h in the earth’s gravitational field. If its velocity remains unchanged after entering water,
determine the value of h. Given : coefficient of viscosity of water = 1.0 × 10–3 N-s/m2, g = 10 m/s2 and density
of water = 1.0 × 103 kg/m3.
Sol. The velocity attained by the sphere in falling freely from a height h is
 = 2 gh ....(i)
This is the terminal velocity of the sphere in water. Hence by Stoke’s law, we have
2 r 2 (  ) g
=
9 
where r is the radius of the sphere,  is the density of the material of the sphere
 (= 1.0 × 103 kg/m3) is the density of water and  is coefficient of viscosity of water.
2  (1.0  10 3 )2 (1.0  10 4  1.0  10 3 )  10
 = = 20 m/s
9  1.0  10 3
 2 20  20
from equation (i), we have h =  = 20 m
2g 2  10

Applications of Stokes' Formula
(i) In determining the Electronic Charge by Millikan's Experiment : Stokes' formula is used in
Millikan's method for determining the electronic charge. In this method the formula is applied for
finding out the radii of small oil-drops by measuring their terminal velocity in air.
(ii) Velocity of Rain Drops : Rain drops are formed by the condensation of water vapour on dust
particles. When they fall under gravity, their motion is opposed by the viscous drag in air. As the
velocity of their fall increases, the viscous drag also increases and finally becomes equal to the
effective force of gravity. The drops then attain a (constant) terminal velocity which is directly propor-
tional to the square of the radius of the drops. In the beginning the raindrops are very small in size
and so they fall with such a small velocity that they appear floating in the sky as cloud. As they grow
in size by further condensation, then they reach the earth with appreciable velocity,
(iii) Parachute : When a soldier with a parachute jumps from a flying

aeroplane, he descends very slowly in air.
In the beginning the soldier falls with gravity acceleration g, but soon the acceleration goes on decreasing
rapidly until in parachute is fully opened. Therefore, in the beginning the speed of the falling soldier increases
somewhat rapidly but then very slowly. Due to the viscosity of air the acceleration of the soldier becomes
ultimately zero and the soldier then falls with a constant terminal speed. In Fig graph is shown between the
speed of the falling soldier and time.

The energy that is being transferred between two bodies or between adjacent parts of a body as a
result of temperature difference is called heat. Thus, heat is a form of energy. It is energy in transit
whenever temperature differences exist. Once it is transferred, it becomes the internal energy of the
receiving body. It should be clearly understood that the word "heat" is meaningful only as long as the
energy is being transferred. Thus, expressions like "heat in a body" or "heat of a body" are meaningless.
T1 > T2 T2
A Heat B
When we say that a body is heated it means that its molecules begin to move with greater kinetic
energy.
S.. unit of heat energy is joule (J). Another common unit of heat energy is calorie (cal).
1 calorie = 4.18 joules.
1 calorie : The amount of heat needed to increase the temperature of 1 gm of water from 14.5 to 15.5
ºC at one atmospheric pressure is 1 calorie.
In early days heat was not recognized as a form of energy. Heat was supposed to be something
needed to raise the temperature of a body or to change its phase. Calorie was defined as the
unit of heat. A number of experiments were performed to show that the temperature may also
be increased by doing mechanical work on the system. These experiments established that
heat is equivalent to mechanical energy and measured how much mechanical energy is
equivalent to a calorie. If mechanical work W produces the same temperature change as heat
H, we write,
W = JH
where J is called mechanical equivalent of heat. J is expressed in joule/calorie. The value of J
gives how many joules of mechanical work is needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by
1°C.
Example 1. What is the change in potential energy (in calories) of a 10 kg mass after 10 m fall ?
Solution : Change in potential energy
U = mgh = 10 × 10 × 10
= 1000 J
1000
= cal Ans.
4.186

Specific heat of substance is equal to heat gain or released by that substance to raise or fall its temperature
by 1ºC for a unit mass of substance.
When a body is heated, it gains heat. On the other hand, heat is lost when the body is cooled. The gain
or loss of heat is directly proportional to:
(a) the mass of the body Q  m
(b) rise or fall of temperature of the body Q   T
Q  m  T or Q = m s  T
or dQ = m s d T or Q=m  s d T..
RESONANCE CALORIMETRY AND THERMAL EXPANSION - 120

Q
where s is a constant and is known as the specific heat of the body s = . S.. unit of s is joule/
mT
kg-kelvin and C.G.S. unit is cal./gm °C.
Specific heat of water : S = 4200 J/kgºC = 1000 cal/kgºC = 1 Kcal/kgºC = 1 cal/gmºC
Specific heat of steam = half of specific heat of water = specific heat of ice
Example 2. Heat required to increases the temperate of 1 kg water by 20ºC

Solution : heat required = Q = ms
 S = 1 cal/gmºC = 1 Kcal/kgºC
= 1 × 20 = 20 Kcal.

Heat capacity or Thermal capacity
Heat capacity of a body is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
tha t body b y 1°. If ' m ' is the m as s and 's ' the spec ific heat o f the bod y, t hen
Heat capacity = m s.
Units of heat capacity in: CGS system is, cal ºC1; SI unit is, JK1
Q
(a) We know, s = , if the substance undergoes the change of state which occurs at
mT
constant temperature (T = 0) , then s = Q/0 = . Thus the specific heat of a substance
when it melts or boils at constant temperature is infinite.
(b) If the temperature of the substance changes without the transfer of heat (Q = 0) then
Q
s = = 0. Thus when liquid in the thermos flask is shaken, its temperature
mT
increases without the transfer of heat and hence the specific heat of liquid in the thermos
flask is zero.
(c) To raise the temperature of saturated water vapours, heat (Q) is withdrawn. Hence,
specific heat of saturated water vapours is negative. (This is for your information only
and not in the course)
(d) The slight variation of specific heat of water
with temperature is shown in the graph at 1
atmosphere pressure. Its variation is less than
1% over the interval form 0 to 100ºC.
It is the amount of water which requires the same amount of heat for the same temperature rise as
that of the object
ms
ms T = mW SW T  mW = s
W
In calorie sW = 1
 mW = ms
mw is also represent by W
so W = ms.

Phase change
Heat required for the change of phase or state,
Q = mL , L = latent heat.
Latent heat (L): The heat supplied to a substance which changes its state at constant
temperature is called latent heat of the body.
Latent heat of Fusion (Lf ): The heat supplied to a substance which changes it from solid to
liquid state at its melting point and 1 atm. pressure is called latent heat of fusion. Latent heat
of fusion of ice is 80 kcal/kg
Latent heat of vaporization (Lv ): The heat supplied to a substance which changes it from
liquid to vapour state at its boiling point and 1 atm. pressure is called latent heat of vaporization.
Latent heat of vaporization of water is 540 kcal kg1.
Latent heat of ice : L = 80 cal/gm = 80 Kcal/kg = 4200 × 80 J/kg
Latent heat of steam : L = 540 cal/gm = 540 Kcal/kg = 4200 × 540 J/kg
The given figure, represents the change of state
by different lines
OA  solid state , AB  solid + liquid state (Phase change)
BC  liquid state , CD  liquid + vapour state (Phase change)
DE  vapour state
Q = msT
T 1 T 1
slope =  
Q ms Q S
where mass (m) of substance constant slope of T – Q graph is inversely proportional to specific
heat, if in given diagram
(slope) OA > (slope) DE
then (s)OA < (s)DE
when Q = mL
If (length of AB) > (length of CD)
then (latent heat of AB) > (latent heat of CD)
Example 3. Find the amount of heat released if 1 kg steam at 200ºC is converted into –20ºC ice.
Solution : Heat released Q = heat release to convert steam at 200 ºC into 100ºC steam + heat release to
convert 100º C steam into 100ºC water + heat release to convert 100º water into 0ºC water + heat
release to convert 0 ºC water into – 20ºC ice.
1 1
Q = 1 × × 100 + 540 × 1 + 1 × 1 × 100 + 1 × 80 + 1 × × 20
2 2
= 780 Kcal.

The branch of thermodynamics which deals with the measurement of heat is called calorimetry.
A simple calorimeter is a vessel generally made of copper with a stirrer of the same material. The
vessel is kept in a wooden box to isolate it thermally from the surrounding. A thermometer is used to
measure the temperature of the contents of the calorimeter. Object at different temperatures are made
to come in contact with each other in the calorimeter. As a result, heat is exchanged between the
object as well as with the calorimeter. Neglecting any heat exchange with the surrounding.

When two substances at different temperatures are mixed together, then exchange of heat
continues to take place till their temperatures become equal. This temperature is then called
final temperature of mixture. Here, Heat taken by one substance = Heat given by another
substance
 m 1 s 1 (T 1  T m) = m 2 s 2 (T m  T 2)
Example 4. An iron block of mass 2 kg, fall from a height 10 m. After colliding with the ground it loses 25%
energy to surroundings. Then find the temperature rise of the block. (Take sp. heat of iron 470 J/kg
ºC)
1 10  10
Solution : mS = mgh  =
4 4  470

Zeroth law of thermodynamics :
If objects A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third object C , then objects A and B are in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
Example 5. The temperature of equal masses of three different liquids A, B, and C are 10ºC 15ºC and 20ºC
respectively. The temperature when A and B are mixed is 13ºC and when B and C are mixed, it is
16ºC. What will be the temperature when A and C are mixed?
Solution :
when A and B are mixed

mS1 × (13 – 10) = m × S2 × (15 – 13)
3S1 = 2S2 .....(1)
when B and C are mixed
S2 × 1 = S3 × 4 ......(2)
when C and A are mixed
S1( – 10) = S3 × (20 – ) ....(3)
by using equation (1), (2) and (3)
140
we get  = ºC
11

Example 6. If three different liquid of different masses specific heats and temperature are mixed with each other
and then what is the temperature mixture at thermal equilibrium..
m1, s1, T1  specification for liquid
m2, s2, T2  specification for liquid
m3, s3, T3  specification for liquid.
Solution : Total heat lost or gain by all substance is equal to zero
Q = 0
m1s1(T – T1) + m2s2(T – T2) + m3s3 (T – T3) = 0
m1s1T1  m 2 s 2 T2  m 3 s 3 T3
so T=
m1s1  m 2 s 2  m 3 s3
Example 7. In following equation calculate value of H 1 kg ice at –20ºC = H + 1 Kg water at 100ºC, here H means
heat required to change the state of substance.
Solution : Heat required to convert 1 kg ice at – 20ºC into 1 kg water at 100ºC
= 1 kg ice at – 20ºC to 1 kg ice at 0ºC ice at 0ºC + 1 kg water
at 0ºC + 1 kg water at 0ºC to 1 kg water at 100ºC
1
=1× × 20 + 1 × 80 + 1 × 100 = 190 Kcal. So H = – 190 Kcal
2
Negative sign indicate that 190 Kcal heat is with drawn from 1 kg water at 100ºC to convert it into
1 kg ice at – 20ºC
Example 8. 1 kg ice at –20ºC is mixed with 1 kg steam at 200ºC. Then find equilibrium temperature and mixture
content.
Solution : Let equilibrium temperature is 100 ºC heat required to convert 1 kg ice at –20ºC to 1 kg water at
100ºC is equal to
1
H1 = 1 × × 20 + 1 × 80 + 1 × 1 × 100 = 190 Kcal
2
heat release by steam to convert 1 kg steam at 200ºC to 1 kg water at 100ºC is equal to
1
H2 = 1 × × 100 + 1 × 540 = 590 Kcal
2
1 kg ice at – 20ºC = H1 + 1kg water at 100ºC ......(1)
1 kg steam at 200ºC = H2 + 1kg water at 100ºC .......(2)
by adding equation (1) and (2)
1 kg ice at –20ºC + 1 kg steam at 200ºC = H1 + H2 + 2 kg water at 100ºC.
Here heat required to ice is less than heat supplied by steam so mixture equilibrium temperature is
100ºC then steam is not completely converted into water.
So mixture has water and steam which is possible only at 100ºC
mass of steam which converted into water is equal to
1
190  1  100 7
m= 2 = kg
540 27
so mixture content
7 20
mass of steam = 1 – = kg
27 27
7 34
mass of water = 1 + = kg
27 27


Most materials expand when their temperature is increased. Rails roads tracks, bridges all have some
means of compensating for thermal expansion. When a homogeneous object expands, the distance
between any two points on the object increases. Figure shows a block of metal with a hole in it. The
expanded object is like a photographic enlargement. That in the hole expands in the same
proportion as the metal, it does not get smaller
Potential
energy
r0 r1
r2
r
E2
E1
Thermal expansion arises because the well is

not symmetrical about the equilibrium position r0.
As the temperature rise the energy of the atom increases.
The average position when the energy is E2 is not
the same as that when the energy is E1.
At the atomic level, thermal expansion may be understood by considering how the potential energy of
the atoms varies with distance. The equilibrium position of an atom will be at the minimum of the
potential energy well if the well is symmetric. At a given temperature each atom vibrates about its
equilibrium position and its average remains at the minimum point. If the shape of the well is not
symmetrical the average position of an atom will not be at the minimum point. When the temperature
is raised the amplitude of the vibrations increases and the average position is located at a greater inter
atomic separation. This increased separation is manifested as expansion of the material.
Almost all solids and liquids expand as their temperature increases. Gases also expand if allowed.
Solids can change in length, area or volume, while liquids change in their volumes.
Example 9. A rectangular plate has a circular cavity as shown in the figure. If

we increase its temperature then which dimension will increase in
following figure.
Solution : Distance between any two point on an object increases with

increase in temperature.
So, all dimension a, b, c and d will increase
Example 10. In the given figure, when temperature is increased then which of the following increases
(A) R1 (B) R2 (C) R2 – R1

Solution : All of the above
- - - - - represents expanded Boundary
--------- represents original Boundary
As the intermolecular distance between atoms increases on heating hence
the inner and outer perimeter increases. Also if the atomic arrangement in
radial direction is observed then we can say that it also increases hence all
A,B,C are true.


When the rod is heated, its increase in length L is proportional to its original length L0 and change in
temperature T where T is in ºC or K.
dL = L0 dT  L =  L0  T If  T << 1
L
= where  is called the coefficient of linear expansion whose unit is ºC1 or K1.
L0  T
L = L0 (1 +  T). Where L is the length after heating the rod.
(a) If  varies with distance,  = ax + b.
Then total expansion =  (ax + b) T dx.
(b) If  varies with temperature,  = f (T). Then L =  L0 dT
Note : Actually thermal expansion is always 3-D expansion. When other two dimensions of object are
negligible with respect to one, then observations are significant only in one dimension and it is
known as linear expansion.
Example 11. What is the percentage change in length of 1m iron rod if its temperature changes by 100ºC.  for
iron is 2 × 10–5/ºC.
Solution : percentage change in length due to temperature change

% = × 100 =  × 100

= 2 × 10–5 × 100 × 100
= 0.2% Ans.

If the rod is free to expand then there will be no stress and strain. Stress and strain is produced
only when an object is restricted to expand or contract according to change in temperature.
When the temperature of the rod is decreased or increased under constrained condition ,
compressive or tensile stresses are developed in the rod. These stresses are known as thermal
stresses.
L final length – original length

Strain = = original length = T ,
L0
Note : Original and final length should be at same temperature.

//////////////////////////////
//////////////////////////////
Consider a rod of length 0 which is fixed between to rigid end
separated at a distance 0 now if the temperature of the rod is F F
increased by  then the strain produced in the rod will be :
0
length of the rod at new temperatur e - natural length of the rod at new temperatur e
strain 
natural length of the rod at new temperatur e
 0   0 (1  )  0 
=  0 (1  ) =  0 (1  )
  is very small so
strain = –  (negative sign in the answer represents that the length of the rod is less than the
natural length that means is compressed by the ends.)
Example 12. In the given figure a rod is free at one end and other end is fixed. When we change the temperature
of rod by , then strain produced in the rod will be
1
(A)  
(B) (C) zero (D) information incomplete
2
Solution : Here rod is free to expand from one side by so by changing temperature no strain will be produced
in the rod.
Hence ans. is (C)
Example 13. An iron ring measuring 15.00 cm in diameter is to be shrunk on a pulley which is 15.05 cm in
diameter. All measurements refer to the room temperature 20°C. To what minimum temperature
should the ring be heated to make the job possible? Calculate the strain developed in the ring when
it comes to the room temperature. Coefficient of linear expansion of iron = 12 × 10 –6/°C.
Solution : The ring should be heated to increase its diameter from 15.00 cm to 15.05 cm.
Using 2 = 1 (1 +  ),
0.05 cm
= = 278°C
15.00 cm  12  10  6 /º C
The temperature = 20°C + 278°C = 298°C.
 2  1
The strain developed = 1 = 3.33 × 10–3 .
Example 14. A steel rod of length 1m rests on a smooth horizontal base. If it is heated from 0°C to 100°C, what is
the longitudinal strain developed?
Solution : in absence of external force no strain or stress will be created hear rod is free to move.
Example 15. A steel rod is clamped at its two ends and rests on a fixed horizontal base. The rod is in natural
length at 20°C. Find the longitudinal strain developed in the rod if the temperature rises to 50°C.
Coefficient of linear expansion of steel = 1.2 × 10–5/°C.
Solution : as we known that strain
change in length 
strain = =
original length 0
 Strain = 
= 1.2 × 10–5 × (50 – 20) = 3.6 × 10–4
here strain is compressive strain because final length is smaller than initial length.

Example 16. A steel wire of cross-sectional area 0.5 mm 2 is held between two fixed supports. If the wire is just
taut at 20°C, determine the tension when the temperature falls to 0°C. Coefficient of linear expansion
of steel is 1.2 × 10–5/°C and its Young’s modulus is 2.0 × 1011 N/m2.
Solution : here final length is more than original length so that strain is tensile and tensile force is given by
F = AY  t = 0.5 × 10–6 × 2 × 1011 × 1.2 × 10–5 × 20 = 24 N

The time represented by the clock hands of a pendulum clock depends on the number of oscillation
performed by pendulum every time it reaches to its extreme position the second hand of the clock
advances by one second that means second hand moves by two seconds when one oscillation in
complete
L0 L
Let T = 2  at temperature 0 and T = 2  at temperature .
g g
T L L 1     1
= = = 1+ 
T L L 2
Therefore change (loss or gain) in time per unit time lapsed is
T´T 1
= 
T 2
gain or loss in time in duration of 't' in
1
t =  t , if T is the correct time then
2
(a)  < 0 , T < T clock becomes fast and gain time
(b)  > 0 , T > T clock becomes slow and loose time
Example 17. A pendulum clock consists of an iron rod connected to a small, heavy bob. If it is designed to keep
correct time at 20°C, how fast or slow will it go in 24 hours at 40°C? Coefficient of linear expansion of
iron = 1.2 × 10–6 /°C.
Solution : The time difference occurred in 24 hours (86400 seconds) is given by
1
t =   t
2
1
= × 1.2 × 10–6 × 20 × 86400 = 1.04 sec. Ans.
2
This is loss of time as  is greater than 0 . As the temperature increases, the time period also
increases. Thus, the clock goes slow.

Case (i)
When object is expanded only
2 = 1 {1 + 0(2 – 1)
1 = actual length of object at 1ºC = measure length of object at 1ºC.
2 = actual length of object at 2ºC = measure length of object at 2ºC.
0 = linear expansion coefficient of object.
1
1
2
2
0 2 3

Case (ii)
When only measurement instrument is expanded actual length of object will not change but
measured value (MV) decreases.
MV = 1 { 1 – S (2 – 1)} 1
S = linear expansion coefficient of measuring instrument.
at 1 C MV = 3
at 2 C MV = 2.2 1ºC
0 1 2 3 4
Case (iii)
If both expanded simultaneously 2ºC 0
1 2 3
MV = {1 + (0 – s) (2 – 1)
(i) If 0 > s, then measured value is more then the actual value at 1ºC
(ii) If 0 < s, then measured value is less then the actual value at 1ºC
1
1ºC
2
2ºC
1ºC
0 1 2 3 4 5
2ºC
0 1 2 3 4
at 1ºC MV = 3.4
2ºC MV = 4.1
Measured value = calibrated value × {1 + }
where  = 0 – s
o = coefficient of linear expansion of object material, s = coefficient of linear expansion of scale
material
= C
 = temperature at the time of measurement C = temperature at the time of calibration.
For scale, true measurement = scale reading [1 +  ( 0)]
If  >  0 true measurement > scale reading
 <  0 true measurement < scale reading
Example 18. A bar measured with a Vernier caliper is found to be 180mm long. The temperature during the
measurement is 10ºC. The measurement error will be if the scale of the Vernier caliper has
been graduated at a temperature of 20ºC : ( = 1.1 × 10-5 °C-1. Assume that the length of the
bar does not change.)
(A) 1.98 × 10–1 mm (B*) 1.98 × 10–2 mm (C) 1.98 × 10–3 mm (D) 1.98 × 10–4 mm
Solution : True measurement = scale reading [1 +  (0)]
= 180 [1– 10 × 1.1 × 10–5 ]
error = 180 – 180 [1 – 1.1 × 10–4] = 1.98 × 10–2 mm

SUPERFICIAL OR AREAL EXPANSION
When a solid is heated and its area increases, then the thermal expansion is called superficial or areal
expansion. Consider a solid plate of area A0. When it is heated, the change in area of the plate is
directly proportional to the original area A0 and the change in temperature T.
dA = A0 dT or A =  A0  T
L0
A size of object
= Unit of  is ºC1 or K1. L0 L at 1 < 2
A0  T DL
A = A0 (1 +   T) DL size of object
at 2
where A is area of the plate after heating,

Example 19. A plane lamina has area 2m2 at 10ºC then what is its area at 110ºC t’s superficial expansion is
2 × 10–5//C
Solution : A = A0 ( 1 + ) = 2 { 1 + 2 × 105 × (110 – 10) }
= 2 × {1 + 2 × 10–3} Ans.

VOLUME OR CUBICAL EXPANSION
When a solid is heated and its volume increases, then the expansion is called volume expansion or
cubical expansion. Let us consider a solid or liquid whose original volume is V0. When it is heated to
a new volume, then the change V
dV = V0 dT or V =  V0  T
V
= Unit of  is ºC1 or K1.
V0  T
V = V0 (1 +   T) where V is the volume of the body after heating
Example 20. The volume of glass vessel is 1000 cc at 20°C. What volume of mercury should be poured into
it at this temperature so that the volume of the remaining space does not change with tempera-
ture? Coefficient of cubical expansion of mercury and glass are 1.8 × 10–4/°C and 9.0 × 10–6/°C
respectively.
Solution : Let volume of glass vessel at 20ºC is Vg and volume of mercury at 20ºC is Vm
so volume of remaining space is = Vg – Vm
It is given constant so that
Vg – Vm = Vg’ – V’m
where Vo' and Vm' are final volumes.
Vg – Vm = Vg {1 + g } – Vm{1 + Hg }  Vg g = Vm Hg
100  9  10 6
 Vm =  Vm = 50 cc.
1.8  10  4

8. RELATION BETWEEN   AND 
  
(i) For isotropic solids:  :  :  = 1 : 2 : 3 or = =
1 2 3
(ii) For non-isotropic solid  = 1 + 2 and  = 1 + 2 + 3 . Here 1 , 2 and 3 are coefficient of linear
expansion in X, Y and Z direction.
Example 21. If percentage change in length is 1% with change in temperature of a cuboid object (  × 2 × 3)
then what ispercentage change in its area and volume.
Solution : percentage change in length with change in temperature = % 

×100 = × 100 = 1

change in area
A
% A = × 100 = × 100 2 ( × 100)
A
%A=2% Ans.

change in volume
V
%V= × 100 = V × 100 = 3 (× 100)
V
%V=3% Ans.

As we known that mass = volume × density .
Mass of substance does not change with change in temperature so with increase of temperature, volume
increases so density decreases and vice-versa.
d0
d= .
(1  T )
For solids values of  are generally small so we can write d = d0 (1 T) (using binomial expansion).
Note : (i)  for liquids are in order of 103 .

(ii) Anamolous expansion of water :
For water density increases from 0 ºC to 4 ºC so  is negative
and for 4 ºC to higher temperature  is positive. At 4 ºC density
is maximum. This anamolous behaviour of water is due to
presence of three types of molecules i.e. H2O, (H2O)2 and
(H2O)3 having different volume/mass at different temperatures.
. This anomalous behaviour of water causes ice to form first at the surface of a lake in cold weather.
As winter approaches , the water temperature decreases initially at the surface. The water there
sinks because of its increase density. Consequently , the surface reaches 00C first and the lake
becomes covered with ice. Aquatic life is able to survive the cold winter as the lake bottom remains
unfrozen at a temperature of about 40C.
Example 22. The densities of wood and benzene at 0°C are 880 kg/m 3 and 900 kg/m3 respectively. The coeffi-
cients of volume expansion are 1.2 × 10–3/°C for wood and 1.5 × 10–3/°C for benzene. At what
temperature will a piece of wood just sink in benzene?
Solution : At just sink gravitation force = upthrust force
 mg = FB  V1g = V2g  1 = 2
880 900
 3 =   = 83º C
1  1.2  10  1  1.5  10 3 

Initially container was full . When temperature change by T,
volume of liquid VL = V0 (1 + L  T)
volume of container VC = V0 (1 + C  T)
So overflow volume of liquid relative to container
V = VL  VC V = V0 ( L   C) T
So, coefficient of apparent expansion of liquid w.r.t.
container
 apparent =  L   C .

In case of expansion of liquid + container system:
if L > C  level of liquid rise
if L < C  level of liquid fall
Increase in height of liquid level in tube when bulb
was initially not completely filled
volume of liquid V0 (1   L T )
h= = A (1  2 T ) = h0 { 1 + ( L – 2S) T}
area of tube 0 S
h = h0 { 1 + (  L – 2S) T}
where h0 = original height of liquid in container
S = linear coefficient of expansion of container.
Example 23. A glass vessel of volume 100 cm 3 is filled with mercury and is heated from 25°C to 75°C. What
volume of mercury will overflow? Coefficient of linear expansion of glass = 1.8 × 10–6/°C and coeffi-
cient of volume expansion of mercury is 1.8 × 10–4/°C.
Solution : V = V0(L – C) T = 100 × {1.8 × 10–4 – 3 × 1.8 × 10–6 } × 50
V = 0.87 cm3 Ans.

If body is submerged completely inside the liquid
For solid, Buoyancy force F B = V0 d L g
V0 = Volume of the solid inside liquid,
dL = density of liquid
Volume of body after increase its temperature V = V0 [1 + S ] ,
dL
Density of body after increase its temperature d L = .
1   L  
FB 1   S  
Buoyancy force of body after increase its temperature, F B = V d L g , = ,
FB 1   L  
if S < L then F B < F B
(Buoyant force decreases) or apparent weight of body in liquid gets increased
[W  F B > W  F B] .
Example 24. A body is float inside liquid if we increases temperature then what
changes occur in Buoyancy force. (Assume body is always in
floating condition)
Solution : Body is in equilibrium
so mg = B
and gravitational force does not change with change in temperature. So Buoyancy force remains
constant.
By increasing temperature density of liquid decreases so volume of body inside the liquid increases
to kept the Buoyance force constant for equal to gravitational force)

Example 25. In previous question discuss the case when body move downward, upwards and remains at same
position when we increases temperature.
Solution : Let f = fraction of volume of body submerged in liquid.
volume of body submerged in liquid
f=
total volume of body
v1
f1 = v at 1ºC
0
v2
f2 = v (1  3 ) at 2ºC
0 S
for equilibrium mg = B = v1d1g = v2d2g.
v 1d1 d1 v 1(1   L )
so v2 = d  d2 = 1    = v1(1 + L )  f2 = v (1  3 )
2 L 0 s
where  = 2 – 1
Case I : Body move downward if f2 > f1
means L > 3S
Case II : Body move upwards if f2 < f1
means L < 3S
Case III : Body remains at same position
if f2 = f1
means L = 3S

It two strip of different metals are welded together to form a bimetallic strip, when heated uniformly it bends
in form of an arc, the metal with greater coefficient of linear expansion lies on convex side. The radius of arc
thus formed by bimetal is :
a2
 d 0
0 (1 +1) =  R   t
 2 d
 d d
0 (1 +2) =  R  
 2  a2 > a1
a1
Lower temperature (at 1ºC)
d
1   2  R On 0
25 C
2
 1    = d
1 R
2
d
 R  (    )  Bimetallic strrip
2 1
R
  = change in temperature
= 2 – 1
Higher temperature (at 2ºC) 0
(Off) 30 C
A bimetallic strip, consisting of a strip of brass and a strip of steel welded together, at temperature T0 in figure
(a) and figure (b). The strip bends as shown at temperatures above the reference temperature. Below the
reference temperature the strip bends the other way. Many thermostats operate on this principle, making
and breaking an electrical circuit as the temperature rises and falls.

(a) A small gap is left between two iron rails of the railway.
(b) Iron rings are slipped on the wooden wheels by heating the iron rings
(c) Stopper of a glass bottle jammed in its neck can be taken out by heating the neck.
(d) The pendulum of a clock is made of invar [an alloy of zinc and copper].
Temperature may be defined as the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. Heat energy flows from
a body at higher temperature to that at lower temperature until their temperatures become equal. At
this stage, the bodies are said to be in thermal equilibrium.
The branch of thermodynamics which deals with the measurement of temperature is called
thermometry. A thermometer is a device used to measure the temperature of a body. The substances
like liquids and gases which are used in the thermometer are called thermometric substances.
A thermometer can be graduated into following scales.

(a) The Centigrade or Celsius scale (ºC)
(b) The Fahrenheit scale (ºF)
(c) The Reaumer scale (ºR)
(d) Kelvin scale of temperature (K)
K C F
Water boils 373.15 100 212
body temp. 310.2 37.0 98.6
Room temp. 300 27 80.6
Triple point of water 273.16 0.01
Water freezes 273.15 0 32
Solid CO2 195 - 78 - 109
Hydrogen boils 20.7 -252.5 - 422.5

Absolute zero 0 -273.15 - 489.67
The formula for the conversion between different temperature scales is:
K  273 C F  32 R
= = =
100 100 180 80
General formula for the conversion of temperature from one scale to another:
Temp on one scale(S1 ) - Lower fixed point (S1 )
Upper fixed point (S 2 )  Lower fixed point (S1 )
Temp. on other scale(S 2 ) - Lower fixed point (S 2 )
=
Upper fixed point (S 2 )  Lower fixed point (S2 )
Thermometers are device that are used to measure temperatures. All thermometers are based on
the principle that some physical property of a system changes as the system temperature changes.
Required properties of good thermometric substance.
(1) Non-sticky (absence of adhesive force)
(2) Low melting point (in comparison with room temperature)
(3) High boiling temperature
(4) Coefficient of volumetric expansion should be high (to increase accuracy in measurement).
(5) Heat capacity should be low.
(6) Conductivity should be high
Mercury (Hg) suitably exhibits above properties.

Type of
Thermometric
thermometer and Advantages Disadvantages Particular Uses
property
its range
(i) Every laboratory use where high accuracy
Length of column of (i) Quick and easy to (i) Fragile is not required.
Mercury-in-glass
mercury in capillary (direct reading) (ii) Small size limits (ii) Can be calibrated against constant-
– 39ºC to 450ºC
tube (ii) Easily portable (iii) Limited range volume gas thermometer for more
accurate work
(i) Very accurate (i) Very large volume of bulb (i) Standard against which others calibrated
Constant-volume Pressure of a fixed
(ii) Very sensitive (ii) Slow to use and (ii) He, H2 or N2 used depending on range
gas thermometer – mass of gas at
(iii) Wide range inconvenient (iii) can be corrected to the ideal gas scale
270º to 1500ºC constant volume
(iv) Easily reproducible (iv) Used as standard below-183ºC
(i) Best thermometer for small steady
Platinum Not suitable for varying
Electrical resistance (i) Accurate temperature differences
resistance –180º temperature (i.e., is slow to
of a platinum coil (ii) Wide range (ii) Used as standard between 183ºC and
to 1150ºC respond to changes)
630ºC.
(i) Fast response
Emf produced Accuracy is lost if emf is (i) Best thermometer for small steady
because of low heat
between junctions of measured using a moving- temperature differences
capacity.
Thermocouple dissimilar metals at coil voltmeter (as may be (ii) Can be made direct reading by calibrating
(ii) wide range
–250ºC to 1150ºC different necessary for rapid changes galvanometer
(iii) can be employed for
temperatures for when potentiometer is (iii) Used as standard between 630ºC and
remote readings using
measurement of emfs unsuitable) 1063ºC
long leads.
Radiation Does not come into (i) Cumbersome (i) Only thermometer possible for very high
Colour of radiation
pyrometer above contact when (ii) Not direct reading (needs temperatures
emitted by a hot body
1000ºC temperature is measured a trained observer) (ii) Used as standard above 1063ºC.
The standard thermometer, against which all other thermometers are calibrated, is based on the
pressure of a gas in a fixed volume. Figure shows such a constant volume gas thermometer; it
consists of a gas-filled bulb connected by a tube to a mercury monometer.
 P
T = (273.16 K)  gas
lim 
0 P3 
 
P = Pressure at the temperature being measured, P3 = pressure when bulb in a triple point cell.
Example 26.
The readings of a thermometer at 0ºC and 100ºC are 50 cm and 75 cm of mercury column respectively. Find
the temperature at which its reading is 80 cm of mercury column?
Solution : By using formula
80  50 T 0
=
75  50 100  0
 T = 120ºC

Problem 1. A bullet of mass 10 gm in moving with speed 400m/s. Find its kinetic energy in calories ?
1 10 800
Solution : k = × × 400 × 400 = 800  = 191.11 Cal.
2 1000 4.2
Problem 2. Calculate amount of heat required to convert 1 kg steam from 100ºC to 200ºC steam
1
Solution : Heat required = 1 × × 100 = 50 kcal
2
Problem 3. Calculate heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water through 1ºC ?
Solution : heat required = 1 × 10–3 × 1 × 1 = 1 × 10–3 kcal = 1 cal
Problem 4. 420 J of energy supplied to 10 g of water will raise its temperature by
420  10 3
Solution : = 10 × 10–3 × 1 × t = 10º C
4.20
Problem 5. The ratio of the densities of the two bodies is 3 : 4 and the ratio of specific heats is 4 : 3 . Find the
ratio of their thermal capacities for unit volume ?
1 3 s1 4
Solution :  2 = 4 , s2 = 3
m s 1 s1 1
ratio =   2 = s 2 ×  2 = 1 : 1.
m/
Problem 6. Heat releases by 1 kg steam at 150ºC if it convert into 1 kg water at 50ºC.

1
Solution : H=1× × 50 + 1 × 540 + 1 × 1 × 50
2
= 540 + 75 = 615 Kcal
Heat release = 615 Kcal.
Problem 7. 200 gm water is filled in a calorimetry of negligible heat capacity. It is heated till its temperature is
increase by 20ºC. Find the heat supplied to the water.
Solution : H = 200 × 10–3 × 1 × 20 = 4 Kcal.
Heat supplied = 4000 cal
Problem 8. A bullet of mass 5 gm is moving with speed 400 m/s. strike a target and energy. Then calculate rise
of temperature of bullet. Assuming all the lose in kinetic energy is converted into heat energy of
bullet if its specific heat is. 500J/kgºC.
1
Solution : Kinetic energy = × 5 × 10–3 × 400 × 400
2
ms T = 5 × 10–3 × 500 × T
T = 160º C
Rise in temperature is 160 ºC
Problem 9. 1 kg ice at –10ºC is mixed with 1 kg water at 100ºC. Then find equilibrium temperature and mixture
content.
Solution : Heat taken by 1 kg Ice = Heat given by 1 kg water
1
1× × 10 + 1 × 80 + 1 × T = 1 × (100 – T)
2
85 = 100 – 2T  2T = 15
15
= = 7.5 ºC , water
2

Problem 10. 1 kg ice at –10º is mixed with 1kg water at 50ºC. Then find equilibrium temperature and mixture
content.
Solution : Heat taken by ice = 5 Kcal + 80 Kcal = 85 Kcal
Heat given by water = 1 × 1 × 50 = 50 Kcal
Heat taken > Heat given so, ice will not complete melt let m g ice melt then
1
1× × 10 + 80 m = 50
2
45
80 m = 45  m=
80
  45  
water 1   kg
  80  
Content of mixture   and temperature is 0ºC
 ice  45  
1   kg
  80  
Problem 11. A small ring having small gap is shown in figure

on heating what will happen to size of gap.
Solution :
Gap will also increase. The reason is same as in above example.
Problem 12. An isosceles triangle is formed with a thin rod of length 1 and coefficient of linear expansion 1, as
the base and two thin rods each of length 2 and coefficient of linear expansion 2 as the two sides.
If the distance between the apex and the midpoint of the base remain unchanged as the temperature
1 2
is varied show that  = 2 1 .
2
2
 
   1    2 
2
Solution :
2
 
2
 
 2   1    2 
2
2
 
2 1 1 d  1 d
0=  2 2  2
2 2 dT dT
   21 2 1 2
 1  1 1  T = 22 × 2 2T  =4    =2
2  22 1 2 1 .
Problem 13. A concrete slab has a length of 10 m on a winter night when the temperature is 0°C. Find the length
of the slab on a summer day when the temperature is 35°C. The coefficient of linear expansion of
concrete is 1.0 × 10–5 /°C.
Solution : t = 10(1 + 1 × 10–5 × 35)
= 10.0035 m
Problem 14. A steel rod is clamped at its two ends and rests on a fixed horizontal base. The rod is unstrained at
20°C. Find the longitudinal strain developed in the rod if the temperature rises to 50°C. Coefficient of
linear expansion of steel = 1.2 × 10–5/°C.
  0 αθ
Solution :  = 3.6 × 10–4
 0

Problem 15. If rod is initially compressed by  length then what is the strain on the rod when the temperature
(a) is increased by  (b) is decreased by .
 
Solution: (a) Strain = +  (b) Strain =   
 
Problem 16. A pendulum clock having copper rod keeps correct time at 20°C. It gains 15 seconds per day if
cooled to 0°C. Calculate the coefficient of linear expansion of copper.
15 1
Solution : =  × 20
24  60  60 2
1
 = = 1.7 × 10–5/°C
16  3600
Problem 17. A meter scale made of steel is calibrated at 20°C to give correct reading. Find the distance
between 50 cm mark and 51 cm mark if the scale is used at 10°C. Coefficient of linear expan-
sion of steel is 1.1 × 10–5/°C.
Solution : t = 1 (1 – 1.1 × 10–5 × 10) = 0.99989 cm
Problem 18. A uniform solid brass sphere is rotating with angular speed 0 about a diameter. If its temperature is
now increased by 100ºC. What will be its new angular speed. (Given B = 2.0 × 10–5 perºC)
0 0 0 0
(A) (B) (C*) (D)
1  0.002 1  0.002 1  0.004 1  0.004
Solution : 0 0 = t t
Mr02 0 = Mr02 (1 + 2T)t
0
t = .
1  0.004
Problem 19. The volume occupied by a thin - wall brass vessel and the volume of a solid brass sphere are the
same and equal to 1,000 cm 3 at 0ºC. How much will the volume of the vessel and that of the sphere
change upon heating to 20ºC ? The coefficient of linear expansion of brass is  = 1.9 × 10-5.
Solution : V = V0 3 T = 1.14 cm 3
1.14 cm 3 for both
Problem 20. A thin copper wire of length L increases in length by 1% , when heated from temperature T 1 to T2.
What is the percentage change in area when a thin copper plate having dimensions 2L × L is heated
from T1 to T2 ?
(A) 1% (B) 3% (C) 4% (D*) 2%
Lf
Solution : Lf = L (1 + t )  × 100 = (1 + t) × 100 = 1%
L
Af
Af = 2L × L (1 + 2 t)  × 100 = (1 + 2 t) × 100 = 2%
2L  L
Problem 21. The density of water at 0°C is 0.998 g/cm 3 and at 4°C is 1.000 g/cm 3. Calculate the average
coefficient of volume expansion of water in the temperature range 0 to 4°C.
d0
Solution : dt =
1  t
0.998
 1= = – 5 × 10–4 / 0C
1   4
Problem 22. A glass vessel measures exactly 10 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm at 0°C. it is filled completely with mercury
at this temperature. When the temperature is raised to 10°C, 1.6 cm 3 of mercury overflows. Calcu-
late the coefficient of volume expansion of mercury. Coefficient of linear expansion of
glass = 6.5 × 10–6/°C
Solution : V = VHg – VV
1.6 = 103  × 10 – 103 × 3 × 6.5 × 10–6 × 10
L = (1.6 + 0.195) × 10–4 = 1.795 × 10–4 /0C

Problem 23. A metal ball immersed in alcohol weighs W 1 at 00C and W 2 at 500C. The coefficient of cubical
expansion of the metal is less than alcohol. Assuming that density of the metal is large compared to
that of the alcohol, find which of W 1 and W 2 is greater?
F´B [1   S ]
Solution : M <  so, F = [1   ]  F´B  FB
B 
so Apparent weight increases

so, W 2 > W 1
Problem 24. In figure which strip brass or steel have higher coefficient of linear expansion.
Solution : Brass Strip
Problem 25. The upper and lower fixed points of a faulty thermometer are 5ºC and 105º C .f the thermometer
reads 25º C , what is the actual temperature ?
25  5 C – 0
Solution : 
100 100
C = 20º C
Problem 26 At what temperature is the Fahrenheit scale reading equal to twice of Celsius ?
F  32 C0
Solution : =
180 100
2x  32 x 0
=
180 100
10x – 160 = 9x
x = 160º C
Problem 27. Temperature of a patient is 40º C . Find the temperature on Fahrenheit scale ?
F  32 40  0
Solution : =  F = 104º F
180 100


1. INTRODUCTION
Heat is energy in transit which flows due to temperature difference; from a body at higher temperature to a
body at lower temperature. This transfer of heat from one body to the other takes place through three routes.
(i) Conduction
(ii) Convection
(iii) Radiation
2. CONDUCTION
The process of transmission of heat energy in which heat is trans-
ferred from one particle of the medium to the other, but each particle
of the medium stays at its own position is called conduction, for ex-
ample if you hold an iron rod with one of its end on a fire for some
time, the handle will get hot. The heat is transferred from the fire to
L
the handle by conduction along the length of iron rod. The vibrational
TC
amplitude of atoms and electrons of the iron rod at the hot end takes
on relatively higher values due to the higher temperature of their envi- TH
ronment. These increased vibrational amplitude are transferred along Q2
the rod, from atom to atom during collision between adjacent atoms. Q1
In this way a region of rising temperature extends itself along the rod O A B
to your hand. x dx
Consider a slab of face area A, Lateral thickness L, whose faces have temperatures T H and TC(TH > TC).
Now consider two cross sections in the slab at positions A and B separated by a lateral distance of dx. Let
temperature of face A be T and that of face B be T + T. Then experiments show that Q, the amount of heat
crossing the area A of the slab at position x in time t is given by
Q dT
= –KA ... (2.1)
t dx
Here K is a constant depending on the material of the slab and is named thermal conductivity of the material,
 dT 
and the quantity   is called temperature gradient. The (–) sign in equation (2.1) shows heat flows from
 dx 
high to low temperature (T is a –ve quantity)
3. STEADY STATE
If the temperature of a cross-section at any position x in the above slab remains constant with time (remem-
ber, it does vary with position x), the slab is said to be in steady state.
Remember steady-state is distinct from thermal equilibrium for which temperature at any position (x) in the
slab must be same.
For a conductor in steady state there is no absorption or emission of heat at any cross-section. (as tempera-
ture at each point remains constant with time). The left and right face are maintained at constant tempera-
tures TH and TC respectively, and all other faces must be covered with adiabatic walls so that no heat
escapes through them and same amount of heat flows through each cross-section in a given Interval of time.
Hence Q1 = Q = Q2. Consequently the temperature gradient is constant throughout the slab.
dT T Tf  Ti TC  TH
Hence, = = =
dx L L L
RESONANCE HEAT - 140

Q T
and = –KA
t L
Q  TH  TC 
 = KA   .... (3.1)
t  L 
Here Q is the amount of heat flowing through a cross-section of slab at any position in a time interval of t.
Example 1. One face of an aluminium cube of edge 2 metre is maintained at 100ºC and the other end is main-
tained at 0ºC. All other surfaces are covered by adiabatic walls. Find the amount of heat flowing
through the cube in 5 seconds. (thermal conductivity of aluminium is 209 W/m–ºC)
Solution : Heat will flow from the end at 100ºC to the end at 0ºC.
Area of cross-section perpendicular to direction of heat flow,
A = 4m2
Q (TH  TC )
then = KA
t L
(209 W / mº C)(4m 2 )(100º C  0º C)(5 sec)

Q= = 209 KJ Ans.
2m

4. THERMAL RESISTANCE TO CONDUCTION
If you are interested in insulating your house from cold weather or for that matter keeping the meal hot in your
tiffin-box, you are more interested in poor heat conductors, rather than good conductors. For this reason, the
concept of thermal resistance R has been introduced.
For a slab of cross-section A, Lateral thickness L and thermal conductivity K,
L
R ... (4.1)
KA
In terms of R, the amount of heat flowing though a slab in steady-state (in time t)
Q (TH  TC )

t R
Q
If we name as thermal current iT
t
TH  TC
then, iT  (4.2)
R
This is mathematically equivalent to OHM’s law, with temperature playing the role of electric potential. Hence
results derived from OHM’s law are also valid for thermal conduction.
More over, for a slab in steady state we have seen earlier that the thermal current iL remains same at each
cross-section. This is analogous to kirchoff’s current law in electricity, which can now be very conveniently
applied to thermal conduction.

50ºC
Example 2. Three identical rods of length 1m each, having cross-section
area of 1cm2 each and made of Aluminium, copper and steel
l
ee
respectively are maintained at temperatures of 12ºC, 4ºC and
st
50ºC respectively at their separate ends. 12ºC
Aluminium
Find the temperature of their common junction.
co
pp
[ KCu = 400 W/m-K , KAl = 200 W/m-K , Ksteel = 50 W/m-K ]
er
4ºC
L 1 10 4
Solution : RAl = = 4 =
KA 10  200 200
10 4 10 4
Similarly Rsteel = and Rcopper =
50 400
Let temperature of common junction = T
then from Kirchoff;s current laws,
iAl + isteel + iCu = 0
T  12 T  50 T4
 R Al + Rsteel + R Cu = 0
 (T – 12) 200 + (T – 50) 50 + (T – 4) 400

 4(T – 12) + (T – 50) + 8 (T – 4) = 0
 13T = 48 + 50 + 32 = 130
 T = 10ºC Ans.

5. SLABS IN PARALLEL AND SERIES
5.1 Slabs in series (in steady state)
Consider a composite slab consisting of two materials having different thicknesses L1 and L2 differ-
ent cross-sectional areas A1 and A2 and different thermal conductivities K1 and K2. The temperature
at the outer surface of the slabs are maintained at TH and TC, and all lateral surfaces are covered by
an adiabatic coating.
Let temperature at the junction be T, since steady state has been achieved thermal current through each
slab will be equal. Then thermal current through the first slab.
Q TH  T
i= = R or TH – T = iR1 ... (5.1)
t 1
and that through the second slab,
Q T  TC
i= = R2 or T – TC = iR2 ....(5.2)
t

adding eqn. 5.1 and eqn 5.2
TH  TC
TH – TL = (R1 + R2) i or i = R R
1 2
Thus these two slabs are equivalent to a single slab of thermal resistance R 1 + R2.
If more than two slabs are joined in series and are allowed to attain steady state, then equivalent thermal
resistance is given by
R = R1 + R2 + R3 + ....... ...(5.3)
Example 3 The figure shows the cross-section of the outer wall of a house built in a hill-resort to keep the house
insulated from the freezing temperature of outside. The wall consists of teak wood of thickness L 1
and brick of thickness (L2 = 5L1), sandwitching two layers of an unknown material with identical
thermal conductivities and thickness. The thermal conductivity of teak wood is K1 and that of brick is
(K2 = 5K). Heat conduction through the wall has reached a steady state with the temperature of
three surfaces being known. (T1 = 25ºC, T2 = 20ºC and T5 = –20ºC). Find the interface temperature
T4 and T3.
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
L1 L L L4
Solution : Let interface area be A. then thermal resistance of wood,

L1
R1 = K A
1
and that of brick wall
L2 5L1
R2 = K A = 5K A = R1
2 1
Let thermal resistance of the each sand witch layer = R. Then the above wall can be visualised as a
circuit
iT R1 R R R1 iT
25ºC 20ºC T3 T4 –20ºC
thermal current through each wall is same.
25  20 20  T3 T3  T4 T4  20
Hence R1 = = = R1
R R
 25 – 20 = T4 + 20  T4 = –15ºC Ans.
also, 20 – T3 = T3 – T4
20  T4
 T3 = = 2.5ºC Ans.
2
Example 4 In example 3, K1 = 0.125 W/m–ºC, K2 = 5K1 = 0.625 W/m–ºC and thermal conductivity of the
unknown material is K = 0.25 W/mºC. L1 = 4cm, L2 = 5L1 = 20cm. If the house consists of a single
room of total wall area of 100 m 2, then find the power of the electric heater being used in the room.
( 4  10 2 m)
Solution : Ist method R1 = R2 = = 32 × 10–4 ºC/w
(0.125 w / mº C)(100m2 )
25 – 20 20 – T3 17.5 K
 R1 =  L= × K L1 = 28 cm
R 5 1
L
R= = 112 × 10–4 ºC/W
KA
the equivalent thermal resistance of the entire wall = R1 + R2 + 2R = 288 × 10–4 ºC/W
TH  TC
 Net heat current, i.e. amount of heat flowing out of the house per second =
R
25º C  (20º C) 45  10 4
= 4 = watt
288  10 º C / w 288
= 1.56 Kwatt
Hence the heater must supply 1.56 kW to compensate for the outflow of heat. Ans.
II nd
method
T1 – T2 25 – 20
i= R1 = 32  10 – 4 = 1.56 Kwatt

5.2 Slabs in parallel :
L
SLAB 1 Q1
K1 A1
SLAB 2 Q2
K2 A2
Heat reservoir
at temperature TH adiabatic coating
Heat reservoir
at temperature TC
Consider two slabs held between the same heat reservoirs, their thermal conductivities K1 and K2 and cross-
sectional areas A1 and A2
L L
then R1 = K A , R2 = K A
1 1 2 2
thermal current through slab 1
TH  TC
i1 
R1
and that through slab 2

TH  TC
i2 
R2
Net heat current from the hot to cold reservoir

 1 1 
i = i1  i2  (TH  TC )  

 R1 R 2 
TH  TC
Comparing with i = , we get,
R eq
1 1 1
= 
R eq R1 R 2
If more than two rods are joined in parallel, the equivalent thermal resistance is given by
1 1 1 1

R eq = R1 R 2 + R 3 + ..... .... (5.4)
Example 5 Three copper rods and three steel rods each of length  = 10 cm and area of cross-section 1 cm2 are
connected as shown
C
steel copper
steel
copper
E (0ºC)
A B
(125ºC) copper
steel
If ends A and E are maintained at temperatures 125ºC and 0ºC respectively, calculate the amount of
heat flowing per second from the hot to cold function. [ KCu = 400 W/m-K , Ksteel = 50 W/m-K ]
L 10 1m 1000
Solution : Rsteel = = 4 2 = ºC/W..
KA 50( W / mº C)  10 m 50
1000
Similarly RCu = ºC/W
400
Junction C and D are identical in every respect and both will have same temperature. Consequently,
the rod CD is in thermal equilibrium and no heat will flow through it. Hence it can be neglected in
further analysis.
Now rod BC and CE are in series their equivalent resistance is R1 = RS + RCu similarly rods BD and
DE are in series with same equivalent resistance R1 = RS + RCu these two are in parallel giving an
equivalent resistance of
R1 R S  R Cu
=
2 2
This resistance is connected in series with rod AB. Hence the net equivalent of the combination is
R1 3R steel  R Cu
R = Rsteel + =
2 2

 3 1 
= 500   C / W
 50 400 
TH  TC 125 º C
Now i= =
R  3 1 
500  º C / W
 50 400 
= 4 watt. Ans.
Example 6. Two thin concentric shells made of copper with radius r1 and r2 (r2 > r1) have a material of thermal
conductivity K filled between them. The inner and outer spheres are maintained at temperatures T H
and TC respectively by keeping a heater of power P at the centre of the two spheres. Find the value
of P.
Solution : Heat flowing per second through each cross-section of the sphere = P = i.
Thermal resistance of the spherical shell of radius x and thickness dx,
dx
dR =
K.4x 2 r1
r2
P
r2 dx x
dx 1 1
 R= 
r1
1
4 x 2 .K = 4K
  
 r1 r2 
thermal current
TH  TC 4K(TH  TC ) r1 r2
i=P= = . Ans.
R (r2  r1 )
Example 7. A container of negligible heat capacity contains 1 kg of water. It is connected by a steel rod of length
10 m and area of cross-section 10cm 2 to a large steam chamber which is maintained at 100ºC. If
initial temperature of water is 0ºC, find the time after which it becomes 50ºC. (Neglect heat capacity
of steel rod and assume no loss of heat to surroundings) (use table 3.1, take specific heat of water
= 4180 J/kg ºC)
Solution : Let temperature of water at time t be T, then thermal current at time t,
 100  T 
i=  
 R 
This increases the temperature of water from T to T + dT
dH dT
 i= =ms
dt dt
100  T dT
 = ms
R dt
50 t
dT dT
 
0
100  T =  Rms
0
 1 t
 –n  2  =
  Rms
or t = Rms n2 sec
L
= ms n2 sec
KA

(10m) (1kg)( 4180 J / kg º C)
=  n2
46( w / m º C)  (10  10  4 m 2 )
418
= (0.69) × 105
46
= 6.27 × 105 sec
= 174.16 hours Ans.

Can you now see how the following facts can be explained by thermal conduction ?
(a) In winter, iron chairs appear to be colder than the wooden chairs.
(b) Ice is covered in gunny bags to prevent melting.
(c) Woolen clothes are warmer.
(d) We feel warmer in a fur coat.
(e) Two thin blankets are warmer than a single blanket of double the thickness.
(f) Birds often swell their feathers in winter.
(g) A new quilt is warmer than old one.
(h) Kettles are provided with wooden handles.
(i) Eskimo's make double walled ice houses.
(j) Thermos flask is made double walled.
6. CONVECTION *(not in JEE Syllabus)

When heat is transferred from one point to the other through actual movement of heated particles, the
process of heat transfer is called convection. In liquids and gases, some heat may be transported through
conduction. But most of the transfer of heat in them occurs through the process of convection. Convec-
tion occurs through the aid of earth’s gravity. Normally the portion of fluid at greater temperature is less
dense, while that at lower temperature is denser. Hence hot fluid rises up while colder fluid sink down,
accounting for convection. In the absence of gravity convection would not be possible.
Also, the anomalous behaviour of water (its density increases with temperature in the range 0-4ºC) give rise
to interesting consequences vis-a-vis the process of convection. One of these interesting consequences is
the presence of aquatic life in temperate and polar waters. The other is the rain cycle.
Can you now see how the following facts can be explained by thermal convection ?
(a) Oceans freeze top to down and not bottom to up. (this fact is singularly responsible for presence of
aquatic life is temperate and polar waters.)
(b) The temperature in the bottom of deep oceans is invariably 4ºC, whether it is winter or summer.
(c) You cannot illuminate the interior of a lift in free fall or an artificial satellite of earth with a candle.
(d) You can Illuminate your room with a candle.
7. RADIATION :
The process of the transfer of heat from one place to another place without heating the intervening
medium is called radiation. The term radiation used here is another word for electromagnetic waves.
These waves are formed due to the superposition of electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to each
other and carry energy.
Properties of Radiation:
(a) All objects emit radiations simply because their temperature is above absolute zero, and all objects
absorb some of the radiation that falls on them from other objects.
(b) Maxwell on the basis of his electromagnetic theory proved that all radiations are electromagnetic
waves and their sources are vibrations of charged particles in atoms and molecules.

(c) More radiations are emitted at higher temperature of a body and lesser at lower temperature.
(d) The wavelength corresponding to maximum emission of radiations shifts from longer wavelength to
shorter wavelength as the temperature increases. Due to this the colour of a body appears to be
changing. Radiations from a body at NTP has predominantly infrared waves.
(e) Thermal radiations travels with the speed of light and move in a straight line.
(f) Radiations are electromagnetic waves and can also travel through vacuum.
(g) Similar to light, thermal radiations can be reflected, refracted, diffracted and polarized.
1
(h) Radiation from a point source obeys inverse square law (intensity  ).
r2
8. PREVOST THEORY OF EXCHANGE :

According to this theory, all bodies radiate thermal radiation at all temperatures. The amount of thermal
radiation radiated per unit time depends on the nature of the emitting surface, its area and its temperature.
The rate is faster at higher temperatures. Besides, a body also absorbs part of the thermal radiation
emitted by the surrounding bodies when this radiation falls on it. If a body radiates more than what it
absorbs, its temperature falls. If a body radiates less than what it absorbs, its temperature rises. And
if the temperature of a body is equal to the temperature of its surroundings it radiates at the same rate
as it absorbs.
9. PERFECTLY BLACK BODY AND BLACK BODY RADIATION

(FERY'S BLACK BODY)
A perfectly black body is one which absorbs all the heat radiations of whatever wavelength, incident on
it. It neither reflects nor transmits any of the incident radiation and therefore appears black whatever be
the colour of the incident radiation.
P
O
In actual practice, no natural object possesses strictly the properties of a perfectly black body. But the
lamp-black and platinum black are good approximation of black body. They absorb about 99 % of the
incident radiation. The most simple and commonly used black body was designed by Ferry. It consists
of an enclosure with a small opening which is painted black from inside. The opening acts as a perfect
black body. Any radiation that falls on the opening goes inside and has very little chance of escaping
the enclosure before getting absorbed through multiple reflections. The cone opposite to the opening
ensures that no radiation is reflected back directly.
1 0 . ABSORPTION, REFLECTION AND EMISSION OF RADIATIONS

Q = Qr + Qt + Qa
Qr Q t Q a
1  
Q Q Q
1=r+t+a

where r = reflecting power , a = absorptive power Q
(Incident) Qr (Reflected)
and t = transmission power.
(i) r = 0, t = 0, a = 1, perfect black body
(ii) r = 1, t = 0, a = 0, perfect reflector
(iii) r = 0, t = 1, a = 0, perfect transmitter
Qa Qt (Transmitted)
10.1 Absorptive power : (Absorbed)
In particular absorptive power of a body can be defined as the fraction of incident radiation that
is absorbed by the body.
Energy absorbed
a=
Energy incident
As all the radiations incident on a black body are absorbed, a = 1 for a black body.
10.2 Emissive power:

Energy radiated per unit time per unit area along the normal to the area is known as emissive
power.
Q
E = A t
(Notice that unlike absorptive power, emissive power is not a dimensionless quantity).
10.3 Spectral Emissive power (E  ) :

Emissive power per unit wavelength range at wavelength  is known as spectral emissive power,
E. If E is the total emissive power and E is spectral emissive power, they are related as
follows,

dE
E E
0
 d and
d
 E
10.4 Emissivity:
Emissive power of a body at temperature T E
e= = .
Emissive power of a black body at same temperature T E0
1 1 . KIRCHOFF'S LAW:
The ratio of the emissive power to the absorptive power for the radiation of a given wavelength is same
for all substances at the same temperature and is equal to the emissive power of a perfectly black body
for the same wavelength and temperature.
E (body )
 E (black body )
a (body )
Hence we can conclude that good emitters are also good absorbers.
1 2 . NATURE OF THERMAL RADIATIONS : (WIEN'S DISPLACEMENT LAW)

From the energy distribution curve of black body radiation, the
following conclusions can be drawn :
(a) The higher the temperature of a body, the higher is the
area under the curve i.e. more amount of energy is emitted
by the body at higher temperature.
(b) The energy emitted by the body at different temperatures
is not uniform. For both long and short wavelengths, the
energy emitted is very small.
(c) For a given temperature, there is a particular wavelength ( m) for which the energy emitted (E) is
maximum.
(d) With an increase in the temperature of the black body, the maxima of the curves shift towards
shorter wavelengths.
From the study of energy distribution of black body radiation discussed as above, it was established
experimentally that the wavelength ( m) corresponding to maximum intensity of emission decreases
inversely with increase in the temperature of the black body. i.e.
1
m  T or  m T = b
This is called Wien's displacement law.

Here b = 0.282 cm-K, is the Wien’s constant.
Example 8. Solar radiation is found to have an intensity maximum near the wavelength range of 470 nm. Assuming
the surface of sun to be perfectly absorbing (a = 1), calculate the temperature of solar surface.
Solution : Since a =1, sun can be assumed to be emitting as a black body
from Wien’s law for a black body
m . T = b
b 0.282 (cm  K )
 T=  =
m ( 470  10 7 cm)
~ 6000 K. Ans.

13. STEFAN-BOLTZMANN’S LAW :
According to this law, the amount of radiation emitted per unit time from an area A of a black body at
absolute temperature T is directly proportional to the fourth power of the temperature.
u =  A T4 ..... (13.1)
where  is Stefan's constant = 5.67 x 10 W/m 2 K4
-8
A body which in not a black body absorbs and hence emits less radiation then
For such a body, u  e  A T4 .....(13.2)
where e = emissivity (which is equal to absorptive power) which lies between 0 to 1
With the surroundings of temperature T 0 , net energy radiated by an area A per unit time..
u  u  u0  e  A (T 4  T04 ) ....(13.3)
Example 9. A body of emissivity (e = 0.75), surface area of 300 cm 2 and temperature 227ºC is kept in a room at
temperature 27ºC. Calculate the initial value of net power emitted by the body.
Solution: Using equation. (13.3) P = eA (T4 – T04)
= (0.75) (5.67 × 10–8 W/m2 –K4) (300 × 10–4 m2) × {(500 K)4 – (300 K)4}
= 69.4 Watt. Ans.

Example 10. A hot black body emits the energy at the rate of 16 J m –2 s–1 and its most intense radiation
corresponds to 20,000 Å. When the temperature of this body is further increased and its most
intense radiation corresponds to 10,000 Å, then find the value of energy radiated in Jm –2 s –1 .
Solution : Wein's displacement law is :
 m .T = b
1
i.e. T 
m
Here, m becomes half.

 Temperature doubles.
Also e = T4
4 4
e1  T1   T2 
    e2 =   .e1 = (2)4 . 16
e 2  T2   T1 
= 16.16 = 256 J m –2 s –1 Ans.

14. NEWTON'S LAW OF COOLING :
For small temperature difference between a body and its surrounding, the rate of cooling of the body is
directly proportional to the temperature difference and the surface area exposed.
d
 ( –  0 ) , where  and 0 are temperature corresponding to object and surroundings.
dt
d
From above expression ,  k(   0 ) ...(14.1)
dt
This expression represents Newton's law of cooling. It can be derived directly from stefan’s law, which
gives,
4 e   30
k  A ... (14.2)
mc
f t
d d
Now
dt
  k [  0 ]  
i
(  0 ) =   k dt
0
where i = initial temperature of object and

f = final temperature of object.
( f  0 )
 n (   ) = –kt f= (i – 0) e–kt
i 0
f = 0 + (i – 0) e –kt ... (14.3)

14.1 Limitations of Newton's Law of Cooling:
(a) The difference in temperature between the body and surroundings must be small
(b) The loss of heat from the body should be by radiation only.
(c) The temperature of surroundings must remain constant during the cooling of the body.
14.2 Approximate method for applying Newton’s law of cooling

Sometime when we need only approximate values from Newton’s law, we can assume a constant
rate of cooling, which is equal to the rate of cooling corresponding to the average temperature of the
body during the interval.

d
= –k(<> – 0) ...(14.4)
dt
If i & f be initial and final temperature of the body then,

i   f
<> = ...(14.5)
2
Remember equation (14.5) is only an approximation and equation (14.1) must be used for exact
values.
Example 11. A body at temperature 40ºC is kept in a surrounding of constant temperature 20ºC. It is observed
that its temperature falls to 35ºC in 10 minutes. Find how much more time will it take for the body to
attain a temperature of 30ºC.
Solution : from equation (14.3.)
f = i e–kt
for the interval in which temperature falls from 40 to 35º C.
(35 – 20) = (40 – 20) e–k. 10
3
 e–10 k =
4
4
n
3
 k=
10
for the next interval
(30 – 20) = (35 – 20)e–kt
2
 e–kt =
3
3
 kt = n
2
 4
 n  t
 3 3
 = n
10 2
 3
 n 
 2
 t = 10 minute = 14.096 min Ans.
 4
 n 
 3
Aliter : (by approximate method)

for the interval in which temperature falls from 40 to 35ºC
40  35
<> = = 37.5ºC
2
d
from equation (14.4) = –k(<> – 0)
dt

(35 º C  40º C)
 = –K(37.5ºC – 20ºC)
10(min)
1
 K= (min 1 )
35
for the interval in which temperature falls from 35ºC to 30ºC

35  30
<> = = 32.5ºC
2
from equation (14.4)
(30 º C  35 º C)
= – (32.5ºC – 20ºC) K
t
5
 required time, t=  35 min = 14 min Ans.
12.5


KINETIC THEORY OF GASES :
Kinetic theory of gases is based on the following basic assumptions.
(a) A gas consists of very large number of molecules. These molecules are identical, perfectly
elastic and hard spheres. They are so small that the volume of molecules is negligible as
compared with the volume of the gas.
(b) Molecules do not have any preferred direction of motion, motion is completely random.
(c) These molecules travel in straight lines and in free motion most of the time. The time of the
collision between any two molecules is very small.
(d) The collision between molecules and the wall of the container is perfectly elastic. It means
kinetic energy is conserved in each collision.
(e) The path travelled by a molecule between two collisions is called free path and the mean of this
distance travelled by a molecule is called mean free path.
(f) The motion of molecules is governed by Newton's law of motion
(g) The effect of gravity on the motion of molecules is negligible.
EXPRESSION FOR THE PRESSURE OF A GAS:

Let us suppose that a gas is enclosed in a cubical box having length  . Let there are ' N ' identical
molecules, each having mass ' m '. Since the molecules are of same mass and perfectly elastic, so
their mutual collisions result in the interchange of velocities only. Only collisions with the walls of the
container contribute to the pressure by the gas molecules. Let us focus on a molecule having velocity
v1 and components of velocity v x1 , v y1 , v z1 along x, y and z-axis as shown in figure.
v12 = v 2 x1  v 2 y1  v 2 z1
The change in momentum of the molecule after one collision with wall BCGF
= m v x1  ( m v x1 ) = 2 m v x1 .
dis tan ce 2
The time taken between the successive impacts on the face BCGF = = v
velocity x1
change in momentum 2mv x1 mv 2 x1

Time rate of change of momentum due to collision = = 2 / v  
time taken x1
Hence the net force on the wall BCGF due to the impact of n molecules of the gas is :
Fx =
mv 2x

1

mv 2x

2

mv 2x 3

 .......... .. 
mv 2x

n



m v 2  v 2  v 2  ..............  v 2
x1 x2 x3 xn
 = mN  v 2
x

2
where  v x  = mean square velocity in x-direction. Since molecules do not favour any particular
2 2 2 2
direction therefore  v x  =  v y  =  v 2z  . But < v2 > =  v x  +  v y  +  v 2z 
 v2 
  v 2x  = . Pressure is equal to force divided by area.
3
RESONANCE KTG & THERMODYNAMICS - 154

Fx M M
P= 2
 3
 v2    v 2  . Pressure is independent of x, y, z directions.
 3 3V
Where  3 = volume of the container = V

M = total mass of the gas, < v2 > = mean square speed of molecules
1 2
 P=  v 
3
1 2 3 3
As PV = n RT , then total translational K.E. of gas = Mv  = PV = n RT
2 2 2
3
Translational kinetic energy of 1 molecule = kT (it is independent of nature of gas)
2
3P 3P 3RT 3kT
 v2  = or vrms =  
 ρ M mole m
Where vrms is root mean square speed of the gas.
1 2 1 2 3
Pressure exerted by the gas is P =  <v2 > =   <v2 > or P = E,E= P
3 3 2 3 2
Thus total translational kinetic energy per unit volume (it is called energy density) of the gas is numerically
3
equal to times the pressure exerted by the gas.
2
IMPORTANT POINTS :
1
(a) vrms  T and vrms 
M m o le
(b) At absolute zero, the motion of all molecules of the gas stops.
(c) At higher temperature and low pressure or at higher temperature and low density, a real gas
behaves as an ideal gas.
MAXWELL'S DISTRIBUTION LAW :

dN( v )
Distribution Curve – A plot of (number of molecules per unit speed interval) against v is known
dv
as Maxwell's distribution curve. The total area under the curve is given by the integral
 
dN( v )

0
dv 
dv  dN( v )  N .
0
dN( v )
[Note:- The actual formula of is not in JEE syllabus.]
dv
Figure shows the distribution curves for two different temperatures. At any temperature the number of
molecules in a given speed interval dv is given by the area under the curve in that interval (shown
shaded). This number increases, as the speed increases, upto a maximum and then decreases
asymptotically towards zero. Thus, maximum number of the molecules have speed lying within a small
range centered about the speed corresponding the peak (A) of the curve. This speed is called the 'most
probable speed' vp or vmp.

The distribution curve is asymmetrical about its peak (the most probable speed vp) because the lowest
possible speed is zero, whereas there is no limit to the upper speed a molecule can attain. Therefore,
the average speed v is slightly larger than the most probable speed vp. The root-mean-square speed,
vrms, is still larger (vrms > v > vp).
Average (or Mean) Speed :
8 kT
v =  m
= 1.59 kT / m . (derivation is not in the course)
RMS Speed :
3kT = 1.73 kT
vrms = v 2  =
 .
m m
Most Probable Speed :

The most probable speed vp or vmp is the speed possessed by the maximum number of molecules, and
corresponds to the maximum (peak) of the distribution curve. Mathematically, it is obtained by the
condition.
dN( v )
= 0 [by substitution of formula of dN(v) (which is not in the course)]
dv
Hence the most probable speed is
2kT
vp = = 1.41 kT / m .
m
From the above expression, we can see that

vrms > v > vp.
The laws which can be deduced with the help of kinetic theory of gases are below.
(a) Boyle's law
(b) Charle's law
(c) Avogadro's hypothesis
(d) Graham's law of diffusion of gases
(e) Regnault's or Gay Lussac's law
(f) Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure
(g) Ideal Gas Equation or Equation of state
DEGREE OF FREEDOM :
Total number of independent co-ordinates which must be known to completely specify the position and
configuration of dynamical system is known as "degree of freedom f". Maximum possible translational
1 2 1 2 1 2
degrees of freedom are three i.e.  mv x  mv y  mv z 
 2 2 2 
1 2 1 2 1 2
Maximum possible rotational degrees of freedom are three i.e.   x  x   y  y   z  z 
2 2 2 
Vibrational degrees of freedom are two i.e. (Kinetic energy of vibration and Potential energy of vibration)
Mono atomic : (all inert gases Ex. He , Ar etc.) f=3 (translational)

Diatomic : (gases like H2 , N2 , O 2 etc.) f=5 (3 translational + 2 rotational)
If temp < 70 K for diatomic molecules, then f=3
If temp in between 250 K to 5000 K , then f =5
If temp > 5000 K f = 7 [ 3 translational.+ 2 rotational + 2 vibrational ]

MAXWELL'S LAW OF EQUIPARTITION OF ENERGY :
1
Energy associated with each degree of freedom = kT. If degree of freedom of a molecule is f , then
2
1
total kinetic energy of that molecule  fkT
2
INTERNAL ENERGY :
The internal energy of a system is the sum of kinetic and potential energies of the molecules of the
system. It is denoted by U. Internal energy (U) of the system is the function of its absolute temperature
(T) and its volume (V). i.e. U = f (T, V)
In case of an ideal gas, intermolecular force is zero. Hence its potential energy is also zero. In this
case, the internal energy is only due to kinetic energy, which depends on the absolute temperature of
f
the gas. i.e. U = f (T). For an ideal gas internal energy U = nRT..
2
Example 1. A light container having a diatomic gas enclosed within is moving with velocity V. Mass of the gas is
M and number of moles is n.
(i) What is the kinetic energy of gas w.r.t. centre of mass of the system?
(ii) What is K.E. of gas w.r.t. ground?
5
Solution : (i) K.E. = nRT
2
(ii) Kinetic energy of gas w.r.t. ground = Kinetic energy of gas w.r.t. centre of mass + Kinetic
energy of centre of mass w.r.t. ground.
1 5
K.E. = MV2 + nRT
2 2
Example 2. Two non conducting containers having volume V1 and V2 contain

mono atomic and diatomic gases respectively. They are connected
as shown in figure. Pressure and temperature in the two contain-
ers are P1 , T1 and P2 , T2 respectively. Initially stop cock is closed,
if the stop cock is opened find the final pressure and temperature.
P1V1 P2 V2
Solution : n1 = RT n2 = RT
1 2
n = n1 + n2 (number of moles are conserved)

Finally pressure in both parts & temperature of the both the gases will become equal.
P( V1  V2 ) P1V1 P2 V2
= RT + RT
RT 1 2
From energy conservation
3 5 3 5
n1RT1 + n2RT2 = n1RT + n RT
2 2 2 2 2
(3P1V1  5P2 V2 ) T1T2  3P1V1  5P2 V2   P1V1T2  P2 V2 T1 

 T = 3P V T  5P V T  P =  3P V T  5P V T   V1  V2

1 1 2 2 2 1  1 1 2 2 2 1  


INDICATOR DIAGRAM :
A graph representing the variation of pressure or variation of temperature or variation of volume with
each other is called indicator diagram.
(A) Every point of Indicator diagram represents a unique state (P, V, T) of gases.
(B) Every curve on Indicator diagram represents a unique process.
THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics is mainly the study of exchange of heat energy between bodies and conversion of the
same into mechanical energy and vice-versa.
THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM
Collection of an extremely large number of atoms or molecules confined within certain boundaries such
that it has a certain value of pressure (P), volume (V) and temperature (T) is called a thermodynamic
system. Anything outside the thermodynamic system to which energy or matter is exchanged is called
its surroundings. Taking into consideration the interaction between a system and its surroundings
thermodynamic system is divided into three classes :
(a) Open system : A system is said to be an open system if it can exchange both energy and
matter with its surroundings.
(b) Closed system : A system is said to be closed system if it can exchange only energy (not
matter with its surroundings).
(c) Isolated system : A system is said to be isolated if it can neither exchange energy nor matter
with its surroundings.
ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS :

If two systems (B and C) are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third one (A), then they themselves
are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
EQUATION OF STATE ( FOR AN IDEAL GASES) :

The relation between the thermodynamic variables (P, V, T) of the system is called equation of state.
The equation of state for an ideal gas of n moles is given by
PV = nRT,
WORK DONE BY A GAS :

Let P and V be the pressure and volume of the gas. If A be the area of the piston, then force exerted by
gas on the piston is, F = P  A.
Let the piston move through a small distance dx during the expansion of the gas. Work done for a small
displacement dx is dW = F dx = PA dx
Since A dx = dV, increase in volume of the gas is dV  dW = P dV
or W=  dW  P dV
Area enclosed under P-V curve gives work done during process.
DIFFERENT T YPES OF PROCESSES :

(a) Isothermal Process :
T = constant [Boyle's law applicable] PV = constant
There is exchange of heat between system and surroundings. System should be compressed
or expanded very slowly so that there is sufficient time for exchange of heat to keep the
temperature constant.
Slope of PV curve in isothermal process:
dP P
PV = constant = C  
dV V
Work done in isothermal process:
Vf If Vf  Vi then W is positive 

W = nRT  n  
Vi If Vf  Vi then W is negative 
 Vf 
W = 2.303 n R T log10 V 
 i 
Internal energy in isothermal process :
U = f (T) U = 0
(b) Iso- choric Process (Isometric Process) :

V = constant
 change in volume is zero
P
 is constant
T
P
 const. (Gay lussac’s law)
T
Work done in isochoric process :
Since change in volume is zero therefore dW = P dV = 0
Indicator diagram of isochoric process :

f
Change in internal energy in isochoric process : U = n R T
2
f
Heat given in isochoric process : Q = U = n R T
2
(c) Isobaric Process : Pressure remains constant in isobaric process

V
 P = constant  = constant
T
Indicator diagram of isobaric process :
Work done in isobaric process :

W = P V = P (Vfinal – Vinitial ) = nR (T final – T initial)
Change in internal energy in isobaric process : U = n CV T

Heat given in isobaric process :
Q = U + W
f f
Q = n R T + P [Vf  Vi] = n R T + nR T
2 2
Above expression gives an idea that to increase temperature by T in isobaric process heat
required is more than in isochoric process.
(d) Cyclic Process : In the cyclic process initial and final states are same therefore initial state =
final state
Work done = Area enclosed under P-V diagram.
Change in internal Energy U = 0
Q = U + W
 Q = W
If the process on P-V curve is clockwise , then net work done is (+ve) and vice-versa.
The graphs shown below explains when work is positive and when it is negative
(+) work
P

Example 3. The cylinder shown in the figure has conducting walls and temperature of the surrounding is T, the
piston is initially in equilibrium, the cylinder contains n moles of a gas. Now the piston is displaced
slowly by an external agent to make the volume double of its initial value. Find work done by external
agent in terms of n, R, T
Solution : 1st Method :
Work done by external agent is positive, because Fext and displacement are in the same direction.
Since walls are conducting therefore temperature remains constant.
Applying equilibrium condition when pressure of the gas is P
PA + Fext = Patm A
Fext = Patm A – PA
W ext = F
0
ext dx
d d
= P atm Adx –  PA dx
0
0
d 2V
nRT
= Patm A 
0
dx – 
V
V
dV
= Patm Ad – nRT ln2
= Patm . V0 – nRTln2 = nRT (1 – ln2)
2nd Method
Applying work energy theorem on the piston
As W all = K.E
K.E = 0 (given)
W gas + W atm + W ext = 0
Vf
nRT ln V – nRT + W ext = 0
i
W ext = nRT (1 – ln2)

Example 4. A non conducting piston of mass m and area of cross section A is placed on a non conducting
cylinder as shown in figure. Temperature, spring constant, height of the piston are given by T, K, h
respectively. Initially spring is relaxed and piston is at rest. Find
(i) Number of moles
(ii) Work done by gas to displace the piston by distance d when the gas is heated slowly.
(iii) Find the final temperature
 mg 
Solution : (i) PV = nRT   Patm   Ah = nRT
T
 A 
 mg 
 Patm   Ah
 A 
 n=
RT
(ii) 1st method

Applying Newton’s law on the piston
mg + Patm A + Kx = PgasA
W gas = P
0
gas A dx
d
= 
0
(mg + Patm A + Kx) dx.
1 2
 W gas = mgd + PatmdA + Kd
2
2nd method
Applying work energy theorem on the piston

W all = KE
Since piston moves slowly therefore KE = 0
W gravity + W gas + W atm + W spring = 0
1 2
– mgd + W gas + (–Patm Ad) + [–( Kd – 0)] = 0
2
1 2
 W gas = mgd + PatmdA + Kd
2

Example 5. Find out the work done in the given graph. Also draw the corresponding T-V curve and P-T curve.
Solution : Since in P-V curves area under the cycle is equal to work done therefore work done by the gas is
equal to P0 V0.
Line A B and CD are isochoric line, line BC and DA are isobaric line.
 the T-V curve and P-T curve are drawn as shown.
Example 6. T-V curve of cyclic process is shown below, number of moles of the gas are n find the total work done
during the cycle.
Solution : Since path AB and CD are isochoric therefore work done is zero during path AB and CD. Process
BC and DA are isothermal, therefore
VC
W BC = nR2T0 ln V = 2nRT0 ln 2
B
VA
W DA = nRT0 ln V = –nRT0 ln 2
D
Total work done = W BC + W DA = 2nRT0 ln 2 – nRT0 ln 2
= nRT0 ln 2
Example 7. P-T curve of a cyclic process is shown. Find out the work done by the gas in the given process if
number of moles of the gas are n.
Solution : Since path AB and CD are isochoric therefore work done during AB and CD is zero. Path BC and DA
are isobaric.
Hence W BC = nRT = nR(T3 – T2)
W DA = nR(T1 – T4) Total work done = W BC + W DA = nR(T1 + T3 –T4 – T2)

Example 8. In figure, a cyclic process ABCA of 3 moles of an ideal gas is given. The temperatures of the gas at
B and C are 500 K and 1000 K respectively. If the work done on the gas in process CA is 2500 J
then find the net heat absorbed or released by an ideal gas . Take R = 25/3 J/mol–K.
Solution : The change in internal energy during the cyclic process is zero. Hence, the heat supplied to the gas
is equal to the work done by it. Hence,
Q = W AB + W BC + W CA .......(i)
The work done during the process AB is zero
W BC = PB (VC – VB)
= nR(TC – TB)
= (3 mol) (25/3 J/mol–K) (500 K)
= 12500 J
As W CA = – 2500 J (given)
 Q = 0 + 12500 – 2500 [from ......(i)]
Q = 10 kJ

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS :
The first law of thermodynamics is the law of conservation of energy. It states that if a system absorbs
heat dQ and as a result the internal energy of the system changes by dU and the system does a work
dW, then dQ = dU + W.
But, W = P dV dQ = dU + P dV
which is the mathematical statement of first law of thermodynamics.
Heat gained by a system, work done by a system and increase in internal energy are taken as
positive.
Heat lost by a system, work done on a system and decrease in internal energy are taken as
negative.
Example 9. 1 gm water at 100ºC is heated to convert into steam at 100ºC at 1 atm. Find out change in internal
energy of water. It is given that volume of 1 gm water at 100ºC = 1 cc, volume of 1 gm steam at 100ºC
= 1671 cc. Latent heat of vaporization = 540 cal/g. (Mechanical equivalent of heat J = 4.2J/cal.)
Solution : From first law of thermodynamic Q = U + W
Q = mL = 1 × 540 cal. = 540 cal.
10 5 (1671  1)  10 6 10 5  (1670 )  10 6
W = PV = =  40 cal.
4.2 4. 2
U = 540 – 40 = 500 cal.

Example 10. Two moles of a monoatomic gas at 300 K are kept in a non con-
ducting container enclosed by a piston. Gas is now compressed to
increase the temperature from 300 K to 400 K. Find work done by
25
the gas (R = J/mol–K)
3
Solution : Q = U + W
Since container is non conducting therefore
Q = 0 = U + W
f 3
 W = – U = –n R T = –2 × R (400 – 300)
2 2
25
=–3× × 100 J = – 2500 J
3
Example 11. In figure, a sample of an ideal gas is taken through the cyclic process abca. 800 J of work is done
by the gas during process ab. If gas absorb no heat in process ab, rejects 100 J of heat during bc
and absorb 500 J of heat during process ca. Then (a) find the internal energy of the gas at b and c
if it is 1000 J at a. (b) Also calculate the work done by the gas during the part bc.
Solution : (a) In process ab

Q = U + W
0 = UB – 100 + 800
UB = 200 J
for Cyclic process
Q = U + W
400 = 0 + 800 + W BC
W BC = – 400 J
for process bc
Q = U + W
– 100 = – 400 + UC – 200
 UC = 500 J
Example 12. Two moles of nitrogen gas is kept in a cylinder of cross-section area 10 cm 2. The cylinder is closed
by a light frictionless piston. Now the gas is slowly heated such that the displacement of piston
during process is 50 cm, find the rise in temperature of gas when 200 J of heat is added in it.
(Atmospheric pressure = 100 kPa, R = 25/3 J/mol-K)
Solution : The change in internal energy of the gas is
U = 5/2 nR (T)
= 5/2 × 2R × (T) = 5R × T
The heat given to the gas = 200 J
The work done by the gas is
W = Q – U
= 200 J – 5R T .......(i)
As the distance moved by the piston is 50 cm,  the work done is
W = PV = PAx = 105 × 10 × 10–4 × 50 × 10–2 .......(ii)
From (i) and (ii)
T = 18/5 K = 3.6 K

Example 13. An ideal gas initially has pressure P volume V and temperature T. It is isothermally expanded to four
times of its original volume, then it is compressed at constant pressure to attain its original volume V.
Finally, the gas is heated at constant volume to get the original temperature T. (a) Draw V-T curve (b)
Calculate the total work done by the gas in the process. (given n2 = 0.693)
Solution :
(a) V–T curve for all process is shown in figure. The initial state is represented by the point A.
In the first step, it is isothermally expanded to a volume 4V. This is shown by AB. Then the
pressure is kept constant and the gas is compressed to the initial volume V. From the ideal
gas equation, V/T is constant at constant pressure (PV = nRT). Hence, the process is
shown by a line BC which passes through the origin. At point C, the volume is V. In the final
step, the gas is heated at constant volume to a temperature T. This is shown by CA. The
final state is the same as the initial state.
(b) Total work done by gas, W Total = W AB + W BC + W CA
4V
W AB = nRT In = 2nRT In 2 = 2PV In 2.
V
Also PA VA = PB VB (As AB is an isothermal process)
PA VA PV P
or, PB =  
VB 4V 4 .
In the step BC, the pressure remains constant. Hence the work done is,
P 3PV
W BC = (V – 4V) = – .
4 4
In the step CA, the volume remains constant and so the work done is zero. The net work
done by the gas in the cyclic process is
W = W AB + W BC + W CA
3PV
= 2PV ln2 – +0
4
Hence, the work done by the gas 0.636 PV.
Example 14. A diatomic gas is heated at constant pressure. If 105 J of heat is given to the gas, find (a) the change
in internal energy of the gas (b) the work done by the gas.
Solution : Suppose the volume changes from V1 to V2 and the temperature changes from T 1 to T2.
The heat supplied is
2U U  nfRT 

Q = U + PV = U + nRT = U + 
f  2 
(a) The change in internal energy is
 2
Q = U 1 
 f 
 2
105 = U 1   , U = 75 J
 5
(b) The work done by the gas is
W = Q – U
= 105 J – 75 J = 30 J.

Efficiency of a cycle () :
total Mechanical work done by the gas in the whole process

Heat absorbed by the gas (only  ve)
area under the cycle in P - V curve

= Heat injected into the system
 Q 
  1  2  for Heat Engine,
 Q1 
 T 
  1  2  for Carnot cycle
 T1 
Example 15. n moles of a diatomic gas has undergone a cyclic process ABCA as shown in figure. Temperature at
A is T0. Find
(i) Volume at C ?
(ii) Maximum temperature ?
(iii) Total heat given to gas ?
(iv) Is heat rejected by the gas, if yes how much heat is rejected ?
(v) Find out the efficiency
Solution : (i) For process AC, P  V
2P0 P0
Vc = V0  Vc = 2V0
(ii) Since process AB is isochoric hence
PA PB
TA = TB  TB = 2T0
TB TC
Since process BC is isobaric therefore V = V
B C
 TC = 2TB = 4 T0  Tmax = 4T0

(iii) Since process is cyclic therefore
1
Q = W = area under the cycle = PV .
2 0 0
(iv) Since U and W both are negative in process CA

 Q is negative in process CA and heat is rejected in process CA
QCA = W CA + UCA
1 5
=  [P + 2P0] V0 – nR (TC – TA )
2 0 2
1 5  4P0 V0 P0 V0 
=  [P0 + 2P0] V0 – nR   
2 2  nR nR 

= –9P0V0 (Heat rejected)
work done by the gas P0 V0 / 2

(v)  = efficiency of the cycle =  = × 100
heat injected Q injected
Qinj = QAB + QBC
5  5  19
=  nR(2T0  T0 ) +  nR( 2T0 )  2P0 ( 2V0  V0 ) = PV.
2  2  2 0 0
100
= %
19

SPECIFIC HEAT :
The specific heat capacity of a substance is defined as the heat supplied per unit mass of the substance
per unit rise in the temperature. If an amount Q of heat is given to a mass m of the substance and its
temperature rises by T, the specific heat capacity s is given by equation
Q
s=
m T
The molar heat capacity of a gas is defined as the heat given per mole of the gas per unit rise in the
temperature. The molar heat capacity at constant volume, denoted by CV, is :
 Q  f
Cv =  n T  = R
  cons tan t volume 2
and the molar heat capacity at constant pressure, denoted by C p is,
 Q  f 
C P =  n T  =   1 R
  cons tan t pressure 2 
where n is the amount of the gas in number of moles and f is degree of freedom. Quite often, the term
specific heat capacity or specific heat is used for molar heat capacity. It is advised that the unit be
carefully noted to determine the actual meaning. The unit of specific heat capacity is J/kg-K whereas
that of molar heat capacity is J/mol–K.
MOLAR HEAT CAPACITY OF IDEAL GAS IN TERMS OF R :

(i) For a monoatomic gas f = 3
3 5 CP 5
CV = R , CP  R  = C  3  1.67
2 2 V
(ii) For a diatmoc gas f = 5

5 7 CP
CV  R, CP  R ,   1.4
2 2 CV
(iii) For a Triatomic gas f = 6

C V  3R, CP  4R
CP 4
   1.33 [Note for CO2; f = 5, it is linear]
CV 3
In general if f is the degree of freedom of a molecule , then ,
f f  CP  2
CV  R , CP    1R ,   1
2  2  C V  f 

Example 16. Two moles of a diatomic gas at 300 K are enclosed in a cylinder as shown in figure. Piston is light.
Find out the heat given if the gas is slowly heated to 400 K in the following three cases.
(i) Piston is free to move
(ii) If piston does not move
(iii) If piston is heavy and movable.
Solution : (i) Since pressure is constant
7
 Q = nCP T = 2 × × R × (400 – 300) = 700 R
2
(ii) Since volume is constant

 W = 0 and Q = U (from first law)
5
Q = U = nCVT = 2× × R × (400 – 300) = 500 R
2
(iii) Since pressure is constant
7
 Q = nCP T = 2 × × R × (400 – 300) = 700 R
2
Example 17. P-V curve of a diatomic gas is shown in the figure. Find the total heat given to the gas in the process
AB and BC
Solution : From first law of thermodynamics

QABC = UABC + W ABC
VC 2V0
W ABC = W AB + W BC = 0 + nR TB ln V = nR TB ln V
B 0
= nRTB ln 2 = 2P0 V0 ln 2
5 5
U = nCV T = (2P0V0 – P0V0)  QABC = P V + 2P0V0 ln 2.
2 2 0 0
Example 18. From given data, calculate the value of mechanical equivalent of heat. The specific heat capacity of
air at constant volume 170 cal/kg-K, =Cp/Cv = 1.4 and the density of air at STP is 1.29 kg/m 3. Gas
constant R = 8.3 J/mol-K.
Solution : Using pV = nRT, the volume of 1 mole of air at STP is
nRT (1 mol)  (8.3 J / mol  K )  (273K )
V = = 0.0224m 3.
p 1.01 10 5 N / m2
The mass of 1 mole is, therefore,
(1.29 kg/m 3) × (0.0224 m 3) = 0.029 kg.
1
The number of moles in 1 kg is . The molar heat capacity at constant volume is
0.029

170 cal
Cv 
(1/ 0.029 ) mol  K = 4.93 cal/mol-K.
Hence, Cp = Cv = 1.4 × 4.93 cal/mol-K

or, Cp – Cv = 0.4 × 4.93 cal/mol-K
= 1.97 cal/mol-K.
Also, Cp – Cv = R = 8.3 J/mol-K.
Thus, 8.3 J = 1.97 cal.
The mechanical equivalent of heat is
8.3 J
1.97 cal =4.2 J/cal.

Average Molar Specific Heat of Metals :
[Dulong and Petit law]
At room temperature average molar specific heat of all metals are same and is nearly equal to 3R
( 6 cal. mol-1 K-1 ).
[Note : Temp. above which the metals have constant CV is called Debye temp.]
MAYER'S EQUATION : CP  CV = R (for ideal gases only)
Adiabatic process :
When no heat is supplied or extracted from the system the process is called adiabatic. Process is
sudden so that there is no time for exchange of heat. If walls of a container are thermally insulated no
heat can cross the boundary of the system and process is adiabatic.
Equation of adiabatic process is given by

PV = constant [Poisson Law]
T  P1– = constant
T V 1 = constant
Slope of PVcurve in adiabatic process : Since PV is a constant
dP P
 =   
dV V
Slope of PTcurve in adiabatic process : Since T  P1– is a constant
dP  P () P
  =
dT (1   ) T (   1) T
RESONANCE
Slope of TVcurve : KTG & THERMODYNAMICS - 170
dV 1 V
=
dT (   1) T
Work done in adiabatic Process :

i i  Pf Vf
PV nR(Ti  Tf )
W  U  nCv (Ti  Tf )  
(   1)  1
work done by system is (+ve) , if T i > T f (For expansion)
work done on the system is (ve) if T i < T f (For compression)

Example 19. A container having slightly conducting walls contains air. The initial temperature and volume are
47ºC (equal to the temperature of the surrounding) and 400cm 3 respectively. Find the rise in the
temperature if the gas is compressed to 200cm 3 (a) in a short time (b) in a long time. Take  = 1.4.
[20.4 = 1.3]
Solution : (a) When the gas is compressed in a short time, the process is adiabatic. Thus,
T2V2 –1 = T1V1–1
 1 0.4
V   400 
or T2  T1 1  = (320 K) ×   = 416 K.
 V2   200 
Rise in temperature = T2 – T1 = 96 K.
(b) When the gas is compressed in a long time, the process is isothermal. Thus, the temperature
remains same that is 47ºC  The rise in temperature = 0.
Example 20. An ideal monoatomic gas is enclosed in a non conducting cylin-

der having a piston which can move freely. Suddenly gas is com-
pressed to 1/8 of its initial volume. Find the final pressure and
temperature if initial pressure and temperature are P0 and T0 re-
spectively.
Solution : Since process is adiabatic therefore
5/3
5 V  CP 5R 3R 5 
P0 V 3 = Pfinal   .    /  
8  CV 2 2 3
Pfinal = 32 P0 .
Since process is adiabatic therefore
2/3
 V0 
T1 V1–1 = T2 V2–1  T0 V02/3 = Tfinal  
 8 
 T = 4T0

Example 21. A cylindrical container having non conducting walls is partitioned in two equal parts such that the
volume of each part is V0 . A movable non conducting piston is kept between the two parts. Gas on
V0
left is slowly heated so that the gas on right is compressed upto volume . Find pressure and
8
temperature on both sides if initial pressure and temperature, were P0 and T0 respectively. Also find
heat given by the heater to the gas. (number of moles in each part is n )
Solution : Since the process on right is adiabatic therefore

PV = constant
 P0 V0 = Pfinal (V0 / 8)  Pfinal = 32 P0
T0 V0–1 = Tfinal (V0/8)– 1  Tfinal = 4T0
Let volume of the left part is V1
V0 15 V0
 2V0 = V1 +  V1 = .
8 8
PV
Since number of moles on left part remains constant therefore for the left part = constant.
T
Final pressure on both sides will be same
P0 V0 Pfinal V1
 T0 = Tfinal  Tfinal = 60 T0
Q = U + W
5R 3R
Q = n (60T0 – T0) + n (4T0 – T0)
2 2
5nR 3nR
Q = × 59T0 + × 3T0 = 152 nRT0
2 2

FREE EXPANSION
If a system, say a gas expands in such a way that no heat enters or leaves the system and also no
work is done by or on the system , then the expansion is called the "free expansion".
Q = 0 , U = 0 and W = 0. Temperature in the free expansion remains constant.
Example 22.
A non conducting cylinder having volume 2V0 is partitioned by a fixed non conducting wall in two equal parts.
Partition is attached with a valve. Right side of the partition is a vacuum and left part is filled with a gas having
pressure and temperature P0 and T0 respectively. If valve is opened find the final pressure and temperature of
the two parts.

Solution : From the first law thermodynamics Q = U + W
Since gas expands freely therefore W = 0 , since no heat is given to gas Q = 0
 U = 0 and temperature remains constant.
Tfinal = T0
Since the process is isothermal therefore P0 × V0 = Pfinal × 2V0  Pfinal = P0/2

Comparison of slopes of an Iso-thermal and Adiabatic Curve
dP dP

dV adia dV isothermal
In compression up to same final volume: | W adia |> | W isothermal |

In Expansion up to same final volume: W isothermal > W adia
Limitations of Ist Law of Thermodynamics :

The first law of thermodynamics tells us that heat and mechanical work are interconvertible. However,
this law fails to explain the following points :
(i) It does not tell us about the direction of transfer of heat.
(ii) It does not tell us about the conditions under which heat energy is converted into work.
(iii) It does not tell us whether some process is possible or not.
Mixture of non-reacting gases:

n1 M1  n 2 M2
(a) Molecular weight = ,
n1  n 2
M1 & M2 are molar masses.
n1 C V1  n 2 C V2
(b) Specific heat CV = ,
n1  n 2
n1 CP1  n 2 CP2
CP =
n1  n 2
Cpmix n1Cp1  n2 Cp2  .......

(c) for mixture,  = C 
v mix n1Cv1  n2 Cv 2  .......
Problem 1. A vessel of volume 2 x 102 m 3 contains a mixture of hydrogen and helium at 47º C temperature
and 4.15 x 105 N/m 2 pressure. The mass of the mixture is 102 kg. Calculate the masses of
hydrogen and helium in the given mixture.
Solution:
Let mass of H2 is m 1 and He is m 2
 m 1 + m 2 = 10–2 kg = 10 × 10–3 kg ....(1)
Let P1, P2 are partial pressure of H 2 and He
P1 + P2 = 4.15 × 105 N/m 2
for the mixture

 m1 m 2 
(P1 + P2) V =  M  M  RT
 1 2 
 m1 m2 
 4.15 × 105 × 2 × 10–2 =  3
  8.31 × 320
 2  10 4  10 3 
m1 m2 4.15  2
 + = = 0.00312 = 3.12 × 10–3
2 4 8.31 320
 2m 1 + m 2 = 12.48 × 10–3 kg .....(2)
Solving (1) and (2)
m 1 = 2.48 × 10–3 kg  2.5 × 10–3 kg
and m2 = 7.5 × 10–3 kg.
Problem 2. The pressure in a monoatomic gas increases linearly from 4 x 105 N m 2 to 8 x 105 N m 2 when
its volume increases from 0.2 m 3 to 0.5 m 3. Calculate the following:
(a) work done by the gas. (b) increase in the internal energy.
Solution :
(a) As here pressure is varying linearly with volume, work done by the gas
W=
 PdV = area under P-V curve
1
W = P VF  V  + PF  P  × VF  V 
2
1
i.e., W = 4 × 105 × 0.3 + × 4 × 105 × 0.3
2
i.e., W = 1.8 × 105 J
(b) The change in internal energy of a gas is given by

nRT (PF VF  P V )
U = nCV T = =
(   1) (   1)
As the gas is monoatomic  = (5/3)
10 5 (8  0.5  4  0.2) 3
So, U = = × 105(4 – 0.8).
[(5 / 3)  1] 2
i.e., U = 4.8 × 105 J
Problem 3. There are two vessels. Each of them contains one mole of a monoatomic ideal gas. Initial
volume of the gas in each vessel is 8.3 x 103 m 3 at 27º C. Equal amount of heat is supplied to
each vessel. In one of the vessels, the volume of the gas is doubled without change in its
internal energy, whereas the volume of the gas is held constant in the second vessel. The
vessels are now connected to allow free mixing of the gas. Find the final temperature and
pressure of the combined gas system.
Solution :
According to Ist law of thermodynamics,
Q = U + W
So for the vessel for which internal energy (and hence, temperature) remains constant.
Q 1 = W = nRT loge (VF/V)
Q 1 = 1 × R × 300 loge(2) = 0.693 × 300 R = 207.9 R
and for the vessel for which volume is kept constant.
Q 2 = U = nCV T [as W = 0]
i.e., Q1 = 1(3/2)R T
According to given problem Q 1 = Q 2 i.e.,
207.9R = (3/2)RT, i.e. T = 138.6
i.e., T F – T  = 138.6 with T  = 300 K
So, T F = 300 + 138.6 = 438.6 K
Now when the free mixing of gases is allowed

U1 + U2 = U
n1(CV)1T1 + n2 (CV)2T2 = nCVT
with n = n1 + n2
Here n 1 = n2 = 1
and (CV)1 = (CV)2 = C V
So 1 × 300 + 1 × 438.6 = 2T,
i.e., T = 369.3 K
Further for the mixture from PV = nRT with V = V + 2V = 3V and n = n1 + n2 = 2, we have
nRT 2  8.3  369.3
P= = = 2.462 × 105 N/m 2
3V 3  8.3  10 3
Problem 4. A gaseous mixture enclosed in a vessel of volume V consists of one gram mole of a gas A with
Cp 5 7
  and another gas B with   at a certain temperature T. The gram molecular
Cv 3 5
weights of the gases A and B are 4 and 32 respectively. The gases A and B do not react with
each other and are assumed to be ideal. The gaseous mixture follows the equation; PV19/13 =
constant in adiabatic processes.
(a) Find the number of gram moles of the gas B in the gaseous mixture.
(b) Compute the speed of sound in the gaseous mixture at T = 300 K.
(c) If T is raised by 1 K from 300 K, find the percentage change in the speed of sound in the
gaseous mixture.
Solution :
(a) As for ideal gas C P – CV = R and  = (C P/CV),
R
So –1= C
V
R
or CV =
(   1)
R 3
 (CV)1 = = R;
(5 / 3 )  1 2
R 5
(CV)2 =  R
(7 / 5)  1 2
R 13
and (CV)mix =  R
(19 / 13 )  1 6
Now from conservation of energy, i.e., U = U1 + U2,
(n1 + n2) (C V)mix T = [n1(CV)1 + n2(CV)2]T
n1(C V )1  n 2 (C V )2
i.e., (C V)mix = n1  n 2
13 1 32 R  n  52 R (3  5n)
We have R = =
6 1 n 2(1  n)
or, 13 + 13n = 9 + 15n,
n = 2 mole.
(b) Molecular weight of the mixture will be given by
n A M A  nBMB (1)( 4)  2(32)
M= =
n A  nB 1 2
M = 22.67
Speed of sound in a gas is given by
RT
v=
M

Therefore, in the mixture of the gas
(19 / 13)(8.31)(300)
v= m/s
22.67  10 3
v  401 m/s
(c) v T
or v = KT 1 / 2 ......(2)
dv 1
 = KT – 1 / 2
dT 2
 dT 
 dv = K  
2 T 
dv K  dT 
 =  
v v 2 T 
dv 1  dT   dT 
 =   = 1  
v T 2 T  2  T 
dv 1  dT  1  1  1
 × 100 =   × 100 =   × 100 = 0.167 =
v 2  T  2  300  6
Therefore, percentage change in speed is 0.167%.


1. ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
To get some overview of error, least count and significant figures, lets consider the example given below.
Suppose we have to measure the length of a rod. How can we!
(a) Lets use a cm. scale: (a scale on which only cm. marks are there)
We will measure length = 4 cm.

Although the length will be a bit more than 4 , but we cannot say its length to be 4.1 cm or 4.2 cm.,
as the scale can measure upto cms only , not closer than that.
* It (this scale) can measure upto cms accuracy only.
* so we’ll say that its least count is 1 cm.
(b) Lets use an mm scale : (a scale on which mm. marks are there)
We will measure length  = 4.2 cm. , which is a more closer measurement. Here also if we observe closely,
we’ll find that the length is a bit more than 4.2, but we cannot say its length to be 4.21, or 4.22, or 4.20 as
this scale can measure upto 0.1 cms (1 mm) only, not closer than that.
* It (this scale) can measure upto 0.1 cm accuracy

Its least count is 0.1 cm.
Max uncertainty in  can be = 0.1cm

Max possible error in  can be = 0.1cm
Measurement of length = 4.2 cm. has two significant figures ; 4 and 2 , in which 4 is absolutely correct ,
and 2 is reasonably correct (Doubtful) because uncertainty of 0.1 cm is there.
(c) We can use Vernier callipers : ( which can measure more closely , upto 0.01 cm )
Then we’ll measure length = 4.23 cm which is more closer measurement.
* It can measure upto 0.01 cm accuracy
Least count = 0.01 cm Max uncertainty in can be = 0.01cm

Max possible error in can be = 0.01cm
Measurement of length = 4.23 cm. has three significant figures ; 4 , 2 and 3, in which 4 and 2 are
absolutely correct , and 3 is reasonable correct (Doubtful) because uncertainty of 0.01 cm is there.
To get further more closer measurement :-
RESONANCE MEASUREMENT ERRORS AND EXPERIMENT - 177

(d) We can use Screw Gauge : ( which can measure more closely , upto 0.001 cm )
we’ll measure length = 4.234 cm.
* Max possible uncertainty (error) in can be = 0.001 cm
* length = 4.234 cm. has four significant figures ; 4 , 2 , 3 and 4.
absolutely absolutely absolutely Reasonably

correct correct correct correct
To get further more closer measurement
(e) We can Use microscope :
we’ll measure length = 4.2342 cm.

* Max possible uncertainty (error) in can be = 0.0001cm
* length = 4.2342cm. has five significant figures ; 4 , 2 , 3 ,4 and 2
2. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
From the above example , we can conclude that ,in a measured quantity,
Significant figures are = Figures which are absolutely correct + The first uncertain figure
2.1 Common rules of counting significant figures :

Rule 1 :
All non-zero digits are significant
e.i. 123.56 has five S.F.
Rule 2 :
All zeros occurring between two non-zeros digits are significant (obviously)
e.i. 1230.05 has six S.F.
Rule 3 :
 = 3.5 cm =3.50 cm = 3.500 cm
closer! more closer!
0.1 cm accuracy 0.01 cm accuracy 0.001 cm accuracy
 lies between(3.4 – 3.6)  lies between (3.49 – 3.51)  lies between (3.499 – 3.501)
So trailing zeroes after decimal place are significant (Shows the further accuracy)
Once a measurement is done, significant figures will be decided according to closeness of measurement.
Now if we want to display the measurement in some different units, the S.F. shouldn’t change (S.F. depends
only on accuracy of measurement)
Number of S.F. is always conserved, change of units cannot change S.F.

Suppose measurement was done using mm scale, and we get  = 85 mm ( Two S. F.)
If we want to display it in other units.
85 mm 8.5 cm 0.085 m
85000 mm 0.000085 km
–5
= 8.5 × 104 mm = 8.5 × 10 km
All should have two S.F.

The following rules support the conservation of S.F.
Rule 4:
From the previous example, we have seen that,
0.000085 km also should has two S.F.; 8 and 5, So leading Zeros are not significant.
Not significant
In the number less than one, all zeros after decimal point and to the left of first non-zero digit
are insignificant (arises only due to change of unit )
0.000305 has three S.F.
 3.05 × 10–4 has three S.F.
Rule 5 :
From the previous example, we have also seen that
85000 m should also has two S.F., 8 and 5. So the trailing zeros are also not significant.
Not significant
The terminal or trailing zeros in a number without a decimal point are not significant. (Also
arises only due to change of unit)
154 m = 15400 cm = 15400 mm
= 154 × 109 nm
all has only three S.F. all trailing zeros are insignificant
Rule 6 :
There are certain measurement, which are exact i.e.
Number of apples are = 12 (exactly) = 12.000000........... 

This type of measurement is infinitely accurate so, it has  S.F.
* Numbers of students in class = 125 (exact)
* Speed of light in the vacuum = 299,792,458 m/s (exact)

Example 1. Count total number of S.F. in 3.0800
Solution : S.F. = Five , as trailing zeros after decimal place are significant.
Solution : S.F. = Three, as leading zeros are not significant.
Example 3. Count total number of S.F. in 3500
Solution : S.F. = Two, the trailing zeros are not significant.
Solution : S.F. = Five, trailing zeros after decimal point are significant.
Solution : S.F. = Seven, the trailing zeros after decimal place are significant.
Example 6. Count total number of S.F. in 6.020 × 1023
Solution : S.F. = Four ; 6, 0, 2, 0 ; remaining 23 zeros are not significant.
Example 7. Count total number of S.F. in 1.60 × 10–19
Solution : S.F. = Three ; 1, 6, 0 ; remaining 19 zeros are not significant.

2.2 Operations according to significant figures:
Now lets see how to do arithmetic operations ie. addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division according to significant figures
(a) Addition  subtraction
For this, lets consider the example given below.
 = 75.4 cm
In a simple pendulum, length of the thread is measured ( from mm scale) as = 75.4? cm
75.4 cm. and the radius of the bob is measured (from vernier) as 2.53 cm.
Find eq =  + r r = 2.53 cm
is known upto 0.1 cm( first decimal place) only. We don’t know what is at the next decimal place.
So we can write  =75.4 cm = 75.4? cm and the radius r = 2.53 cm .
If we add and r, we don’t know which number will be added with 3. So we have to leave that position.
eq = 75.4? + 2.53 = 77.9? cm = 77.9 cm
Rules for Addition  subtraction : (based on the previous example)

* First do the addition/subtraction in normal manner.
* Then round off all quantities to the decimal place of least accurate quantity.
i.e.
Rules for Multiply  Division

Suppose we have to multiply 2.11 x 1.2 = 2.11 ? x 1.2 ?
2 . 11 ?
x 1.2 ?
? ???
4 2 2?x
21 1 ? x x
2.5 ? ? ? ? = 2.5
So answer will come in least significant figures out of the two numbers.

 Multiply divide in normal manner.
 Round off the answer to the weakest link (number having least S.F.)
Example 8. A cube has a side  = 1.2 × 10–2 m. Calculate its volume

Solution :  = 1.2 × 10–2
V = 3 = (1.2 × 10–2) (1.2 × 10–2) (1.2 × 10–2)
Two S.F. Two S.F. Two S.F.
= 1.728 × 10–6 m3
Round off to 2 S.F..
= 1.7 × 10–6 m3 Ans.
Rules of Rounding off

 If removable digit is less than 5 (50%) ; drop it.
Round off
47.833 47.8
till one decimal place
 If removable digit is greater than 5(50%), increase the last digit by 1.
Round off
47.862 47.9
till one decimal place
Example 9. In ohm’s law exp., reading of voltmeter across the resistor is 12.5 V and reading of current i = 0.20
Amp. Estimate the resistance in correct S.F.
Solution : V 12.5 3 SF
R= = = 62.5  62 
i 0.20 2 SF round off
to 2 S.F.
Example 10. Using screw gauge radius of wire was found to be 2.50 mm. The length of wire found by mm. scale
is 50.0 cm. If mass of wire was measured as 25 gm, the density of the wire in correct S.F. will be
(use = 3.14 exactly )
m
Solution : = =
r 2 
= 2.5465


3. LEAST COUNT :
We have studied (from page 1 ) that no measurement is perfect. Every instrument can measure upto a
certain accuracy; called least count.
Least count : The Smallest quantity an instument can measure
mm. scale Vernier Screw gauge stop Temp thermometer

L.C. = 1 mm L.C. =0.1 mm L.C. = 0.01 mm watch L.C. = 1ºC
L.C. = 0.1 sec
4. PERMISSIBLE ERROR
Error in measurement due to the limitation (least count) of the instrument, is called permissible error.
From mm scale  we can measure upto 1 mm accuracy (least count = 1mm). From this we will get
measurement like  = 34 mm
Max uncertainty can be 1 mm.

Max permissible error () = 1 mm.
But if from any other instrument, we get  = 34.5 mm then max permissible error () = 0.1 mm
and if from a more accurate instrument, we get  = 34.527 mm then max permissible error () = 0.001 mm
= place value of last number
Max permissible error in a measured quantity is = least count of the measuring instrument
and if nothing is given about least count then Max permissible error = place value of the last number
5. MAX. PERMISSIBLE ERROR IN RESULT DUE TO ERROR IN EACH

MEASURABLE QUANTITY :
Let Result f(x, y) contains two measurable quantity x and y
Let error in x is = ± x i.e. x  (x – x, x + x)
error in y is = ± y i.e. y  (y – y, y + y)
Case : () If f(x, y) = x + y
df = dx + dy
error in f = f = ± x ± y
max possible error in f = (f)max = max of (± x ± y)
(f)max = x + y
Case : () If f =x–y
df = dx – dy
(f) = ± x  y
max possible error in f = (f)max = max of (± x  y)
 (f)max = x + y
For getting maximum permissible error , sign should be adjusted, so that errors get added up to give
maximum effect
i.e. f = 2x – 3y - z
(f)max = 2x + 3y + z
Example 11. In resonance tube exp. we find 1 = 25.0 cm and 2 = 75.0 cm. The least count of of the scale used
to measure  is 0.1 cm. If there is no error in frequency. What will be max permissible error in speed
of sound (take f0 = 325 Hz.)
Solution : V = 2f0 (2 – 1)
(dV) = 2f0 (d2 – d1)
(V)max = max of [2f0(± 2  2] = 2f0 (2 + 1)
1 = least count of the scale = 0.1 cm
2 = least count of the scale = 0.1 cm
So max permissible error in speed of sound (V)max = 2(325Hz) (0.1 cm + 0.1 cm) = 1.3 m/s
Value of V = 2f0 (2 – 1) = 2(325Hz) (75.0 cm - 25.0 cm) = 325 m/s
so V = ( 325 ± 1.3 ) m/s
Example 12. In resonance tube exp. we find 1 = 25.0 cm and 2 = 75.0 cm. If there is no error in frequency. What
will be max permissible error in speed of sound (take f0 = 325 Hz.)
Solution : V = 2f0 (2 – 1)
(dV) = 2f0 (d2 – d1)
(V)max = max of [2f0(± 2  2] = 2f0 (2 + 1)
here no information of least count is given so maximum permissible error in  = place value of last
number.
1 = 25.0 cm  1 = 0.1 cm (place value of last number )
1 = 75.0 cm  2 = 0.1 cm (place value of last number )
So max permissible error in speed of sound (V)max = 2(325Hz) (0.1 cm + 0.1 cm) = 1.3 m/s
Value of V = 2f0 (2 – 1) = 2(325Hz) (75.0 cm - 25.0 cm) = 325 m/s
so V = ( 325 ± 1.3 ) m/s

Case () If f(x, y, z) = (constant) xaybzc
to scatter all the terms, Lets take log on both sides
n f = n(constant) + a n x + b n y + c n z
Differentiating both sides
df dx dy dz
=0+a +b y +c
f x z
f x y z
=±a ±b y ±c
f x z
 f  x y z
  = max of (± a ±b y ±c )
 f max x z
i.e. f = 15 x2 y–3/2 z–5
df dx 3 dy dz
=0+2 – –5
f x 2 y z
f x 3 y z
=±2  5
f x 2 y z
 f  x 3 y z
  = max of (± 2  5 )
f
 max x 2 y z
 f  x 3 y z
  =2 + +5
 f max x 2 y z
 sign should be adjusted, so that errors get added up
Example 13. If measured value of resistance R = 1.05 , wire diameter d = 0.60 mm, and length  = 75.3 cm.
If maximum error in resistance measurment is 0.01  and least count of diameter and lenth
measuring device are 0.01 mm and 0.1 cm respectively, then find max. permissible error in
 d2 
R 
 4 
resistivity =  

 ρ  R d 
Solution :   = +2 +
 ρ max R d 
R = 0.01 
d = 0.01 mm (least count)
 = 0.1 cm (least count)
 ρ   0.01 Ω 0.01mm 0.1cm 
  =  +2 +  × 100 = 4.3 %.
 ρ max  1.05 Ω 0.60mm 75.3cm 

Example 14. In ohm’s law experiment, potential drop across a resistance was measured as v = 5.0 volt and
current was measured as i = 2.0 amp. If least count of the voltmeter and ammeter are 0.1 V and
0.01A respectively then find the maximum permissible error in resistance.
v
Solution : R= = v × i–1
i
 R  v i
  = +
 R max v i
v = 0.1 volt (least count)
i = 0.01 amp (least count)
 R   0.1 0.01 
%  R  =    × 100 % = 2.5 %
 max  5.0 2.00 
v 5 .0
value of R from the observation R = =  2 .5 
i 2 .00
So we can write R = ( 2.5 ± 2.5% ) 
Example 15. In Searle’s exp to find Young’s modulus, the diameter of wire is measured as D = 0.050 cm, length
of wire is L = 125 cm, and when a weight, m = 20.0 kg is put, extension in wire was found to be 0.100
cm. Find maximum permissible error in young’s modulus (Y).
mg x mg 
Solution : =Y( )  Y=
2
d / 4  (  / 4) d2 x
 Y  m  d x
  = + +2 +
 Y max m  d x
here no information of least count is given so maximum permissible error in  = place value of last
number.
m = 20.0 kg  m = 0.1 kg (place value of last number )
 = 125 cm   = 1 cm (place value of last number )
d = 0.050 cm  d = 0.001 cm (place value of last number )
x = 0.100 cm  x = 0.001 cm (place value of last number )
 Y   0.1kg 1cm 0.001cm 0.001cm 

  =  20.0kg  125cm  0.05cm  2  0.100cm   100 % = 6.3 %
 Y max  
Example 16. To find the value of ‘g’ using simple pendulum. T = 2.00 sec; = 1.00 m was measured. Estimate
maximum permissible error in ‘g’. Also find the value of ‘g’ . ( use  2 = 10 )
 42 
Solution : T = 2 g  g=
T2
 g   T  0.01 0.01 
  = +2 =  2  × 100 %. =2%
 g max  T  1 . 00 2 .00 
42  4  10 1.00
value of g = = = 10.0 m/s2
T 2 (2.00)2
 g  gmax 2
  = 2/100 so  so (g)max = 0.2 = max error in ‘g’
 g max 10.0 100
so ‘g’ = (10.0 ± 0.2 ) m/s2


OTHER TYPES OF ERRORS :
1. Error due to external Causes :
These are the errors which arise due to reasons beyond the control of the experimentalist, e.g., change in
room temperature, atmospheric pressure etc. A suitable correction can, however, be applied for these errors
if the factors affecting the result are also recorded.
2. Instrumental errors :
Every instrument, however cautiously or manufactured, possesses imperfection to some extent. As a result
of this imperfection, the measurements with the instrument cannot be free from errors. Errors, however
small, do occur owing to the inherent manufacturing defects in the measuring instruments are called instru-
mental errors. These errors are of constant magnitude and suitable corrections can be applied for these
errors. e.i.. Zero errors in vernier callipers, and screw gauge, backlash errors etc
3. Personal or chance error :
Two observers using the same experiment set up, do not obtain exactly the same result. Even the observa-
tions of a single experimentalist differ when it is repeated several times by him or her. Such errors always
occur inspire of the best and honest efforts on the part of the experimentalist and are known as personal
errors. These errors are also called chance errors as they depend upon chance. The effect of the chance
error on the result can be considerably reduced by taking a large number of observations and then taking
their mean. How to take mean, is described in next point.
4. Errors in averaging :
Suppose to measure some quantity, we take several observations, a1, a2, a3…. an .To find the absolute
error in each measurement and percentage error , we have to follow these steps
(a) First of all mean of all the observations is calculated : a mean= (a1+ a2 +a3 +…+ an) / n. The mean of
these values is taken as the best possible value of the quantity under the given conditions of
measurements..
(b) Absolute Error :
The magnitude of the difference between the best possible or mean value of the quantity and the
individual measurement value is called the absolute error of the measurement. The absolute error in
an individual measured value is:
an = | amean  an |
The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors is taken as the final or mean absolute error.
amean = (|a1| + |a2| + |a3|+...........+|an|)/n
 n 
amean =   | a i |  n
 i 1 
we can say amean  amean  a  amean + amean
(c) Relative and Percentage Error
Relative error is the ratio of the mean absolute error and arithmetic mean .
amean
Relative error = a
mean
When the relative error is expressed in percent, it is called the percentage error.
Thus,
amean
Percentage error = a × 100%
mean
Example 17. In some observations, value of ‘g’ are coming as

9.81, 9.80, 9.82, 9.79, 9.78, 9.84, 9.79, 9.78, 9.79 and 9.80 m/s 2.
Calculate absolute errors and percentage error in g.

S.N. Value of g Absolute error g = |gi – g |
Solution : 1 9.81 0.01
2 9.80 0.00
3 9.82 0.02
4 9.79 0.01
5 9.78 0.02
6 9.84 0.04
7 9.79 0.01
8 9.78 0.02
9 9.79 0.01
10 9.80 0.00
gmean =  gi
10
gmean = 9.80
0.14
= = 0.014
10
gmean
percentage error = g  100 = 0.014 × 100 % = 0.14 %
mean 9.80
so ‘g’ = ( 9.80 ± 0.014 ) m/s 2
EXPERIMENT - 1
Screw gauge (Micrometer)
 1mm 
Screw gauge is used to measure closely upto   .How can it divide 1 mm in 100 parts !
 100 
To divide 1 mm in 100 parts , a screw is used. In one rotation, the screw (spindle) moves forward by 1 mm.
(Called pitch of the screw )
The rotation of the screw (spindle) is divided in 100 parts
(called circular scale), hence 1 mm is divided in 100 parts
1 rotation  1 mm
100 circular parts  1 mm
1 mm
so 1 circular part  = Least count of screw gauge
100
So lets generalize it

How to find thickness of an object by screw gauge !
Object is inserted ZOOM

between the jaws
0 1 mm
57 1 circular part =
50 100
47
(mm) 47 circular part = 47 x 1 mm
40 100
Object thickness = 7. - - - - -
= 7 mm + 47 circular devisions
= 7 mm + 47 ( 1 mm )
100
Main scale Circuler Least
Reading scale Count
Reading
Thickness of Main Circular Least

object = scale + scale Count
= Reading
Reading of Reading
Screwgauge
Pitch
Numbers of
devisions on
Description of screw gauge : Circular Scale
movable Jaw
(spindle)
Main scale
Fixed Jaw Circular scale
object
0 5
50
(mm)
40
Thimble
Fixed sleeve
Fixed frame
The object to be measured is put between the jaws. The sleeve is hollow part, fixed with the frame and main
scale is printed on it.
The spindle and thimble are welded, and move together by means of a screw. The circular scale is printed on
the thimble as shown. It generally consists of 100 divisions (sometime 50 divisions also)
The main scale has mm marks (Sometimes it also has 1/2 mm marks below mm marks.)
(Usually if pitch of the screw gauge is 1mm then there are 1mm marks on main scale and if pitch is
1/2 mm then there are 1/2 mm marks also)
This instrument can read upto 0.01 mm (10 m) accuracy that is why it is called micrometer
Example 18. Read the normal screwgauge

*Main scale has only mm marks.
*In complete rotation, the screw advances by 1 mm.
*Circular scale has 100 divisions
Solution :
0 5 10
70
(mm) 60
Soln: 1 mm
Object thickness = 11 mm + 65 ( )
100
= 11.65 mm
Example 19. Read the screwgauge

1
*Main scale has mm marks.
2
1
*In complete rotation, the screw advances by mm.
2
*Circular scale has 50 division.
Solution :
50
6.5
40
Soln: Object thickness = 6.5 - - - -

1/2 mm )
Object thickness = 6.5 mm + 43 (
50
= 6.93 mm
Example 20. Read the screwgauge shown bellow:

1
*Main scale has mm marks.
2
1
*In complete rotation, the screw advances by mm.
2
*Circular scale has 50 division.
Solution :
Example 21. A wire of resistance R = 100.0  and length l = 50.0 cm is put between the jaws of screw gauge. Its
reading is shown in figure. Pitch of the scruegauge is 0.5 mm and there are 50 divisio on circular
scale. Find its resistivity in correct significant figures and maximum permissible error in 
(resistivity).
Solution : 0 10 0

R  40
d2 / 4
Rd2 (100.0) (3.14) (8.42  10 3 ) Soln:

 = = /m
4 4(50.0  10  2 ) Object thickness = 8 mm + 42
1/ 2 mm
50
= 8.42 mm
d dR 2d(D) d 0.1 0.01 0 .1
= + + = +2× + = ....
 R D  100 .0 8.42 50

1
Example 22. In a complete rotation, spindle of a screw gauge advances by mm. There are 50 divisions on
2
1 1 1
circular scale. The main scale has mm marks  (is graduated to mm or has least count.= mm)
2 2 2
If a wire is put between the jaws, 3 main scale divisions are clearly visible, and 20 division of circular
scale co-inside with the reference line. Find diameter of wire in correct S.F.
1  1/ 2 mm 
Solution : Diameter of wire (3 × mm) + (20)   = 1.5 + 0.20 = 1.70 mm (The answer should be upto
2  50 
two decimal places because this screwgauges can measure upto 0.01 mm accuracy).
Example 23. In the previous question if the mass of the wire is measured as 0.53 kg and length of the wire is
measured by an mm scale and is found to be 50.0 cm, find the density of the wire in correct
significant figures.
m (0.53  103 )  4
Solution : ρ = g / m3 = ........... (2 S.F.)
.)
 πd2  (3.14) (1.70  10 3 )2 (50  10  2 )
 
 4 
 
Example Two measure diameter of a wire, a screwgauge
is used. The main scale division is of 1 mm. In a
complete rotation, the screw advances by 1 mm
and the circular scale has 100 devisions. The
reading of screwgauge is as shown in figure.
If there is no error in mass measurement, but

error in length measurement is 1%, then find max.
Possible error in density.
m
Solution : 
 d2 
 
 4 
 
 4  d 
  = 2 
  max d 
1mm
d = least count of =  0.01mm
100
and d = 3.07 mm from the figure
    0.01 1 
so     2
3. 07

100
  100%
 max  
  
  = 1.67%.
  max


Zero Error :
If there is no object between the jaws (i.e. jaws are in contact), the screwgauge should give zero reading. But
due to extra material on jaws, even if there is no object, it gives some excess reading. This excess.
Reading is called zero error :
Example 24. Find the thickness of the wire. The main scale division is of 1 mm. In a complete rotation, the screw
advances by 1 mm and the circular scale has 100 devisions.
Solution : Excess reading (Zero error) = 0.03 mm It is giving 7.67 mm in which there is 0.03 mm excess
reading , which has to be removed ( subtracted)
so actual reading = 7.67 - 0.03 = 7.64 mm
Example 25. Find the thickness of the wire. The main scale division is of 1 mm. In a complete rotation, the screw
advances by 1 mm and the circular scale has 100 devisions. Zero error of the screwgase is
–0.07 mm
Solution : Excess reading (Zero error) = - 0.07mm It is giving 7.95 mm in which there is -0.07 mm excess
reading , which has to be removed ( subtracted)
so actual reading = 7.95 -(- 0.07) = 8.02 mm


ZERO CORRECTION :
Zero correction is invert of zero error :
zero correction = - (zero error)
Actual reading = observed reading - zero error
= observed reading + Zero correction
EXPERIMENT # 2
Vernier callipers
It is used to measure accurately upto 0.1 mm.
*On the upper plate, main scale is printed which is simply an mm scale.
*On the lower plate , vernier scale is printed, which is a bit compressed scale. Its one part is of 0.9 mm.
(10 vernier scale divisions = 9 mm  1 vernier scale division = 0.9 mm)
The object which is to be measured , is fitted between the jaws as shown.
How to read Vernier Callipers:

Now lets see How the slight difference between 1 MSD and 1 VSD reflects as least count
Required length = 13 mm + x = ?
at point ‘A’ , main scale and vernier scale are matching
so length OA along main Scale = length OA along Vernier Scale
13 mm +3 (Main scale division) = ( 13 mm + x ) + 3 (vernier Scale division )
Get 13 mm + x = 13 mm + 3 (Main scale division - vernier Scale division)
= 13 mm + 3 ( 1 mm - 0.9 mm )
= 13 mm +3 (0.1 mm ) = 13.3 mm
  
 main   vernier 
     Least 
 scale  +  scale   
 reading  reading  count 
   

(Main scale division - vernier Scale division)
Hence the slight difference between 1 MSD (1 mm ) and 1 VSD (0.9 mm ) reflects as least count (0.1 mm)
Thicknes of object  main   vernier 

     Least 
  scale  +  scale   
=
Re ading of vernier callipers  reading  reading  count 
   

Example 26. Read the vernier. 10 division of vernier scale are matching with 9 divisions of main scale.
Solution : 10 vernier scale divisions = 9 mm

1 vernier scale division = 0.9 mm
 least count = (Main scale division - vernier Scale division)
= 1 mm - 0.9 mm (from figure)
= 0.1 mm
Thickness of the object = (main scale reading) + (vernier scale Reading) (least count )
So thickness of the object = 15 mm + (6) (0.1mm ) = 15.6 mm Ans.
Example 27. Read the special type of vernier. 20 division of vernier scale are matching with 19 divisions of main
scale.

Solution : 20 vernier scale divisions = 19 mm
19
1 vernier scale division = mm
20
where least count = (Main scale division - vernier Scale division)
= 1 mm - 19/20 mm ( from fig.)
= 0.05 mm
Thickness of the object = (main scale reading) + (vernier scale Reading) (least count )
So thickness of the object = 13 mm + (12) (0.05mm )
= 13.60 mm Ans.

Zero Error:
If there is no object between the jaws (ie. jaws are in contact ),the vernier should give zero reading. But due
to some extra material on jaws, even if there is no object between the jaws, it gives some excess Reading .
This excess reading is called zero error
Example : In the vernier caliperse, 9 main scale divisions matches with 10 main scale divisions.
The thickness of the object using the defected vernier calliperse will be :

Example 28. In the vernier caliperse, 9 main scale divisions matches with 10 main scale divisions.
The thickness of the object using the defected vernier calliperse will be :
Solution : From first figure, Excess reading (zero error ) = 0.6 mm

If an object is placed, vernier gives 14.6 mm in which there is 0.6 mm excess reading, which has
to be subtracted. So actual thickness = 14.6 - 0.6 = 14.0 mm we can also do it using the formula
= 14.6 - 0.6 = 14.0 mm Ans.
Example 29. Main scale reading is –1 mm when there is no object between the jaws.In the vernier caliperse, 9
main scale divisions matches with 10 main scale divisions. The thickness of the object using the defected
vernier calliperse will be :

Solution : Zero error = main scale reading + ( vernier scale reading ) ( least count )
= –1 mm + 6 (0.1 mm) = –0.4 mm
observed reading = 11.8 mm
So actual thickness = 11.8 - (-0.4) = 12.2 mm Ans.

Zero Correction :
Zero correction is invert of zero error.
Zero correction = - ( zero error )
In example 28, zero error was 0.6 mm , so zero correction will be - 0.6 mm
In example 29, zero error was -0.4 mm , so zero correction will be + 0.4 mm
Example 30. The main scale of a vernier callipers reads 10 mm in 10 divisions. 10 divisions of Vernier scale
coincide with 9 divisions of the main scale. When the two jaws of the callipers touch each other, the
fifth division of the vernier coincides with 9 main scale divisions and the zero of the vernier is to the
right of zero of main scale. When a cylinder is tightly placed between the two jaws, the zero of
vernier scale lies slightly behind 3.2 cm and the fourth vernier division coincides with a main scale
division. The diameter of the cylinder is.
Solution : Zero error = 0.5 mm = 0.05 cm.
Observed reading of cylinder diameter = 3.1 cm + (4) (0.01 cm).
= 3.14 cm
Actual thickness of cylinder = (3.14) – (0.05).
= 3.09 cm Ans.
Example 31. In the previous question if the length of the cylinder is measured as 25 mm, and mass of the cylinder
is measured as 50.0 gm, find the density of the cylinder in proper significant figures.
m
Solution : ρ
π(d2 / 4)h
(50.0)gm
= = 2.7 gm/cm3 (in two S.F.) Ans.
3.14  (3.09 / 2) 2  ( 25  10 1 ) cm 3

EXPERIMENT # 3
Determining the value of ‘g’ using a simple pendulum
////////
 L
In this exp. a small spherical bob is hanged with a cotton thread. This arrangement is called sample pendu-
lum. The bob is displaced slightly and allowed to oscillate. To find time period, time taken for 50 oscillations
is noted using a stop watch.
L L
Theoretically T = 2 g  g = 42 ....(1)
T2

where L = Equivalent length of pendulum = length of thread () + radius (r) of bob,
Time taken for 50 oscillatio ns
T = time period of the simple pendulum =
50
so ‘g’ can be easily determined by equation ...(1).
Graphical method to find ‘g’ :

 42 
 L
T =  g
2
 ............(2) so, T2  L
 
* Find T for different values of L.
 4 2 
 
* Plot T v/s L curve. From equation (2), it should be a straight line, with slope =  g  .
2
 
 4 2 
 
Find slope of T2 v/s L graph and equate it to  g  and get ‘g’ .
 
Example 32. In certain observation we got  = 23.2 cm, r = 1.32 cm, and time taken for 10 oscillation was 10.0 sec.
Estimate the value of ‘g’ in proper significant figure. (take 2 = 10)
Solution : Equivalent length of pendulum L = 23.2 cm + 1.32 cm
= 24.5 cm (according to addition rule of S.F.)
10.0
And time period T =  1.00 (Three significant figures)
10
L 24.5 cm
get g = 42 = 4 × 10 (in 3 S.F.)
T 2 1.00 2
24.5  10 2 m
= 4 × 10 × = 9.80 m/sec2 Ans.
(1.00 )2 sec 2
Example 33. For different values of L, we get different values of ‘T’. The curve between L v/s T2 is shown. Estimate
‘g’ from this curve. (take 2 = 10)
 g  2  g 
Solution : L=  2  T so slope of curve between L v/s T 2 =  2 
 4   4 
0.49 g
slope = =  g = 9.8 m/sec2 Ans.
2 4 2


Maximum permissible error in ‘g’ due to error in measurement of , r and T.
(  r ) r
g = 42 g = 42 = 42 (2500)
( t / 50 )2 t2
 g    r t
ln g = ln 42 (2500) + ln ( + r) – 2 ln (t)   = +2
 g max   r t
Example 34. In certain observation we got  = 23.2 cm, r = 1.32 cm, and time taken for 10 oscillation was
10.0 sec. Find maximum permissible error in (g)
Solution :  = 23.2  = 0.1 cm
r = 1.32 cm  r = 0.01 cm
t = 10.0 sec  t = 0.1 sec
 g   0.1cm  0.01cm 0.1sec 
  =  2  × 100% = 1.2 %.
 g max  23.2cm  1.32cm 10.0 sec 
Example 35. Time is measured using a stop watch of least count 0.1 second. In 10 oscillation, time taken is 20.0
second. Find maximum permissible error in time period.
Total time t
Solution : T= 
Total oscillatio n 10
t 0 .1
 T = =
10 10
T = 0.01 second.
 4 2  
Example 36. A student performs an experiment for determination of   2  ,  1m, and he commits an error
g
 T 
of  . For T he takes the time of n oscillations with the stop watch of least count t . For which of the
following data, the measurement of g will be most accurate ?
(A) L = 0.5, t = 0.1, n = 20 (B) L = 0.5, t = 0.1, n = 50

(C) L = 0.5, t = 0.02, n = 20 (D*) L = 0.1, t = 0.05, n = 50
total time t dt
Solution : Here T =  so dT =
total oscillation n n
g L T
2
g = L T
g 0 . 5 0.1/ 20 g 0 . 5 0.1/ 50
(A) g  1  2 T (B) g  1  2 T
g 0.5 0.02 / 20 g 0.1 0.05 / 50

(C) g  1  2 T (D) g  1  2 T
So % error in g will be minimum in option (D)

EXPERIMENT # 4
Determining Young’s Modulus of a given wire by “Searle’s Method“ :
An elementary method:
To determine Young’s Modulus, we can perform an ordinary experiment. Lets hang a weight ‘m’ from a wire
mg  x   0 
from Hook’s law:  Y  x =  2  mg
A 
 0  r Y 
If we change the weight, the elongation of wire will increase proportionally.
If we plot elongation v/s mg, we will get a straight line.
 0 
By measuring its slope and equating it to  2  , we can estimate Y..
 r Y 
Limitations in this ordinary method
(1) For small load, there may be some bends or kinks in wire.
So we had batter start with some initial wt (say 2 kg). So that wire become straight.
(2) There is slight difference in behavior of wire under loading and unloading
So we had better take average during loading and unloading.

The average load will be more and more linear or accurate.

Modification in “Searle’s Method”.
To keep the experimental wire straight and kink free, we start with some dead weight (2 kg)
Now we gradually add more and more weight. The extra elongation (x) will be proportional to extra weight
(w).
0 0
x= 2 w  x = (w)
πr Y πr 2Y
 0 
so let’s plot x v/s w, the slope of which will be =  2

 πr Y 
Measurement of Young’s modulus.

To measure extra elongation, compared to initial loaded position, we use a reference wire, also carrying 2 kg
load (dead weight). This method of measuring elongation by comparison, also cancels the side effect of
tamp and yielding of support.
Observations:
(i) Initial Reading = x0 = 0.540 mm.
(Micrometer Reading without extra load)
(ii) Radius of wire = 0.200 mm. (using screw gauge)
Measurement of extra extension due to extra load.
Extra load
Micrometer reading Mean x extra
Load Load reading (x) elongation
S.No. on hanger
increasing decreasing (p + q)/2 (x–x0)
m (kg)
(p) (mm) (q) (mm) (mm) (mm)
1 0.5 0.555 0.561 0.558 0.018
2 1.0 0.565 0.571 0.568 0.028
3 1.5 0.576 0.580 0.578 0.038
4 2.0 0.587 0.593 0.590 0.050
5 2.5 0.597 0.603 0.600 0.060
6 3.0 0.608 0.612 0.610 0.070
7 3.5 0.620 0.622 0.621 0.081
8 4.0 0.630 0.632 0.631 0.091
9 4.5 0.641 0.643 0.642 0.102
10 5.0 0.652 0.652 0.652 0.112

Method # 1
Plot x v/s w (m g)
Extra elongation v/s extra load
0.66
0.64
Extra elongation 'x ' (mm)

B
0.62
0.6
0.58
0.56
A P
0.54
E.P.
0.52
0.5
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
extra load 'W' (N)
BP
* slope =  ........
AP

=  Y = .................
Y(r 2 )
Method : 2
Between observation (1) (6)
and (2) (7)
and (3) (8) 2.5 kg extra weight is added
and (4) (9)
and (5) (10)
So elongation from observation (1) (6) , (2) (7) , (3) (8) , (4) (9), and (5) (10)
will be due to extra 2.5 kg wt.
So we can find elongation due to 2.5 kg wt from x6 – x1, x5 – x2, x8 – x3, or x10 – x5
and hense we can find average elongation due to 2.5 kg wt.
Micrometer reading Mean x extra

Extra load on elongation
Load Load reading (x) (p
S.No. hanger m due to 2.5 kg
increasing (p) decreasing + q)/2
(kg) extra load
(mm) (q) (mm) (mm)
(mm)
1 0.5 0.555 0.561 0.558 0.052
2 1.0 0.565 0.571 0.568 0.053
3 1.5 0.576 0.580 0.578 0.053
4 2.0 0.587 0.593 0.590 0.052
5 2.5 0.597 0.603 0.600 0.052
6 3.0 0.608 0.612 0.610
7 3.5 0.620 0.622 0.621
8 4.0 0.630 0.632 0.631
9 4.5 0.641 0.643 0.642
10 5.0 0.652 0.652 0.652

for w = 2.5 g , average elongation = x = 0.052 mm
 0 
x =  2  (w) where w = m g = 25 N and x) average = 0.5 cm
 πr Y 
Putting the values find Y = .........
Example 37. The adjacent graph shows the extra extension (x) of a wire of length 1m suspended from the top of
a roof at one end with an extra load w connected to the other end. If the cross sectional area of the
wire is 10–6 m2, calculate the Young’s modulus of the material of the wire. [ JEE- 2003]
(A) 2 × 1011 N/m2 (B) 2 × 10–11 N/m2 (C) 3 × 1013 N/m3 (D) 2 × 1016 N/m2
 0  4
 w,, slope = 0 = 1 10 1 1 10 4

Solution : (A)  =   =
 AY  AY 20 (10 6 )Y 20
Y = 20 × 1010 = 2 × 1011 N/m2
Example 38. In the experiment, the curve between x and w is shown as x

2
dotted line (1). If we use an another wire of same material, but with 1
double length and double radius. Which of the curve is expected. 3
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C*) 3 (D) 4

W
x 0
Solution : Initially slope = =
w (πr 2 ) (Y)
(2 0 ) 1 0
in second case (slope)1 = 2= 2 ( πr 2 ) Y
π(2r ) Y
so slope will be halved, Ans. will be (3)
Example 39. Assertion : In Searle’s experiment to find young’s modulus, a reference wire is also used along with
the experiment wire.
Reason : Reference wire neutralizes the effect of temperature, yielding of support and other external
factors
(A) If both Assertion and Reason are true and the Reason is a correct explanation of Assertion
(B) If both Assertion and Reason and true but Reason is not a correct explanation of Assertion.
(C) If Assertion is true but Reason is false.
(D) If both Assertion and Reason are false.
Ans. (A)
Example 40. If we use very thin and long wire
 output x 
(A) Sensitivity    of experiment will increase.
 input w 
(B) Young’s modulus will remain unchanged
(C) Wire may break or yield during loading.
(D) All of the above.
Ans. (D)

Maximum permissible error in ‘Y’ due to error in measuring m, 0, r, x :
0
Y= mg
r 2 x
 y   0 r x
If there is no tolerance in mass ; max permissible error in Y is  Y  =  +2 +
 max 0 r x
Example 41. In Searle’s experiment to find Young’s modulus the diameter of wire is measured as d = 0.05 cm,
length of wire is  = 125 cm and when a weight, m = 20.0 kg is put, extension in wire was found to
mg
be 0.100 cm. Find maximum permissible error in Young’s modulus (Y). Use : Y = .
(  / 4) d2 x
mg x mg
Sol. =Y( )  Y= ..................(1)
2
d / 4  (  / 4) d2 x
 dY  m  d x
  = + +2 +
 Y max m  d x
m = 20.0 kg  m = 0.1 kg
 = 125 m   = 1 cm
d = 0.050 cm  d = 0.001 cm
x = 0.100 cm  x = 0.001 cm
 dY   0.1kg 1cm 0.001cm 0.001cm 


Y
 =  20.0 kg  125 cm  0.05 cm  0.100 cm   100 %
 max  
= 4.3 %

Detailed Apparatus and method of searl’s experiment
Searle’s Apparatus (Static Method)
The figure shows a Searle’s apparatus. It consists of two metal frames F1
and F2 hinged together so that they can have only vertical relative motion.
A spirit level L is supported at one end on rigid cross bar frame whose
other end rests on the tip of a micrometer screw S, which moves vertically
through rigid cross bar.
If there is any relative motion between the two frames, the spirit level no
longer remains horizontal and the bubble is displaced. To bring the bubble
back to its original position, the screw has to be moved up and down. The
distance through which the screw has to be moved gives the relative motion
between the two frames.
The frames are suspended by two identical long wires of the steel from the
same rigid horizontal support. The wire B is an experimental wire and the
wire A acts as a reference wire. The two frames are provided with two
hooks H1 and H2 at their lower ends. The hook H1 carries a constant weight
W to keep the wire taut. To the hook H2, a hanger is attached over which
slotted weights can be put to apply the stretching force.
Procedure :
(i) Measure the length of the experimental wire from the point where it leaves the fixed support to the point
where it is fixed in the frame.
(ii) The diameter of the experimental wire is measured with the help of a screw gauge at about five different
places and at each place in two mutually perpendicular directions.
(iii) Find the pitch and the least count of the micrometer and adjust it such that the bubble in the spirit level
is exactly in the center. The initial reading of the micrometer is noted.
(iv) The load on the hanger H2 is gradually increased in steps of 0.5 kg. Observe the reading on the micrometer
at each stage after leveling the instrument with the help of the spirit level. To avoid the backlash error, all the
final adjustments should be made by moving the screw in the upward direction only. If at any time the screw
is raised too much, lower it below the central position and then raise it slowly to the proper position.
(v) Unload the wire by removing the weights in the same order and take the reading on the micrometer screw
each time. The reading taken for a particular load while loading the wire or unloading the wire, should agree
closely.
EXPERIMENT # 5
Determining specific heat capacity of an unknown liquid using calorimeter :
Figure shows the Regnault's apparatus to determine the specific heat capacity of a unknown liquid.
A solid sphere of known specific heat capacity s1 having mass m 1 and initial temperature 1is mixed
with the unknown liquid filled in a calorimeter. Let masses of liquid and calorimeter are m 2 and m 3
respectively, specific heat capacities are s 2 and s3 and initially they were at room temperature 2.
When the hot sphere is dropped in it, the sphere looses heat and the liquid calorimeter system takes
heat. This process continues till the temperature of all the elements becomes same (say ).
Heat lost by hot sphere = m 1s 1 (1 – )
Heat taken by liquid & calorimeter = m 2s 2 ( – 2) + m 3s 3 ( – 2)
If there were no external heat loss
Heat given by sphere = Heat taken by liquid-Calorimeter system
m 1s 1 (1 – ) = m 2s 2 ( – 2) + m 3s 3 ( – 2)
m1s1 (1  ) m3s3
Get s2 = –
m 2 (   2 ) m2
By measuring the final (steady state) tempera-
ture of the mixture, we can estimate s2 : spe-
cific heat capacity of the unknown liquid.
To give initial temperature (1) to the sphere,
we keep it in steam chamber ("O"), hanged by
thread. Within some time (say 15 min) it
achieves a constant temperature 1.
Now the calorimeter, filled with water (part C)

is taken below the steam chamber, the wooden
removable disc D is removed, and the thread
is cut. The sphere drops in the water-calorim-
eter system and the mixing starts.
If sp. heat capacity of liquid (s2) were known and that of the solid ball (s1) is unknown then we can find
( m2 s2  m3s3 ) (   2 )
s1 =
m1 (1  )
Example 42. The mass, specific heat capacity and initial temperature of the sphere was 1000 gm, 1/2
cal/gm°C and 80°C respectively. The mass of the liquid and the calorimeter are 900 gm and
200 gm, and initially both were at room temperature 20°C. Both calorimeter and the sphere
are made of same material. If the steady-state temperature after mixing is found to be 40°C,
then the specific heat capacity of unknown liquid, is
(A) 0.25 cal/gºC (B) 0.5 cal/gºC (C) 1 cal/gºC (D) 1.5 cal/gºC
(1000 ) (1/ 2) (80  40) ( 200 ) (1/ 2)
Solution : (C) S2 = – = 1 cal/gm °C
900 ( 40  20) 900
Example 43. If accidentlly the calorimeter remained open to atmosphere for some time during the experi-
ment, due to which the steady state temperature comes out to be 30ºC, then total heat loss
to surrounding during the experiment, is (Use the specific heat capacity of the liquid from
previous question).
(A) 20 kcal (B) 15 kcal (C) 10 kcal (D) 8 kcal

Solution : (B) Heat given by the sphere
= (1000) (1/2) (80 – 30) = 25,000 cal
Heat absorbed by the water calorimeter system
= (900) (1) (40 – 30) + (200) (1/2) (40 – 30)
= 10,000 cal.
So heat loss to surrounding = 15,000 cal
Example 44. If the loss in gravitational potential energy due to falling the sphere by h height and heat
loss to surrounding at constant rate H  are also taken to account, the energy equation will
modify to -
m gh
(A) m 1s 1(1 – ) + 1 = m 2s 2( – 2) + m 3s 3( – 2) – H  t
J
m gh
(B) m 1s 1(1 – ) – 1 = m 2 s 2 (  – 2 ) + m 3 s 3 (  – 2 ) + H t
J
m gh
(C) m 1s 1(1 – ) + 1 = m 2 s 2 (  – 2 ) + m 3 s 3 (  – 2 ) + H
 t
J
m gh
(D) m 1s 1(1 – ) – 1 = m 2 s 2 (  – 2 ) + m 3 s 3 (  – 2 ) – H t
J
m gh
Solution : (C) Heat generated = m 1 s 1 (1 – ) + 1
J

Maximum Permissible error in S1 due to error in measuring 1, 2 and  :
To determine the specific heat capacity of unknown solid,
m1s1  m 2 s 2  ss  2 
we use ssolid =  
m1  1  ss 
m1s1  m 2 s 2  ss  2  ds d( ss   2 ) d( 1   ss )

s=    = (   ) –   
    s
m1  1 ss  ss 2 1 ss
 s         
  =
 s  ss   2 + 1   ss
 s   1 1   1   2 
     

 s max
= 2         = 2  ( ss   2 )( ss  1 ) 
 ss 2 1 ss 
If mass and sp. heat capacities of water and calorimeter is precisely known, and least count of temp.
measuring thermometer is 0.1ºC, then  = 1 = 2 = 0.1º
 s  1   2
  will be least when (ss – 2) (ss – 1)is max i.e.  ss 
 s max 2
If m1, s1, m2, s2 are precisely known, the maximum permissible % error in ssolid will be least when
steady state temperature
1   2
ss =
2

Example 45. In the exp. of finding sp. heat capacity of an unknown sphere (S2), mass of the sphere and
calorimeter are 1000 gm and 200 gm respectively and sp. heat capacity of calorimeter is equal
1
to cal/gm/ºC.
2
The mass of liquid (water) used is 900 gm. Initially both the water and the calorimeter were at
room temp 20.0ºC while the sphere was at temp 80.0ºC initially. If the steady state temp was
found to be 40.0ºC, estimate sp. heat capacity of the unknown sphere (S2).
(use Swater = 1 cal/g/ºC )
Also find the maximum permissible error in sp. heat capacity of unknown sphere (S2)
Solution : To determine the specific heat capacity of unknown solid,
m1s1  m 2 s 2  ss  2 
We use ssolid =   and get s = 1/2 cal/g/ºC
m1  1  ss  solid
 s   1 1   1 1 
   
 s max
= 2          = 2( 0.1ºC)  40.0  20.0  80 .0  40 .0  = 1%
 ss 2 1 ss   

Electrical calorimeter
Figure shows an electrical calorimeter to determine specific heat capacity of an unknown liquid. First of all,
the mass of empty calorimeter (a copper container) is measured and suppose it is 'm 1'. Then the unknown
liquid is poured in it. Now the combined mass of calorimeter + liquid system is measured and let it be 'm 2'.
So the mass of liquid is (m 2 – m 1). Initially both were at room temperature (0).
Now a heater is immersed in it for time interval 't'. The voltage drop across the heater is 'V' and current
passing through it is ''. Due to heat supplied, the temperature of both the liquid and calorimeter will rise
simultaneously. After t sec; heater was switched off, and final temperature is f. If there is no heat loss to
surroundings
Heat supplied by the heater = Heat absorbed by the liquid + heat absorbed by the calorimeter
(V)t = (m2 – m 1) S (f – 0) + m1 Sc (f – 0)
( V ) t
 m1S C
 f  0
The specific heat of the liquid S =
(m 2  m1 )
A 
Temperature

Heater
Unknown Stirrer
Liquid
time (t)
Figure 2
Temperature vs time graph
calorimeter assuming no heat losses
Figure 1 to surrounding.
Radiation correction : There can be heat loss to environment. To compensate this loss, a correction is
introduced.
Let the heater was on for t sec, and then it is switched off. Now the temperature of the mixture falls due to
heat loss to environment. The temperature of the mixture is measured t/2 sec. after switching off. Let the fall
in temperature during this time is 
Now the corrected final temperature is taken as
f = f + 
Example 46. In this experiment voltage across the heater is 100.0 V and current is 10.0A, and heater was
switched on for t = 700.0 sec. Initially all elements were at room temperature 0 = 10.0°C and final
temperature was measured as f = 73.0°C. Mass of empty calorimeter was 1.0 kg and the combined
mass of calorimeter + liquid is 3.0 kg . The specific heat capacity of the calorimeter Sc = 3.0 × 103
J/kg°C. The fall in temperature 350 second after switching off the heater was 7.0°C. Find the
specific heat capacity of the unknown liquid in proper significant figures.
(A) 3.5 × 103 J/kg°C (B) 3.50 × 103 J/kg°C (C) 4.0 × 103 J/kg°C (D) 3.500 × 103 J/kg°C
Solution : corrected final temperature = f = 73.0° + 7.0° = 80.0°
(100 .0 ) (10.0) (700 .0)
 (1.0 ) (3.0  10 3 )
S = 80 . 0  10 . 0
3 .0  1 .0
= 3.5 × 103 J/kg°C (According to addition and multiplication rule of S.F.)
Example 47. If mass and specific heat capacity of calorimeter is negligible, what would be maximum permissible
error in S. Use the data mentioned below. m 1  0, Sc  0, m2 = 1.00 kg, V = 10.0 V,  = 10.0 A,
t = 1.00 × 102 sec.,0 = 15°C, Corrected f = 65°C
(A) 4% (B) 5% (C) 8% (D) 12%
Solution : If m1  0, Sc  0
V t
S = m (   )
2 f 0
S  V  t m 2  f   0 0.1 0.1 0.01 10 2 0.01 1  1

    + =   +  = 8%
S V  t m2  f  0 10.0 10.0 1.00  10 2 1.00 50
Example 48. If the system were loosing heat according to Newton's cooling law, the temperature of the mixture
would change with time according to (while heater was on)
   
(A) (B) (C*) (D)

t t t t
Solution : As the temperature increases, heat loss to surrounding increases. After some time the rate at
which heat is lost becomes equal to rate at which heat is supplied and an equilibrium or steady
state is achieved. Hence temperature becomes constant after some time.
 C is correct.

EXPERIMENT # 6
Determining speed of sound using resonance tube method :
Resonance
tube

Figure shows the experiment to find velocity of sound in air using Resonance tube method.
Principle : Resonance tube is a kind of closed organ pipe.
So its natural freq. will be
V 3V 5V V
4eq 4eq 4eq ........
, , or generally fn = (2n – 1) 4
eq
If it is forced with a tuning fork of frequency f0 ; for resonance, Natural freq = forcing freq.
V V
(2n – 1) 4 = f0  eq = (2n – 1) 4 f
eq 0
V
For the first Resonance eq = 4 f = (corresponding to 1st mode)
0
3V
For the second Resonance eq = 4 f = (corresponding to 2nd mode)
0
Working : Resonance tube is a 100 cm tube. Initially it is filled with water. To increase the length of air
column in the tube, water level is lowered. The air column is forced with a tuning fork of frequency
f0. Let at length 1, we get a first resonance (loud voice) then
V V
eq = 4 f  1 +  = 4 f .........(i) where  is end correction
1 0 0
If we further lower the water level, the noise becomes moderate. But at 2. We, again get a loud noise
(second resonance) then
3V 3V
eq = 4 f  2 +  = 4 f .........(ii)
2 0 0
For (i) and (ii)
V = 2f0 (2 – 1)
Observation table :
Room temp. in begnning = 26°C, Room temp. at end = 28ºC
Position of water
level (cm)
Freq. of tuning
W ater level W ater level Mean Speed of sound
fork in (Hz) Resonance
is falling is rising resonant length V = 2f0 (l 2 – l 1 )
(f0 )
1st Resonance 23.9 24.1 l 1 = 24.0
340 Hz V = ..........
2nd Resonance 73.9 74.1 l 2 = 74.0
Example 49. Speed of sound calculated is roughly

(A) 340 m/sec (B) 380 m/sec (C) 430 m/sec (D) None of these
Solution : 1 = 24.0 cm
2 = 74.0 cm
v = 2f0 (2 –1) = 2(340) (0.740 – 0.240)
= (2) (340) (0.500) = 340 m/sec.
Example 50. In the previous question, speed of sound at 0ºC is roughly
(A) 324 m/sec (B) 380 m/sec (C) 430 m/sec (D) None of these
V27 º 300 273 = 340 273
Solution : v  T  V0 º = V0º = V27º = 324 m/sec.
273 300 300
Example 51. What should be minimum length of tube, so that third resonance can also be heard.
(A) 3 = 421 (B) 3 = 214 (C) 3 = 124 (D) None of these
V 3V
Solution :. 1 +  = 4 f 2 +  = 4 f solve both equations and get  = 1cm
0 0
5V
for third resonance , 3 +  = 4 f get 3 = 124cm
0
Example 52. From equation (i) and (ii) end correction can be calculated. Estimate the diameter of the tube
using formula ( 0.3d)
(A) 2.5 cm (B) 3.3 cm (C) 5.2 cm (D) None of these
1 cm
Solution :  = 1 cm = 0.3 d = = 3.3 cm
0. 3
Example 53. For the third resonance, which option shows correct mode for displacement variation and pres-
sure variation,
(A) (B*) (C) (D)
Displ. Pressure Displ. Pressure Displ. Pressure Displ. Pressure
Solution : (B)
Example 54. Taking the open end of tube as y = 0, position of pressure nodes will be
(A) y = –1 cm, y = 49 cm
(B) y = 0 cm, y = 50 cm
(C) y = 1 cm, y = 51 cm
(D) None of these
Solution : (A)
Example 55. The equation of standing wave for the second resonance can be
(A) Pex = 2A sin 2 (y + 1cm) cos 2 (340) t (B) Pex = 2A sin 2 (y – 1cm) cos 2 (340) t
(C) Pex = 2A cos 2 (y + 1cm) cos 2 (340) t (D) Pex = 2A cos 2 (y – 1cm) cos 2 (340) t
2 2
Solution : (A) k = = = 2  = 2f = (2) (340)
 1
first node will be formed at y = –1 instead of y = 0 so eqn. of standing wave is
Pex = 2A sin 2(y + 1cm) cos 2(340) t

Max Permissible Error in speed of sound due to error in f 0, 1, 2 :
for Resonance tube experiment
V = 2f0 (2 – 1)
ln V = ln 2 + ln f0 + ln (2 – 1)
 V  f0  2  1
max. permissible error in speed of sound =  V  = +
 max f0 (  2  1 )

Example 56. If a tuning fork of (340 Hz ± 1%) is used in the resonance tube method, and the first and second
resonance lengths are 24.0 cm and 74.0 cm respectively. Find max. permissible error in speed
of sound.
Solution : 1 = 20.0 cm  1 = 0.1 cm
2 = 74.0 cm  2 = 0.1 cm
f0 1
f0 = (340 Hz ± 1%) = 1% =
f0 100
 V  f0  2  1 1 0. 1  0 .1 1 0 .2
  = + =  = 
 V max f0  2  1 100 74.0  20.0 100 54 .0

EXPERIMENT # 7
Verification of Ohm's law using voltmeter and ammeter
Ohm's law states that the electric current I flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference (V) across its ends provided that the physical conditions of the conductor (such as
temperature, dimensions, etc.) are kept constant. Mathematically.
V  I or V = IR
Here R is a constant known as resistance of the conductor and depends on the nature and dimensions
of the conductor.
Circuit Diagram : The circuit diagram is as shown below :
Procedure : By shifting the rheostat contact, reading of ammeter and voltmeter are noted down. At least
six set of observations are taken. Then a graph is plotted between potential difference (V) across R and
current () through R. The graph comes to be a straight line as shown in figure.
Result : It is found from the graph that the ratio V/I is constant. Hence, current voltage relation ship is
established, i.e., V  I. It means Ohm's law is established.
 1 1
as  =   V , find the slope of  – V curve and equate it to .
R R
BP 1
slope = = Get R = ......
AP R

Example 57. If emf of battery is 100 v, then what was the resistance of Rheostat adjusted at 2nd reading
( = 2A, V = 20V).
(A) 10 (B) 20 (C) 30 (D) 40

 1 1
Solution : From the curve slope = = = R = 10 
v R 10
Emf 100
for second reading  = R R 2 = 10  R  Rrh = 40
rh rh
Example 58. If three wires of same material but different dimension were used
in place of unknown resistance, we get these I-V curve
Match the column according to correct curve :

Wire dimension Corresponding curve
(p)  = 1m, radius = 1 mm (i) Curve (1)
(q)  = 1m, radius = 2 mm (ii) Curve (2)
1 1
(r) = m, radius = mm (iii) Curve (3)
2 2
(A) (p)-(ii); (q)-(iii); (r)-(i) (B) (p)-(iii); (q)-(ii); (r)-(i)
(C) (p)-(i); (q)-(ii); (r)-(iii) (D) None of these
  (1) (1)
Solution : R= = 2 for case(p) R  2 for case (q) R 
A r (1) (2)2
(1/ 2)
for case (r) R  so Rr > Rp > Rq
(1/ 2)2
 1
and slope of I – v cure = =
v R
so sloper < slopep < slopeq
 q  line (3), p  line (2), r  line (1)
Example 59.  v/s V curve for a non-ohmic resistance is shown.

The dynamic resistance is maximum at point
(A) a (B) b
(C) c (D) same for all
dv 1 1
Solution : (A) Dynamic resistance R = = =
d d / dv slope
At Pt. a, slope is min , So R is max

Example 60. If by mistake, Ammeter is connected parallel to the resistance 
+ –
then I-V curve expected is
(Here I = reading of ammeter , Rh
V
V = reading of voltmeter)
(A) (B) (C) (D)
Solution : (C) As ammeter has very low resistance most of current will pass through the ammeter so reading
of ammeter (I) will be very large. Voltmeter has very high resistance so reading of voltmeter will be
very low.
Example 61. If by mistake, voltmeter is connected in series with the 

+ –
resistance then I-V curve expected is Rh

(Here I = reading of ammeter, V = reading of voltmeter )
V A
(A) (B) (C) (D)
Solution : (D) Due to high resistance of voltmeter, reading of ammeter will be very low

We can find the specific resistance of a material using ohm's law experiment.
RA D 2 V
= =
L 4L I

ln  = ln + 2 ln D – ln L + ln V – ln I
4
d dD dL dV dI
= 2 – + –
 D L V I
ρ D L V I
ρ = ±2  ± 
D L V I
 ρ   D L V  
  = max of   2    
 ρ max  D L V  
 ρ  D L V I
  = +2 + + + = max. permissible error in .
 ρ max D L V I
Example 62. In the Ohm's experiment, when potential difference 10.0 V is applied, current measured is 1.00
A. If length of wire is found to be 10.0 cm, and diameter of wire is 2.50 mm, then the maximum
permissible error in resistivity will be -
(A) 1.8% (B) 10.2% (C) 3.8% (D) 5.75%

 ρ   0.01   0.1   0.1   0.01 
Solution :   =2      = 3.8%
 ρ max  2.50   10.0   10.0   1.00 
Example 63. If % error in length, diameter, current and voltage is same than which of the following affects
%error in measurement of resistivity, the most :
(A) length measurement (B) voltage measurement
(C) current measurement (D) diameter measurement
 ρ 
Solution :   = is mostly affected by % error in diameter
 ρ max
Example 64. From some instruments, current measured is I = 10.0 Amp., potential difference measured is
V = 100.0 V, length of wire is 31.4 cm, and diameter of wire is 2.00 mm (all in correct significant
figure). The resistivity of wire(in correct significant figure) will be - (use  = 3.14 )
(A) 1.00 × 10–4 -m (B) 1.0 × 10–4 -m (C) 1 × 10–4 -m (D) 1.000 × 10–4 -m
D 2 V (3.14 ) (2.00  10 -3 ) 2  100.0 

Solution : = =  
4L  4(0.314 )  10.0 
and answer should be in three S.F. so  = 1.00 × 10-4  -m
Example 65. In the previous question, maximum permissible error in resistivity and resistance measurement
will be (respectively)
(A) 2.14%, 1.5% (B) 1.5%, 2.45% (C) 2.41%, 1.1% (D) None of these
 R  i v 0 .1 0.1  R 
Solution :   = + = + = 1.1%    = 2.41%
 R  max i v 10 . 0 100 .0  R  max

EXPERIMENT # 8
METER BRIDGE
Meter bridge is a simple case of wheatstone-Bridge and is used to find the unknown Resistance. The
unknown resistance is placed in place of R, and in place of S, a known resistance is used, using R.B.
(Resistance Box). There is a 1m long resistance wire between A and C. The jockey is moved along the
wire. When R(100 – ) = S() then the Bridge will be balanced, and the galvanometer will gives zero
defflection. "" can be measured by the meter scale.

The unknown resistance is R = S .......(1)
100  
If length of unknown wire is L and diameter of the wire is d, then specific resistance of the wire
 d2 
R


 d2    
 =  4  from eq.(1)  = 4L  100    S
 
L
D
w n
no
R S
nk
U

C
G
A
P Q
B

Example 66. If resistance S in RB = 300, then the balanced length is found to be 25.0 cm from end A .
The diameter of unknown wire is 1mm and length of the unknown wire is 31.4 cm. The specific
resistivity of the wire should be
(A) 2.5 × 10–4 -m (B) 3.5 × 10–4 -m (C) 4.5 × 10–4 -m (D) None of these
R 25 Rd2
Solution : (A) =  R = 100     = = 2.5 × 10–4  -m
300 75 4L
Example 67. In the previous question. If R and S are interchanged, the balanced point is shifted by
(A) 30 cm (B) 40 cm (C) 50 cm (D) None of these
Solution : If R and S wave interchanged ,
= 75 , 100 -  = 25
Balance point will be shifted by 75 – 25 = 50 cm
Example 68. In a meter bridge, null point is at  = 33.7 cm, when the resistance S is shunted by 12
resistance the null point is found to be shifted by a distance of 18.2 cm. The value of unknown
resistance R should be
(A) 13.5 (B) 68.8 (C) 3.42 (D) None of these
R 33.7 R (33.7  18.2)
Solution : (B) =  =
S 100  33.7 125 / 12  5 100  (33.7  18.2)
solving get R = 68.8 

End Corrections
In meter Bridge circuit, some extra length comes (is found under metallic strips) at end point A and C.
So some additional length ( and ) should be included at ends for accurate result. Hence in place of
 we use  +  and in place of 100 – , we use 100 –  +  (where and  are called end correction).
To estimate  and , we use known resistance R1 and R2 at the place of R and S in meter Bridge.
Suppose we get null point at 1 distance then
R1 1  
= ......(i)
R2 100  1  
Now we interchange the position of R1 and R2, and get null point at 2 distance then
R2 2  
= ......(ii)
R1 100   2  
Solving equation (i) and (ii) get
R 2 1  R1 2 R1 1  R 2  2
  R1  R 2 and   R1  R 2 – 100
These end corrections ( and ) are used to modify the observations
Example 69. If we used 100 and 200resistance in place of R and S, we get null deflection at 1 = 33.0cm.
If we interchange the Resistance, the null defflection was found to be at 2 = 67.0 cm. The end
correction  and  should be :
(A)  = 1cm,  = 1cm (B)  = 2cm,  = 1cm
(C)  = 1cm,  = 2cm (D) None of these Ans. (A)
R 2  1  R1 2 (200 )(33 )  (100 )(67 )
Solution : = R1  R 2 = = 1 cm
100  200
R1 1  R 2  2 (33 )(100 )  ( 200 )(67 )
=  100 =  100 = 1 cm
R1  R 2 100  200
Example 70. Now we start taking observation. At the position of R, unknown resistance is used, and at position
of S, 300 resistance is used. If the balanced length was found to be  = 26cm, estimate the
unknown resistance.
(A) 108 (B) 105.4 (C) 100 (D) 110 Ans. (A)
 eq R
Solution :
(100   )eq = 300
R 26  1 27
= =
(300 ) (100  26)  1 75
300  27
R= = 108 .
75
Example 71. If the unknown Resistance calculated without using the end correction, is R 1 and with using the
end corrections is R2 then
(A) R1 > R2 when balanced point is in first half
(B) R1 < R2 when balanced point is in first half
(C) R1 > R2 when balanced point is in second half
(D) R1 > R2 always Ans. (A)
     
Solution : R 1 = S , R2 = S 
 100     100     
If balance point is in first half say = 40
 40   41 
R1 = S  R2 = S   so R2 > R1
 60   61 
If balance point is in second half say = 70
 70   71 
R1 = S  R2 = S   so R2 < R1 .
 30   31 

Maximum Permissible Error in  :
D 2S 
The specific resistivity of wire, from meter bridge is =
4 L 100  
Assume that known resistance in RB(S), and total length of wire is precisely known, then lets find
maximum permissible error in  due to error in measurement of  (balance length) and D (diameter of
wire).
 S 
ln  = ln  4L  + 2 ln D + ln  – ln (100 – )
 
d dD d d (100  ) dD d d
= 2 + – = 2 + +
 D  (100   ) D  100  
 ρ  D  
  = 2 + +
 ρ max D  100  
 ρ    (100 )
  due to error in  only is =  =
 ρ max  100   (100   )
 ρ 
  will be least when (100 – ) is maximum , i.e.  = 50 cm
 ρ max
So % error in resistance (resistivity) will be minimum if the balance point is at the mid point of meter bridge
wire.
EXPERIMENT # 9
POST OFFICE BOX
B
A 1000
P100 10 B 10
Q
100 1000
C
Q
P
5000 2000 2000 1000 500
unknown
x
C resistance
A R
G
R 20 50 100 200 200
n
ow
20
10 5 2 2 1
kn

X
Un
E+ D
D – K1
G
K2
C B
Figure-1 Figure-2
P R
In a wheat stone's Bridge circuit, If = then the bridge is balanced. So unknown resistance
Q X
Q R
X = R = . To realize the wheat stone's Bridge circuit, a pox office Box is described.
P (P / Q)
Resistance P and Q are set in arms AB and BC where we can have 10, 100 or 1000 resistance,
P
to set any ratio .
Q
P
These arms are called ratio arms. Initially we take Q = 10 and P = 10 to set = 1. The unknown
Q
resistance (X) is connected between C and D and battery is connected across A and C (Just like wheat
stone's Bridge).
Now put Resistance in part A to D such that the Bridge gets balanced. For this keep on increasing the
resistance with 1 interval, check the deflection in Galvanometer by first pressing key K1 key then
Galvanometer key K2.
Suppose at R = 4 , we get deflection toward left and at R = 5 , we get deflection toward right. So
we can say that for bridge balance. R should be between 4 to 5.
R R
Now X = = = R = 4 to 5.
(P / Q) (10 / 10)
So we can estimate that X should be between 4 and 5.
P  P  100 
To get closer X, in the second observation , lets choose = 10 e.i.  .
Q  Q  10 
Suppose Now at R = 42. We are getting deflection toward left , and at R = 43, deflection is toward right.
So R (42,43).
R R 1
Now X = = = R where R  (42,43)
(P / Q) (100 / 10) 10
P
So we can estimate that X (4.2, 4.3). Now to get further closer, choose = 100. As we increas the
Q
P
ratio, R will be divided by a greater number, so the answer will be upto more decimal places so answer
Q
will be more accurate.
The observation table is shown below.

Example 72. If the length of wire is (100.0 cm), and radius of wire, as measured from screw gauge is
(1.00 mm) then the specific resistance of wire material is
(A) 13.35 × 10–6 -m (B) 13.4 × 10–6 -m (C) 13.352 × 10–6 -m (D) 16.5 × 10–6 -m
Ans. B
Solution : From observation table R = 4.25 
(R )r 2
=

4.25  3.14  (1.00)2  10 6
=
(100.0  10 2 )
= 13.4 × 10–6 –m (Ans. in three S.F.)
Example 73. Assertion : To locate null deflection, the battery key (K1) is pressed first and then the galvanom-
eter key (K2).
Reason : If first K2 is pressed, and then as soon as K1 is pressed, current suddenly try to
increase. so due to self induction, a large stopping emf is generated in galvanometer, which may
damage the galvanometer.
(A) If both Assertion and Reason are true and the Reason is a correct explanation of Assertion.
(B) If both Assertion and Reason and true but Reason is not a correct explanation of Assertion.
(C) If Assertion is true but Reason is false.
(D) If both Assertion and Reason are false.
Ans. (A)
Example 74. What is the maximum and minimum possible resistance, which can be determined using the PO
Box shown in above figure-2
(A) 1111 k , 0.1  (B*) 1111 k , 0.01  (C) 1111 k , 0.001  (D) None of these
Ans. (B)
Q (Q )max 1000
Solution : X= R  (X)max =
P (P)min (R)max =
10
(11110) = 1111 k
(Q)min 10 10
(X)min = (P) (R)min = (1) = 0.01 .
max 1000 1000
Q 1
Example 75. In a certain experiment if = and in R, if 192  if used we are getting deflection toward
P 10
right, at 193  , again toward right but at 194  , deflection is toward left. the unknown
resistance should lie between
(A) 19.2 to 19.3  (B) 19.3 to 19.4  (C) 19 to 20  (D) 19.4 to 19.5 
Ans. (B)

Q 1
Solution : X= (R) =
10
(193  194) = 19.3  19.4
P
Example 76. If By mistake, Battery is connected between B and C Galvanometer is connected across A and
C then
(A) We cannot get balanced point.
(B) Experiment will be less accurate
(C) Experiment can be done in similar manner.
(D) Experiment can be done in similar manner but now, K2 should be pressed first, then K1 .
Ans. (D)

EXPERIMENT # 10
TO FIND FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONCAVE MIRROR USING U-V METHOD.
1 1 1
Principle : For different u, we measure different v, and find f using mirror’s formula = + .
f v u
In this experiment, a concave mirror is fixed at position MM’ and a knitting needle is used as an
object, mounted in front of the concave mirror. This needle is called object needle (O in fig)
First of all we make a rough estimation of f. For estimating f roughly, make a sharp image of a
far away object (like sun) on a filter paper. The image distance of the far object will be an approx
estimation of focal length).
Now, the object needle is kept beyond f, so that its real and inverted image (I in fig) can be formed.
You can see this inverted image in the mirror by closing your one eye and keeping the other eye
along the pole of the mirror.
To locate the position of the image, use a second needle, and shift this needle such that its peak
Coincide with the image. The second needle gives the distance of image (v), so it is called “image
needle” (I' in figure). Note the object distance ‘u’ and image distance ‘v’ from the mm scale on
optical bench and find focus distance from that
Similarly take 4-5 more observations.
Determining ‘f’ from u – v observation:

Using Mirror Formula :
1 1 1
(i) Use mirror formula : = + to find focal length from each u – v observation. Finally
f v u
take average of all.
1 1
(ii) From v/s curve :
v u
1 1 1 1/ u 1/ v x y
+ =  + = 1  + = 1
v u f 1/ f 1/ f a b

1 1 1 1
So curve between v/s should be a straight line having x and y intercepts = and
v u f f
1/v
1/f
1/u
1/f
1 1
from the observations of u and v, plot v/s curve as a straight line, find the x and y
v u
1/v (in 1/m)
So f = -1/10
=1/f
-10
1 1 1/u (in 1/m)

intercepts, and equate them to and . -10 =1/f
f f So f = -1/10
(iii) From u – v curve :

Relation between u and v is
1 1 1
+ = ..............(1)
v u f
So curve between v v/s u is a rectangular hyperbola as shown in figure.
If we draw a line bisecting both the axis, i.e. line
u = v ..............(2)
Graph of v vs. u for a Concave Mirror
then their intersection points should be v = 2f, u = 2f (By solving equation (1) and equation
(2)) from u – v data, plot v v/s u curve, and draw a line bisecting the axis. Find the intersection
point and equate them to (2f, 2f).

(iv) From intersection of lines joining u n and v n :
Indicate u1, u2, u3 ....... un on x-axis, and v1, v2, v3 ........ vn on y-axis. If we join u1 with v1,
u2 with v2, u3 with v3 and ............... so on. All line intersects at a common point (f, f).
EXPLANATION
Line joining u1 and v1 is
x y
u1 + v 1 = 1 ..............(1)
1 1 1 f f
where, + = or + = 1 ..............(1’)
u1 v1 f u1 v1
x y
+ = 1 ..............(2)
u2 v2
f f
where + = 1 ..............(2’)
u2 v2
Similarly Line joining un and vn is
x y
+ = 1 ..............(3)
vn un
f f
where + = 1 ..............(3’)
un vn
From equation (1’), (2’), (3’), we can say that x = f and y = f will satisfy all equations (1),
(2), (3). So point (f, f) will be the common intersection point of all the lines.
From u – v datas draw u1, u2 ...... un on x-axis and v1, v2, ........ vn datas on y-axis. Join u1
with v1, u2 with v2 ........ un with vn. Find common intersection point and equate it to (f, f).
V (in cm)
u (in cm)
(-10,-10)
=
(f,f)
So f=-10 cm

INDEX ERROR
In u – v method, we require the distance between object or image from the pole (vertex) of the
mirror (actual distance).
But practically we measure the distance between the indices A and B. (Observed distance),
which need not exactly coincide with object and pole, there can be a slight mismatch called
index error, which will be constant for every observation.
Index error = Observed distance – Actual distance

(Just like zero error in screw gauge, it is the excess reading).
To determine index error, mirror and object needle are placed at arbitrary position. For measur-
ing actual distance, a knitting needle is just fitted between the pole of mirror and object needle
“O”. The length of knitting needle will give the actual object distance while the separation
between indices A and B at that instant is the observed distance.
So index error is -
e = Observed distance – Actual distance
= Separation between indices A and B – Length of knitting needle
once we get e, in every observation, we get
Actual distance = Observed distance (separation between the indices) – Excess reading (e)
*There is an another term , Index correction which is inverse of index error.
Index correction = - index error
Example 77. To find index error for u , when a knitting needle of length 20.0 cm is adjusted between
pole and object needle, the separation between the indices of object needle and mirror
was observed to be 20.2 cm.
Index correction for u is -
(A) –0.2 cm (B) 0.2 cm (C) –0.1 cm (D) 0.1 cm
Solution : (B) Index error (Excess reading) = Observed reading – Actual reading
= 20.2 – 20.0 = 0.2 cm
Example 78. To find index error for v, when the same knitting needle is adjusted between the pole
and the image needle, the separation between the indices of image needle and mirror
was found to be 19.9 cm. Index error for v is
(A) 0.1 cm (B) –0.1 cm (C) 0.2 cm (D) –0.2 cm
Solution : (B) e = 19.9 cm – 20.0 cm = –0.1 cm
Example 79. In some observation, the observed object distance (Separation between indices of object
needle and mirror) is 30.2 cm, and the observed image distance is 19.9 cm. Using
index correction from previous two questions, estimate the focal length of the concave
mirror!
Solution : u = 30.2 – 0.2 (excess reading)
= 30.0 cm.
v = 19.9 – (–0.1) (excess reading)
= 20.0 cm.
1 1 1
= +  f = 12.0 cm.
f v u


Maximum permissible error in f due to imperfect measurement of u & v:
In this experiment, from a set (u, v), focus distance f can be calculated from equation.
1 1 1 df du dv
= +  2 = 2 +
f u v f u v2
 f  u v  f  u v  u v  2
 2 =± 2 ±   2 =+ 2 + 2  f max   2  2   f
f  u v2  max
f u v u v 
Example 80. In u – v method to find focal length of a concave mirror, if object distance was found to be 10.0
cm and image distance was also found to be 10.0 cm then find maximum permissible error in
f, due to error in u and v measurement.
1 1 1 1 1 1
Solution : + =  + =  | f | = 5 cm
u v f ( 10 ) ( 10 ) f
 u v   0 . 1 0 .1 
f max   2  2 f2  f max   2  2   5 2 = 0.05 cm
u v   10 10 
so, f = (5 ± 0.05) cm

EXPERIMENT # 11
To find focal length of a convex lens using u-v method.
Principle : For different u, we measure different v,
1 1 1
and find f using lens’s formula = - .
f v u
Procedure : In this experiment, a convex lens is fixed
at position L and a knitting needle is used as an
object, mounted in front of the concave mirror. This
needle is called object needle (AB in fig)
First of all we make a rough estimation of f. For estimating f roughly, make a sharp image of a
far away object (like sun) on a filter paper. The image distance of the far object will be an approx
estimation of focal length.
Now, the object needle is kept beyond f, so that its real and inverted image (I in fig) can be formed.
To locate the position of the image, use a second needle, and shift this needle such that its
peak coincide with the image. The second needle gives the distance of image (v), so it is
called “image needle” (CD in figure). Note the object distance ‘u’ and image distance ‘v’ from
the mm scale on optical bench.

Using lens Formula :
1 1 1
(i) Use lens formula : = - to find focal length from each u – v observation.
f v u
Finally take average of all.
1 1
v u
1 1 1 1/ u 1/ v x y 1/v
- =  1/ f + = 1  + = 1
v u f 1/ f a b
1/f
1 1
So curve between v/s should be a straight line having x
v u -1/f
1/u
1 1
and y intercepts = - and
f f
1 1
Graph of vs. for a convex lens
v u 1/v (in 1/m)
1 1
from the observations of u and v, plot v/s curve 10 =1/f So f = 1/10
v u
as a straight line, find the x and y intercepts, and equate 1/u (in 1/m)
-10
1 1 =-1/f
them to - and . So f = 1/10
f f
1 1 1
- = ..............(1)
v u f
So curve between v v/s u is a rectangular hyperbola as shown below.
u = - v ..............(2)
then their intersection points should be V = 2f, u = - 2f (By solving equation (1) and
equation (2))
from u – v data, plot v v/s u curve, and draw a line y = -x . Find the intersection point and
equate them to (-2f, 2f).
Graph of v vs. u for a Convex lens
V
(-2f,2f)
1/v -1/u = 1/f
U
Line
v=-u
v
(iv) From intersection of lines joining u n and v n : v4
Indicate u1, u2, u3 ....... un on x-axis, and v1, v2, v3 ........ vn on v3
y-axis. If we join u1 with v1, u2 with v2, u3 with v3 and ............... v2
(-f,f) v1
so on. All line intersects at a common point (-f, f).
u1 u2 u3 u4 u
from u – v datas draw u1, u2 ...... un on x-axis and v1, v2, ........ vn datas
on y-axis. Join u1 and v1, u2 with v2 ........ un and vn. Find common
intersection point and equate it to (-f, f)
Index error and max permissible error is similar to the concave mirror
EXPERIMENT # 12
Object
To study dissipation of energy of a simple pendulum by plotting a graph between square of amplitude
and time.
Appratus
Ticker timer, paper tape, meter scale, thread, clamp, metallic brick as bob, clamps, split cork and a
spring balance.
Principle
The energy of a simple harmonic oscillator is directly proportional to its amplitude. When the bob of a
simple pendulum is set into vibrations, its amplitude goes on decreasing with time due to friction of air
and friction at the point of support. Such vibration whose amplitude decreases with time due to some
dissipative force are called damped vibrations. The vibrations of simple pendulum are also damped
vibrations. At any time t the energy Et = E. e–t , where  is the decay constant and energy E is given
1
by E = KA2 where A is the amplitude and K is force constant.
2

Method
1. Find the mass of the metallic brick by the spring balance .
2. Fix the clamp stand on the edge of the table with the help of clamps.
3. The one end of the thread with the metallic brick and pass the other end of the thread through the
split cork hold the cork in the clamp stand.
4. Fix the ticker timer at the same height above the ground on the brick is attach the paper tape at the
centre of the brick with the help of the cello tape.
5. Pull the brick towards the ticker timer and taut the paper tape. Start the ticker timer and release the
brick.
6. As the brick reaches the outer extreme switch off the ticker timer.
7. Remove the paper tape. The pattern of dots obtained on the tape will be as shown below.
8. Mark the central dot A and the extreme dots B and C corresponding to the extreme positions of the
metallic brick.
9. Measure the distance of the dots from the central dot A .
Observations :
Least count of spring balance = ............. kg
Corrected mass of the metallic block = m = ............. kg
Time period of ticker-timer (one tick) = .............. sec
Length of simple pendulum, = L = ............... m
Displacement from
S. no. of dot from 2 Time Interval
Side from dot central dot A (m) = (Amplitude)
central dot (A) t = No. of dot x time period
Amplitude
1
Right 2
3
1
Left 2
3
Graph
From the graph it is clear that Energy  (Amp)2 and the energy of the pendulum decreases with time.
Precaution
1. An inextensible and string thread should be used for making the pendulum.
2. The lower faces of the split cork should lie in the same horizontal plane.
3. The amplitude of oscillation should be kept small.
4. The experiment should be performed at place which in free from any air disturbance.
5. The metallic brick should be suspended close to the ground.
6. The metallic brick should move along the reference line without any jerky motion.
Result
The sum of the kinetic energy and potential energy of the bob (metallic block) of the simple pendulum
is constant within the limits of the experimental error. This shows that the energy is being transferred from
kinetic to potential and vice versa. From the above graph it is proved that there is dissipation of energy
during SHM of simple pendulum.

Precaution
1. Pendulum support should be rigid
2. The amplitude should remain small.
3. Pendulum should be sufficiently long (about 2 metres).
4. Pulling string should be used to avoid spinning of the metallic block
5. Paper tape should be attached to the centre of the bottom of the block.
Source of Error
1. The support may not be fully rigid.
2. Movement of metallic block may not be proper.
EXPERIMENT # 13
Object
To determine the mass of a given body using a metre scale by principle of moments
Appratus
A metre scale, a broad heavy wedge with sharp edge, a weight box, a body of unknown mass
Principle
Metre scale as a beam balance : -
(a) Introduction : Like a physical balance, a metre scale can be used as a beam balance making use
of the same principle of moments. Besides it has adjustable power arm and weight arm about fulcrum
whose length can be adjusted.
(b) Diagram :
Figure (b) Metre-scale balance. Power and weight arms of unequal length.
(c) Construction (Arrangement) : The metre scale is balanced by putting its 50 cm mark over the sharp
edge of a heavy broad wedge works as fulcrum. In this position the weight of the metre scale and reaction
of the wedge, balance each other.
(b) Working : The body is tied to a strong and light thread loop and suspended on the left of the wedge
on some fixed mark. (Say 20 cm in diagram)
A light paper pan is suspended by a strong and light thread on the right. Weights are put on the pan.
The position of the loop of the pan and weight in it are so adjusted that the metre scale becomes
horizontal again. Position of thread of the loops and the amount of weights in the pan are noted.
Mass of the body is calculated using following theory.
(e) Theory : If m and M be the mass of the body and mass of the weight used and a1 and a2 be the
distance of their loops from wedge. Then, power (mass) arm = a1, weight arm = a2
Ma 2
or m = a1 , which can be calculated.

(f) Two different methods :
(i) Arm lengths fixed and equal and weight adjustable.

The thread loops are suspended at position forming both arm of equal length. Weight in the paper pan
are adjusted till the metre scale becomes horizontal. (figure (a))
In this case a1 = a2 = a
Hence, mga1 = Mga2
or m = M
A physical balance makes use of this method.
(ii) Masses and power arm fixed and weight arm adjustable.
Mass is suspended at a fixed distance a1.
Length of power arm is adjusted by moving weight loop thread in and out till the metre scale becomes
horizontal (figure (b))
In this case a1 = a, a2 =A
A
Hence mga1 = Mga2, becomes mg a = MgA or m = M
a
PROCEDURE
(I) First method
1. Arrange the metre scale horizontally by supporting it at the sharp edge of the broad heavy wedge
at 50 cm mark.
2. Suspend the body of unknown mass by a loop thread at a fixed mark on the left of the wedge.
3. Suspended paper pan at same distance on the right of the wedge with some weights in it.
4. Adjust the weights in paper pan till the metre scale becomes horizontal.
5. Note the mass of the weights in the pan.
6. Repeat steps 2 to 5, three time by increasing the length of the arms in equal steps keeping the
lengths equal.
7. Record the observations as given below in table.
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS
Length of weight (or power) Mass of Weight in the Unknown mass

S.No. arm a (cm) Paper pan M (g) (body) m(g)
1 30 M1 = 20 m1 = M1 = 20
2 35 M2 = 20 m1 = M2 = 20
3 40 M3 = 20 m3 = M3 = 20
(Note : Observations are as sample)

m1  m 2  m3
Mean mass, m = g = .....g
3
It will be found that M1 = M2 = M3 = m in all cases.
RESULT
The unknown mass of the body, m = 20 g
(ii) Second method
1,2. Step 1 and 2 of first method.
3. Suspend the paper pan on the right of the wedge with some known weight in it.
4. Adjust the distance of the paper pan till the metre scale becomes horizontal.
5. Note the position of the paper pan and thus length of the weight arm.
6. Repeat steps 2 to 5, three times by increasing the mass of the weights by equal amount.
7. Record the observations as given below in table.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS
Fixed length of power arm = a = 25 cm
Mass of weight Length of the Weight Unknown mass

S.No.
in the paper pan M(g) arm A(cm) body m(g)
MA
1 20 A1  30 m1  1 1  24
a
M A
2 30 A 2  20 m2  2 2  24
a
M3 A 3
3 40 A 3  15 m3   24
a
(Note : Observations are as sample)

m1  m 2  m3
Mean mass, m = g = ....g
3
It will be found that m 1 = m2 = m3 = m in all cases.
RESULT
The unknown mass of the body, m = 24 g
PRECAUTIONS :
1. The wedge should be broad and heavy with sharp edge.
2. Metre scale should have uniform mass distribution.
3. Threads used for loops should be thin, light and strong.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The wedge may not be sharp.
2. Metre scale may have faulty calibration.
3. The threads used for loops may be thick and heavy.
EXPERIMENT # 14 (i)
AI M
To determine the surface tension of water by capillary rise method.
APPARATUS
Three capillary tubes of different radii and a tipped pointer clamped in a metallic plate with a handle, travelling
microscope, clamp and stand, a fine motion adjustable height stand, a flat bottom open dish, clean water in
a beaker, thermometer.
THEORY
Rise of liquid level in a capillary tube (Ascent formula) :
Let a capillary tube be dipped in a liquid which makes concave meniscus in the tube. Due to surface tension,
the tube molecules exert a force T on the liquid molecules in the unit length of the circle of contact of the
liquid surface with the tube. This force acts at an angle  (angle of contact) with the wall of the vessel [fig. (a)].
Components T sin perpendicular to the wall of the tube cancel for the whole circle. Component T cos 
along the wall of the tube on all molecules becomes 2rT cos.
It is this upward force that pulls the liquid upward in the capillary tube. The liquid rises in the capillary tube
upto a height till the weight of the liquid risen equals this force.
Let the liquid rise upto a height h (as measured for the lower meniscus B) and let the meniscus ABC have
hemispherical shape [Fig. (b)].
Volume of liquid in meniscus above B (figure b)
Then, volume of the liquid risen upto lower meniscus = r2h.

Volume of cylinder of radius and height r – Volume of hemisphere of radius r
2 1 3
= r2 . r – r3 = r
3 3
Total volume of the liquid risen
1 3  r
= r2h + r = r2 h  3 
3  
If liquid has a density , then
2  r
mass of liquid risen = r  h   
 3
2 r
and weight of the liquid risen =  r  h    g
 3
For equilibrium,
 r 2T cos  r
r2 h   g = 2r T cos or h= rg
–
3
 3 
1
[From above we find that h  , i.e., liquid rises more in a capillary tube of small radius]
r
(h  r / 3)rg
Also, T=
2 cos 
Measuring height h of liquid risen in capillary tube and knowing other quantities, surface tension of liquid
(T), can be calculated.
r hrg
[In practice, is neglected as compared to h, then T = ]
3 2 cos 
Fig. Travelling microscope
A travelling microscope is device which is used for the accurate measurement of very small distances.
Basically, it is a compound microscope fixed on a strong metallic horizontal platform which can be balanced
with the help of levelling screws L and L’ [Fig. (2)]. The compound microscope has ability to slide or travel
both along horizontal and vertical levels. Due to the horizontal or vertical travelling of the microscope we have

named it as a travelling microscope.
The compound microscope consists of two convex lenses called objective O which is placed closed to the
object and eye-piece E placed near the eye of an observer. The objective O is simple convex lens small
aperture and a small focal length. These two lenses are placed in two distinct tubes placed coaxially. To focus
object the tubes can be moved by using a rack and pinion arrangement R. The microscope has a crosswire in
front of eye-piece which serves as a reference mark. The object to be seen is placed in front of the objective and
the image is viewed through the eye piece. The image formed is virtual, magnified and inverted.
The distance through which the microscope moves can be read with the help of a vernier scale (V) moves
with the microscope along with the scale engraved on the frame work. The horizontal movement of micro-
scope is done with the help of screw P in the [Fig. (2)] and the vertical movement of microscope is done with
the help of screw Q whereas the horizontal and vertical shifting for fine adjustment microscope can be done
with the help of fine screws P’ and Q’
Fig. (3): Measurement of surface tension by capillary rise method

(a) Setting the apparatus
1. Place the adjustable height stand on the table and make its base horizontal by levelling screws.
2. Take dirt and grease free water in an open dish with flat bottom and put it on the top of the stand.
3. Take three capillary tubes of different radii (ranging from 0.05 mm to 0.15 mm)
4. Clean and dry them, clamp the capillary tubes in a metallic plate in order of increasing radius. Also
clamp a pointer after third capillary tube.
5. Clamp the horizontal handle of the metallic plate in a vertical stand, so the capillary tubes and the
pointer become vertical.
6. So adjust the height of metallic plate that the capillary tubes dip in water in open dish.
7. Adjust the position of the pointer, such that its tip just touches the water surface.
(b) Measurement of capillary rise
8. Find the least count of the travelling microscope for the horizontal and the vertical scale. Record the
same in the note-book.
9. Raise the microscope to a suitable height, keeping its axis horizontal and pointed towards the
capillary tubes.
10. Bring the microscope in front of first capillary tube (which has maximum rise).
11. Make the horizontal cross wire just touch the central part of the concave meniscus (seenconvex
through microscope [fig 4 (b)])
12. Note the reading of the position of the microscope on the vertical scale.
13. Now move the microscope horizontally and bring it in front of the second capillary tube.
14. Lower the microscope and repeat steps 11 and 12.
15. Repeat steps 13 and 14 for third capillary tube.
16. Lower the stand so that pointer tip becomes visible.
17. Move the microscope horizontally and bring it in front of the pointer.

18. Lower the microscope and make the horizontal cross wire touch the tip of the pointer. Repeat step 12.
(3) Measurement of the internal diameter of the capillary tube.
19. Place the first capillary tube horizontally on the adjustable stand.
20. Focus the microscope on the end dipped in water. A white circle (inner bore) surrounded by a green
circular strip (glass cross-section) will be seen [fig. 4 (3)].
21. Make horizontal cross-wire touch the inner circle at A. Note microscope reading on vertical scale.
22. Raise the microscope to make the horizontal cross-wire touch the circle at B. Note the reading (the
difference gives the vertical internal diameter AB of the capillary tube).
23. Move the microscope on horizontal scale and make the vertical cross wire touch the inner circle at
C. Note microscope reading on horizontal scale.
24. Move the microscope to the right to make the vertical cross-wire touch the circle at D. Note the
reading (the difference gives the horizontal diameter CD of the capillary tube).
25. Repeat steps 19 to 24 for other two capillary tubes.
26. Note temperature of water in dish.
27. Record your observations as given below.
OBSERVATION
Least count of travelling microscope (L.C.) = .....cm.
Table for height of liquid rise
Reading of Meniscus Reading of Pointer Tip
Serial M.S.R. Total Total

No. of N V.S.R. Reading M.S.R V.S.R Reading Height
Capillary (cm) n×(L.C.) N+n(L.C.) N n×(L.C.) N+n(L.C.) h1 – h2
tube (cm) h1(cm) (cm) (cm) h2(cm) = h (cm)
(1) (2a) (2b) (2c) (3a) (3b) (3c) (4)
1.
2.
3.
Table for internal diameter of the capillary tube

Temperature of water, (t) = ........ ºC
Density of water at observed temperature,  = ........ (g cm –3)
Angle of contact of water in glass, = 8º
i.e., cos = 0.99027 taken as 1.
CALCULATIONS
r (h  r / 3 )g
From formula, T =
2 cos 
Put values of h (column 4-first table) and r (column 4-second table) for each capillary tube separately and
find the value of T (in dynes cm–1).
T1  T2  T3
Find mean value, T= = .......dynes cm –1.
3
RESULT
The surface tension of water at tºC = .......dynes cm –1.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Capillary tube and water should be free from grease.
2. Capillary tube should be set vertical.
3. Microscope should be moved in lower direction only to avoid back lash error.
4. Internal diameter of capillary tube should be measured in two mutually perpendicular directions.
5. Temperature of water should be noted.
SOURCES OF ERROR ::
Water and capillary tube may not be free from grease.
EXPERIMENT # 15 (ii)
Aim
To study the effect of the detergent on surface tension by observing capillary rise.
Apparatus
Three capillary tubes of different radii and a tipped pointer clamped in a metallic plate with a handle, travelling
microscope, clamp and stand, a fine motion adjustable height stand, a flat botom open dish, clean water in
a beaker, thermometer.
Theory
A detergent when added to distilled water reduces surface tension of water. If we use same capillary tube to
studey the rise of pure distilled water and then the rise of detergent mixed water (solution), we shall find that
the rise will be lesser in case of solution. If quantity of detergent (solution concentratio) is increased, rise will
be still lesser.
Procedure
1. Set the apparatus as in previous Experiment.
2. Find the rise of pure distilled (grease free)water through the capillary tube following all the stps of
previous Experiment.
3. Take a known volume of distilled water from same sample.

4. Dissolve a small known mass of a detergent in the water to make a dilute solution.
5. Find the rise of the solution in same capillary tube. The rise will be less than that for pure water.
6. Add double mass of detergent in same volume of water to have a solution with double concen
tration.
7. Find the rise of this concentrated solution in same capillary tube. The rise will be still lesser.
8. Repeat with solution of same detergent having increased concentration. Rise will decrease as
concentration increases.
[Note : Do not make solution too much concentrated to effect density]
Observation
The rise in capillary tube decreases with addition of detergent in pure water with more addition of detergent,
rise becomes lesser and lesser.
Result
The detergent reduces the surface tension of water.
1. Capillary tube and water should be free from grease.
2. Capillary tube should be set vertical.
3. Microscope should be moved in lower direction only to avoid back lash error.
4. Internal diameter of capillary tube should be measured in two mutually perpendicular directions.
5. Temperature of water should be noted.
Sources of Error
Water and capillary tube may not be free from grease.
EXPERIMENT # 16
AI M
To determine the coefficient of viscosity of a given viscous liquid by measuring the terminal velocity of a
given spherical body.
APPARATUS
A half metre high, 5 cm broad glass cylindrical jar with millimetre graduations along its height, transparent
viscous liquid, one steel ball, screw gauge, stop clock/watch, thermometer, clamp with stand.
THEORY
Terminal velocity :
(a) Definition : The maximum velocity acquired by the body, falling freely in a viscous medium, is called
terminal velocity.
(b) Expression : Considering a small sphere of radius r of density  falling freely in a viscous medium
(liquid) of density . The forces acting on it are :
4 3
The weight of the sphere acting downward = r g
3
4 3
The upward thrust = Weight of the liquid displaced by the sphere = = r g
3
The effective downward force,
4 3 4 4
mg = r g – r 3 g = r 3 ( – )g
3 3 3
Upward force of viscosity, F = 6rv
When the downward force is balanced by the upward force of viscosity, the body falls down with a con-
stant velocity, called terminal velocity.
Hence, with terminal velocity,
4 3
6rv = r ( – )g
3
2 r 2 ( – )g
or Terminal velocity, v=
9 

This is the required expression.
2 r 2 ( – )g 2 r 2 ( – )g
Terminal velocity = or 
9  9 v
knowing r,  and , and measuring v,  can be calculated.
DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE :
1. Clean the glass jar and fill it with the viscous liquid, which must be transparent.
2. Check that the vertical scale along the height of the jar is clearly visible. Note its least count.
3. Test the stop clock/watch for its tight spring. Find its least count and zero error (if any)
4. Find and note the least count and zero error of the screw gauge.
5. Determine mean radius of the ball.
6. Drop the ball gently in the liquid. It falls down in the liquid with accelerated velocity for about
one-third of the height. Then it falls with uniform terminal velocity.
7. Start the stop clock/watch when the ball reaches some convenient division (20 cm, 25 cm,.....).
8. Stop the stop clock/watch just when the ball reaches lowest convenient division (45 cm).
9. Find and note the distance fallen and time taken by the ball.
10. Repeat steps 6 to 9 two times more.
11. Note and record temperature of the liquid.
12. Record your observations as given ahead.
OBSERVATIONS :
Least count of vertical scale =.......mm.
Least count of stop clock/watch =.......s.
Zero error of stop clock/watch =.......s.
Pitch of the screw (p) = 1 mm.
Number of divisions on the circular scale = 100
1
Least count of screw gauge (L.C.) = = 0.01 mm
100
Zero error of screw gauge (e) =......mm.
Zero correction of screw gauge (C) (– e) =.......mm
Diameter of spherical ball

(i) Along one direction, D1 = ........mm
(ii) In perpendicular direction, D2 = ........mm
Terminal velocity of spherical ball

Distance fallen S = .....mm
Time taken, t1 = .....s
t2 = .....s
t3 = .....s

CALCULATIONS
D1  D 2
Mean diameter D= mm
2
D
Mean radius r= mm = ........cm
2
t1  t 2  t 3
Mean time t= = ......s
3
S
Mean terminal velocity, v = = cm s–1
t
2r 2 ( – )g
From formula, = C.G.S. units.
9v
RESULT
The coefficient of viscosity of the liquid at temperature (ºC) = .....C.G.S. units
PRECAUTIONS
1. Liquid should be transparent to watch motion of the ball.
2. Balls should be perfectly spherical.
3. Velocity should be noted only when it becomes constant.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The liquid may be have uniform density.
2. The balls may not be perfectly spherical.
3. The noted velocity may not be constant.
EXPERIMENT # 17
AI M
To study the relationship between the temperature of a hot body and time by plotting a cooling curve.
APPARATUS
Newton’s law of cooling apparatus (a thin-walled copper calorimeter suspended in a double walled
enclosure) two thermometers, clamp and stand, stop clock/watch.
THEORY
Newton was the first person to investigate the heat lost by a body in air. He found that the rate of loss
of heat is proportional to the excess temperature over the surroundings. This result, called Newton’s law
of cooling, is approximately true in still air only for a temperature excess of 20 K or 30 K.
Consider a hot body at a temperature T placed in surroundings at temperature T 0.
dQ
Rate of loss of heat = –
dt
dQ
Using Newton’s law of cooling, –  (T – T0)
dt
dQ
or = – k (T – T0) where k is constant of proportionality whose value depends upon the area and nature
dt
of surface of the body.
If the temperature of the body falls by a small amount dT in time dt, then
dQ = mcdT
where m is the mass of the body and c is the specific heat of the material of the body.
dT
Now, mc = – k (T – T0)
dt

dT k
or – (T – T0)
dt mc
dT  k 
or = – K (T – T0) Here,K  mc  cons tan t 
dt  
The negative sign indicates a decrease in temperature with time.
dT
Again, T – T0 = – K dt
1
Integrating, T–T 0

dT  –K dt
or loge (T – T0) = – Kt + C .........(1)
This is the equation of a straight line having negative slope (– K) and intercept C on Y-axis, Figure shows
the graph of loge (T – T0) versus time t. While t has been treated as the x-variable, loge (T – T0) has been
treated as the y-variable.
If Tm is the maximum temperature of hot body, then at t = 0 from equation (i)
log (Tm – T0) = C
 log (T – T0) – log (Tm – T0) = – kt
  – T0   – T0
log  T – T  = – kt 
 Tm – T0 = e
–kt
 m 0 
so (T – T0) = (Tm – T0) e–kt
PROCEDURE
1. Fill the space between double wall of the enclosure with water and put enclosure on a laboratory table.
2. Fill the calorimeter two-third with water heated to about 80ºC.
3. Suspend the calorimeter inside the enclosure along with a stirrer in it. Cover it with a wooden
lid having a hole in its middle.
4. Suspend from clamp and stand, one thermometer in enclosure water and the other in calorimeter
water.
5. Note least count of the thermometers.
6. Set the stop clock/watch at zero and note its least count.
7. Note temperature (T0) of water in enclosure.
8. Start stirring the water in calorimeter to make it cool uniformly.
9. Just when calorimeter water has some convenient temperature reading (say 70ºC), note it and
start the stop clock/watch.
10. Continue stirring and note temperature after every 5 minutes. The temperature falls quickly in
the beginning.

11. Note enclosure water temperature after every five minutes.
12. When fall of temperature becomes slow note temperature at interval of two minutes for 10
minutes and then at interval of 5 minutes.
13. Stop when fall of temperature becomes very slow.
14. Record your observations as given ahead.
OBSERVATIONS
Least count of enclosure water thermometer = ............ºC
Least count of calorimeter water thermometer = ............ºC
Least count of stop clock/watch = ............s.
Table for time and temperature
Serial No. Time for cooling Temperature of Temperature of water Difference log10 (T – T0)
of Obs. t (min) water in calorimeter in enclosure of temperature
(T)ºC (T0)ºC (T – T0)ºC
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
CALCULATIONS
1. Temperature of water in enclosure will be found to remain same. If not then take its mean is T 0.
2. Find temperature difference (T – T0) and record it in column 5 of the table.
3. Plot a graph between time t (column 2) and temperature T (column 3), taking t along X-axis
and T along Y-axis. The graph comes to be as shown in given figure. It is called cooling curve’
of the liquid.
Graph between time and temperature (Cooling curve)
Scale :
X - axis : 1 cm = 5 minutes of t
Y - axis : 1 cm = 5º C of T
RESULT
The temperature falls quickly in the beginning and then slowly as difference of temperature goes on
decreasing. This is an agreement with Newton’s law of cooling.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Double-walled enclosure should be used to maintain surrounding at a constant temperature.
2. Stirring should remain continuous for uniform cooling

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. Surrounding temperature may change.
2. The stirring of hot liquid may not be continuous.
EXPERIMENT # 18 (i)
AI M
To determine specific heat of a given solid (lead shots) by method of mixtures.
APPARATUS
Solid (lead shots), copper calorimeter with copper stirrer and lid, calorimeter jacket (wooden box with coating
of insulating material inside), hypsometer, heating arrangement tripod, burner and wire gauze or a hot plate,
two Celsius thermometers graduated in 0.2ºC. Water and a physical balance, weight box and milligram
fractional weights.
THEORY
The law of mixtures states that when two substances at different temperatures are mixed, i.e., brought in
thermal contact with each other, then the heat is exchanged between them, the substance at higher tem-
perature loses heat and that at lower temperature gains heat. Exchange of heat energy continues till both
the substances attain a common temperature called equilibrium temperature.
The amount of heat energy lost by the hotter body is equal to the amount of heat energy gained by colder
body, provided (i) no heat is lost to the surroundings and (ii) the substances mixed do not react chemically
to produce or absorb heat. In brief, the law mixtures is written as :
On mixing of two substances at different temperatures, if no heat is lost to surroundings ; at the equilibrium
temperature,
Heat gained = Heat lost
For a body of mass m, and specific heat s, when its temperature falls by , the amount of heat lost by it is
given as
Q = m.s 
The same formula is used for the amount of heat gained by colder body where , would be the rise in
temperature.
SPECIFIC HEAT
Specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of sub-
stance through one degree celsius.
S.I. unit of specific heat is J kg–1 K–1. Convenient measure of mass in the lab is gram and temperature is ºC.
so we express specific heat as J g–1 ºC–1.
Hypsometer for generating steam and Calorimeter containing known mass of water,
heating of given solid stirrer and thermometer placed inside a jacket

PROCEDURE
1. To ensure that two thermometers read the temperature of a body exactly the same, one is com
pared with the other one which is taken as the standard thermometer. Mark the thermometer used
for measuring temperature of water in calorimeter at room temperature as T A and the other used in
hypsometer as TB. Suspend them side by side from a clamp standand note their readings. The
error in the temperature measured by thermometer B, is e = T B = TA
The correction is (– e).
The correction (– e) is algebraically added to readings of temperature recorded by thermometer T B
used hypsometer.
2. Take about 100 grams of lead shots in the tube of hypsometer and add sufficient quantity of water
in the hypsometer.
3. Insert the thermometer marked TB in the tube such that its bulb is surrounded by lead shots and fix
the tube inside the mouth of hypsometer.
4. Place the hypsometer on the wire gauze placed on the tripod and start heating it using the burner.
Note : Alternatively, hot plate may be used in place of tripod and burner arrangement.
MEASURING MASSES :
5. Ensure that the physical balance is in proper working condition and on turning the knob, the pointer
moves equal divisions on the left and right sides of the zero mark of the scale provided at the back
of pointer.
6. Check that the calorimeter is clean and dry. Use a piece of cloth to rub it and shine its surface.
Weigh the calorimeter along with stirrer, note the reading as m c.
7. Weigh the calorimeter with stirrer and lid. Record it as m 1.
8. Place few pieces of ice in a beaker containing water such that its temperature becomes 5 to 7ºC
below the room temperature. Fill 2/3 of the calorimeter with cold water from the beaker and ensure
that no moisture from air should condense on the surface of the calorimeter, clean the surface if at
all the drops appear.
9. Weigh the calorimeter with stirrer, lid and water in it.
10. Place the calorimeter in the jacket. Insert thermometer labelled as A through the lid cover of
calorimeter and hold it in a clamp provided on the jacket such that the bulb of thermometer is well
immersed in water but does not touch the bottom of the calorimeter.
11. Note and record the temperature of water in the calorimeter.
12. Observe the temperature of the solid in hypsometer at intervals of two minutes till the temperature
becomes steady. After the temperature becomes steady for about 5 minutes, record it as 2. Apply
the correction (–e) to it and write the corrected temperature of solid.
13. Note the temperature of cold water in the calorimeter once again. This is to be taken as the
reading for calculations. Immediately after this, remove the cork along with thermometer from the
copper tube of hypsometer. Take out the tube, raise the lid of calorimeter and transfer the hot solid
quickly to water in the calorimeter without any splash of water.
14. Stir the water in the calorimeter till the temperature of the mixture becomes steady. Note the
equilibrium temperature reached by the hot solid and the cold water in the calorimeter.
15. Gently take the thermometer out of the water in the calorimeter. Take care that no water drops
come out of the calorimeter along with the thermometer.
16. Take out the calorimeter from the jacket and weigh the calorimeter with stirrer, lid water and solid
in it. Record it as m3.

OBSERVATIONS :
Room temperature reading by thermometer A, T A = ...............ºC
Room temperature reading by thermometer B, TB = ...............ºC
Correction required for thermometer B, e = TA – TB
Mass of calorimeter + stirrer, m = ...............g
Specific heat of the material of calorimeter, copper from tables, s c = 0.4 J/g/ºC,
Specific heat of water sw = 4.2 J/g/ºC
Water equivalent of calorimeter, W = m 1 (sC/sW )
* when sW for water is taken as 1 cal/g/ºC
 0 .4 
W = m × s1 otherwise write W as W = m ×   g
 4 .2 
Mass of calorimeter + stirrer + lid = m1 = .........g
Mass of calorimeter + lid + cold water = m 2 = .........g
Temperature of cold water in calorimeter, 1 = .........ºC
Steady temperature of solid in hypsometer by thermometer B, ’2= .........ºC
Corrected temperature of solid, 2, 2 = ’2+ (– e) .........ºC
Final, i.e., equilibrium temperature of the mixture ’e= .........ºC
Mass of calorimeter + stirrer + lid + water + solid m 3 = .........g
CALCULATION :
(a) Let the specific heat of solid be S J/g/ºC
Mass of clod water in calorimeter, mw = m2 – m1 = ..........g
sc
Water equivalent of calorimeter + stirrer, W=m× s
w
Rise in temperature of cold water and calorimeter and stirrer, e – 1 = ..........ºC

Amount of heat gained by cold water and calorimeter = (m w+ W) × sw × (e – 1) = ......J ..(1)
where specific heat of water = sw = 4.2 J/g/ºC
(b) Mass of solid added to cold water, m s = m3 – m2 = ...........g

Rise in temperature of solid, 2 – e = .........ºC
Assumed value of specific heat of solid, s = .............J/g/ºC
Heat lost by hot solid = mass × sp. heat × fall of temperature = (m 3 – m2) s (2 – e) ..(2)
Applying law of mixtures, keeping in view the conditions,
Heat lost = Heat gained
Equating (2) and (1)
(m3 – m2) s (2 – e) = (mw + W) sw (e – 1)
(m w  W ) ( e – 1 ).s w
 s = (m – m ) ( –  ) = .............J/g/ºC
3 2 2 e
s may be written in S.I. unit as J/kg/ºC, by multiplying the calculated value above by 1000.
RESULT
Specific heat of given (solid), s = ............J/kg/ºC
Value from tables st = ............J/kg/ºC
s – st
Percentage Error in the value of S= st × 100 = ............%
PRECAUTIONS
1. Physical balance should be in proper working condition
2. Sufficient quantity of water should be taken in the boiler of the hypsometer
3. The calorimeter should be wiped clean and its surface should be shining so as to minimise any
loss of heat due to radiation.

4. The thermometers used should be of the same range and their least counts be compared before
starting the experiment. Cold water in calorimeter should not be so cold that it forms dew droplets
on the outer surface of calorimeter. Solid used should not be chemically reactive with water.
5. Hypsometer, burner and heating system should be at sufficient distance from the calorimeter so that
calorimeter absorbs no heat from them.
6. The solid should be heated such that its temperature is steady for about 5 to 7 minutes.
7. The solid should be transferred quickly so that its temperature when dropped in water is the same
as recorded.
8. Water should not be allowed to splash while dropping the solid in water in the calorimeter.
9. After measuring equilibrium temperature, the thermometer when removed should not have any water
droplets sticking to it.
10. Cold water taken in the beaker should be as much below temperature as the equilibrium tempera
true after adding solid is expected to go above it. This is to take care of heat absorbed from surround
ings by cold water or that lost by warm water during the course of experiment. It would be of interest
to know that this correction had been thought of by count Rumsfort in 19th century.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. Radiation losses can be minimised but cannot be completely eliminated.
2. During transfer of hot solid into calorimeter, the heat loss cannot be accounted for.
3. Though mercury in the thermometer bulbs have low thermal capacity, it absorbs some heat and
lowers the temperature to be measured.
EXPERIMENT # 19 (i)
AIM
To compare electro-Motive-Force’s (E.M.Fs) of two primary cells using a potentiometer.
Apparatus
A potentiometer with sliding key (or jockey), a leclanche cell, a
Daniel cell, an ammeter, a low resistance Rheostat, a one-way-
key, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a battery of 2 to 3 accu-
mulators (or E.M.F. higher than the E.M.F. of individual cell to be
compared), a voltmeter, connecting wires : a two-way key and a
piece of sand paper .
fig. 1
Theory : -
Potentiometer is an instrument designed for an accurate comparison of potential differences and for measur-
ing small potential differences. In an ordinary form it consists of a long, uniform resistance wire of manganin
or constantan stretched over a wooden board usually in 4 turns (or 10 turns) each of 100 cm length. The wire
is fixed at its ends to two binding screws. A metre-scale is fitted parallel to the wire and a sliding key or
jockey is provided for contact. The working of potentiometer can be understood by considering a simple
diagram Let a wire AB be connected to a source of constant potential difference ‘E’ known as ‘ Auxiliary
battery’. This source will maintain a current in the wire flowing from A to B and there will be a constant fall of
potential form the end A to B. This source thus establishes in the wire a potential difference per unit length
known as the ‘potential Gradient’.
If L be the length of the wire, this potential gradient ‘ will be E/L volts.
Let one of the cell, whose E.M.F. ‘E1’ is to be compared with the E.M.F. ‘E2’ of the other cell, be connected
with its + ve electrode at A and the other electrode through a galvanometer to a movable contact i.e., jockey
J (fig.).
If the fall in potential between A and J due to the current flowing in
the wire be equal to the E.M.F. ‘E1’ of the cell, the galvanometer
will show no deflection when the jockey is pressed at J indicating
no current in the galvanometer. This position on the wire AB is
possible only when E is greater Than E1.
fig. 2

If the point J be at a distance l1 cm from A, the fall in potential between A and J will  l1 and therefore
E1  l1 at the null deflection.

If this cell be now replaced by the second cell of E.M.F. ‘E2’ and another balance be obtained at a distance
l2 cm from A, then
E2  l2
E1 l1 l1 E1 l1
 
E 2 = l2 = l2 or
E 2 l2
Since the galvanometer shows no deflection at the null point so no current is drawn from the experimental
cell and it is thus the actual E.M.F of the cell that is compared in this experiment.
Procedure :-
1. Draw a diagram showing the scheme of connections as in fig. 1
2. Remove the insulation from the end of the connecting copper wires and clean the ends with a sand paper.
3. Connect the positive pole of the auxiliary battery (a battery of constant e.m.f) to the zero end (A) of the
potentiometer and the negative pole through a one-way-key, an ammeter and a low resistance rheostat to the
other end of the potentiometer. Connect the positive pole of the cells E1 and E2 to the terminal at the zero and
(A) and the negative poles to terminal a and b of the two way key connect the common terminal c of the two
way key through a galvanometer (G) and a resistance box (R.B) to the jockey.
4. To test the connections : - Introduce the plug in position in the one-way-key (K) in auxiliary circuit and also
in between the terminal a and c of the two-way-key. Take out a 2,000 ohms plug from the resistance box
(R.B). Press the jockey at the zero end and note the direction of deflection in the galvanometer. Press the
jockey at the other end of the potentiometer wire; if the direction of deflection is opposite to that in the first
case, the connections are correct. If the direction of deflection is in the same direction then increase the
corrent in the auxiliary circuit with a rheostate till the deflaction obtained in the galvanometer is in the
opposite direction when the jockey is pressed at the other end.
5. Move the jockey along the wire from the zero end A towards the other end B so as to find a point J1 where the
galvanometer shows no defection. Put in the 2000 ohms plug in the resistance box and find the null point
accurately. Note the length ‘l1’ of the wire and also the current in the ammeter.
6. Disconnect the cell E1 and put the cell E2 in circuit. Again remove 2000 ohms plug from the resistance box
and find the corresponding length (l2) accurately for no deflection of galvanometer keeping the ammeter
reading the same.
7. Repeat the observation alternately for each cell again for the same value of current.
8. Increase the current by adjusting the rheostat and obtain in a similar way, four sets of observations. (The
rheostat used in the circuit should have a low resistance as compared to the resistance pf the potentiometer
wire.)
l1
9. Find the mean of the two observations for each cell and calculate the ratio l .
2
E1
10. Measure the E.M.F of the two cells separately with a voltmeter and compare the ratio E with that obtained
2
from observation with potentiometer.

Observation and Calculations :
E1
Mean = ...........
E2
E.M.F of leclanche cell (E1) = .............. volts
(By voltmeter)
E.M.F. of Daniel cell (E2) = .......... volts
(By voltmeter)
E1
 E = ............
2
E.M.F of Leclanche cell

Result : = ............
E.M.F of Daniel cel
Precaution : -
1. The e.m.f. of the auxiliary battery should be constant and always greater than the e.m.f of either of the two
cells, whose e.m.f are to be compared.
2. The positive pole of the auxiliary battery and the positive poles of the cell must be connect to the terminal on
the zero side of the potentiometer wire otherwise it would be impossible to obtain balance point.
3. The rheostat should be of low resistance and whenever the deflection shown is to the same side when jockey
is pressed at all points of the wire, the current must be increased to obtain the balance point at a desired
length.
4. The current should remain constant for each set of observation with the two cells.
5. The current should be passed only for the duration it is necessary, otherwise the balance point will keep on
changing.
6. The balance points should be obtained at large distances from the zero end.
7. The length should always be measured from the end of the wire where positive poles are connected.
8. The balance point should be found alternately with the two cells.
9. A high resistance should be used in series with the galvanometer. This does not affect the position of the
balance point in any way. Near the position of the exact balance point, however, this resistance should be
removed. (Note that the same purpose can be served by putting a shunt across the galvanometer)
10. A resistance box should never be used in the auxiliary circuit.
11. To avoid any change in the e.m.f. of a cell due to polarization, the reading should be taken after sufficient
intervals of time.

Sources of Error :
(i) The potentiometer wire may not be uniform.
(ii) The resistance of the wire may change due to rise of temperature.
(iii) Contact potentials may not be negligible.
Aim
To determine the internal resistance of a primary cell using a potentiometer.
Apparatus
A potentiometer, a Leclanche cell, a battery of three cells, an
ammeter, a low resistance rhostat, two one-way key a sensitive
galvanometer two resistance boxes, a jockey connecting wires
and a piece of sane paper.
Theory
In the potentiometer circuit of Fig. let ‘l1’ be the length of the potentiometer wire upto the point X, when
balance is obtained with the cell (E) in open circuit i.e., when key K2 is not closed and ‘l2’ the length upto Y
when the balance is obtained with the cell shunted through a resistance S. Then if E is the e.m.f of the cell
and ‘V’ the P.D. between its terminals when shunted, we have according to the principle of the potentiometer,
and E  l1 and V  l2
E l1
  .... (i)
V l2
If ‘r’ be the internal resistance of the cell and I the current through it when shunted by S, then by Ohm’s Law
E = I (S + r) and V = IS
E Sr
  .... (ii)
V S
From (i) and (ii)
S  r l1 r l
 or 1  1
S l2 S l2
hence, .... (iii)
Procedure
1. Draw a diagram as shown the scheme of connections in Fig.
2. Remove the insulation from the ends of the copper wires and clean the ends with a sand paper.
Connect the positive pole of the auxiliary battery to the zero end (A) of the potentiometer (Fig.) and
the negative pole through a one-way key (K1) , an ammeter and a low resistance rheostat to the
other end (B) of the potentiometer wire.
3. Connect the positive pole of the cell (E) to the terminal at the zero end (A) and the negative pole
the jockey through the galvanometer (G) and resistance box (R.B.)
4. Connect a resistance box S across the cell (E) through a one-ways key (K2)

5. Insert the plug in key K1 and adjust a constant current in the potentiometer circuit with the help of
rheostat.
6. (i) Move the jockey along the wire so as to find a point where the galvanometer shows no deflec
tion. Insert the 2000 ohms lug and find the null point accurately as at X. Note the length l1 of the
wire and the current in the ammeter. Put in the key K2 and take out 2 ohm plug from the resistance
box S and make all other plugs tight by giving them a slight twist. Find the balance point
again as at Y and note corresponding length l2 Repeat twice for the same value of the current in the
auxiliary circuit and same shunt resistance in a similar manner.
(ii) Remove the plugs from the keys K1 and K2 . Wait for some time, insert the plug in the key K1
and find l1 keeping the current same in a similar manner. Put in the key K2, take out a resistance
of 3or 4 ohms and find the length l1
(iii) repeat similarly for S equal to 5 
7. Change the value of current in the external circuit by a slight amount and repeat observations as
in Step 6.
Observation
Position of Null point

Internal
Ammeter Shunt
Resistance
S.No. Reading Without shunt With Shunt Resistance
r = (S (l 1–l 2) / (l 2))
(amperes) (S) ohms
Mean Mean 
(i) (ii) (l 1) cm (i) (ii) (l 2) cm
1.
2.
1.
2.
Result
Internal resistance of Leclanche cell (r) = ..... ohms
Percautions
1. The e.m.f. of the auxiliary battery should be constant and always greater than the e.m.f. of either of
the two cells, whose e.m.fs. are to be compared.
2. The positive pole of the auxiliary battery and the positive poles of the cells must be connected to the
terminal on the zero side of the potentiometer wire otherwise it would be impossible to obtain
balance point
3. The rheostat should be of a low resistance and whenever the deflection shown is to the same side
when jockey is pressed at all points of the wire, the current must be increased to obtain the balance
point at a desired length.
4. The current should remain constant for each set of observations with two cells.
5. The current should be passed only for the duration it is necessary, otherwise the balance point will
keep on changing
6. The balance points should be obtained at large distances from the zero end.
7. The internal resistance of a Leclanche cell is not constant but varies with the current drawn from the
cell. Hence to get constant readings the resistance from the resistance box S must be varied by a
small amount (say 3 to 8 ohms).
[Note, To prevent a large current from being passed through the galvanometer either shunt it with a
wire or put a large resistance about 2000 ohms in series with it (fig.) But when the balance point is
located, to find it more predicely the shunt should be removed or all the plugs of the series resis-
tance box should be inserted].
Exercise
1. A student is required to measure emf of a cell, he should use -
(1) Potentiometer (2) Voltmeter (3) ammeter (4) either (1) or (2)
2. A potentiometer is an ideal device of measuring potential difference, because-

(1) it uses a sensitive galvanometer
(2) it does not disturb the potential difference it measures
(3) it is an elaborate arrangement
(4) it has a long wire hence heat developed is quickly radiated
3. Which of the following statements is correct during measurement of emf of cell by potentiometer ?
(1) No current flows through potentiometer wire upto position of null point
(2) At null point in any potentiometer experiment no current flows through whole of potentiometer wire.
(3) No current is drawn from cell when null point is obtained
(4) No current is drawn from bettery when null point is obtained
4. Which of the following statements is not wrong ?

(1) To increase sensitivity of a potentiometer increase current through potentiometer wire.
(2) To increase sensitivity increase external resistance in battery circuit connected to potentiometer.
(3) To increase sensitivity increase battery voltage
(4) To increase sensitivity increase emf of battery.
Answers:
Q. 1 2 3 4
A. 1 2 3 4
EXPERIMENT # 20
AIM :
To find the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and find its figure of merit.
Apparatus : -
A weston type moving coil galvanometer, a cell, two resistance boxes, two one-way key, a voltmeter, con-
necting wires and a sand paper.
fig. Half deflection method

Theory : -
The connections for finding the resistance of a galvanometer by the half deflection method are shown in Fig.
When the key, K1 is closed, keeping the key K2 open, the current Ig through the galvanometer is given by
E
Ig = where E = E.M.F. of the cell.
RG
R = Resistance from the resistance box R.B.
G = Galvanometer resistance.
If  is the deflection produced, then
E
= k ......... (1)
RG
If now the key K2 is closed and the value of the shunt resistance S is adjusted so that the deflection is
reduced to half of the first value, then current flowing through the galvanometer Ig is given by
E  S  k
Ig =   =
GS  G  S  2
R
(G  S )
ES k
or Ig = = ...........(2)
R(G  S)  GS 2
Comparing (1) and (2), we get
(R + G) 2S = R(G + S) + GS
RS
or (R – S) G = RS or G=
R–S
R
If the value of R is very large as compared to S, then is nearly equal to unity. Hence
R–S
G S
Figure of Merit :-
Figure of merit of a galvanometer is that much current sent through the galvanometer in order to produce a
deflection of one division on the scale.
If k is the figure of merit of the galvanometer, and ‘’ be the number of divisions on the scale, then current (Ig)
through the galvanometer is given by
Ig  k
Procedure :-
1. Draw a diagram showing the scheme of connections as in fig. and make the connections accordingly.
2. Check the connections and show the same to the teacher before passing current.
3. Introduce a high resistance R from the resistance box (R. B), close the key K1 and adjust the value of R till
the deflection is within scale and maximum. Note the deflection and the value of the resistance R.
4. Close the key K2 and adjust the value of the shunt resistance S so that the deflection is reduced exactly to
half the first value. Note this deflection and the value of the resistance S.
5. Repeat the experiment three times taking different deflections of the galvanometer.
6. To find the figure of merit : -
(i) Find the e.m.f. of the cell by a voltmeter. See the positive of the cell the connected to the positive marked
terminal of the voltmeter.

(ii) Connect the cell E, the galvanometer G, the resistance box R.B. and the key K 1 in series as shown in fig
take out 5,000 ohms plug from the resistance box and make all other plug tight. put in the key K1 and adjust
the value of the resistance R from the resistance box so that a deflection , near about 30 divisions is
indicated in the galvanometer. Note the deflection  in the galvanometer and also the value of the resistance
R from the resistance box.
(iii) Adjust the value of R from the resistance box to get a deflection of about 20 divisions and again note the
deflection and the resistance.
(iv) Increase the number of cells to two . Find the e.m.f and the value of the resistance R to get a deflection
of about 30 and again about 20 divisions as in the previous step.
(i) Resistance of Galvanometer : -
Shunt Resistance Half deflection Galvanometer Resistance

S.No. Resistance R Deflection
(ohms) S (ohms) (  / 2) G = RS / R – S (ohms)
1
2
3
4
Mean Value of G = ............. ohms

(ii) Figure of merit : -
Galvanometer resistance (G) = ..........
Number of division on the galvanometer scale = .................
e.m.f. (E) of Resistance in the resistance Figure of Merit

S.No. Number of cell (votls) Deflection ()
cell (volts) box (R) (ohms) K = E / (R + G)
1 One
2 One
3 two
4 two
Precautions : -
1. The value of ‘R’ should be large
2. To decrease the deflection, the shunt resistance should be decreased and vice-versa.
3. In this method it is assumed that the deflection is proportional to the current. This is possible only in a
weston type moving coil galvanometer.
4. The connections must be tight and the ends of connecting wires should be cleaned.

EXPERIMENT # 21 (I)
AIM :
To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.
Apparatus :
An optical bench with four uprights, a convex mirror, a convex lens, a knitting needle and a half meter scale
Theory :
Suppose a convex lens
L is interposed between
a convex mirror M and
an object needle O as
shown in fig 15 (A).
W hen the relative
position of M, L and O
are adjusted in such a
way that there is no
parallax between the
object needle O and its
image I, then in that
position, the rays will fall
normally on the convex
mirror M. The rays
which fall on the mirror
normally should meet at
the centre of curvature
C of the mirror when
produced (Fig.).
The distance MC gives the radius of curvature R. Half of the radius of curvature gives the focal length F of the
mirror.
Now with out disturbing the positions of the object O and the lens L, the convex mirror is removed and
another needle is placed in the position of the image I of the object O, formed by the lens L by using parallax
method as shown in fig.
R MI`
Measure MI Now f, = =
2 2
Procedure
1. Mount the convex mirror M, a convex lens L and the object needle O on optical bench as shown in
fig (a). Look for the inverted image of O through the system of the lens L and the mirror M by
adjusting the position of O or L with respect to that of the mirror. When the inverted image is not
obtained, a convex lens of larger focal length should be used.
2. Remove the parallax between the object needle O and its inverted image and note the position of O,
L and M on the bench scale.
3. Remove the mirror M and do not disturb the lens L and O at all. Take another needle I and place it
on the other side of the lens (fig. (b)).
4. Take five sets of observations for different positions of O and L.
5. Determine the index correction between the mirror M and the image needle I.
Observation and Calculations :

Index correction
Length of the knitting needle, y = ......... cm
Observed distance with the needle between M and I x = ......... cm
 Index correction between M and I = (y – x) = ......... cm

Table Determination of Focal Length
No. of Position of Object Position of lens L Position of Position of image Observed
Obs needle O Mirror M needle I distance, MI
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean, M I = ........ cm
Corrected distance, M I = ........ cm
Corrected MI
 f= =........ cm
2
Result :
Focal length of the given convex mirror =........ cm
=........ cm
Precautions :
1. The line joining the pole of the mirror, the centre of the lens L and the tip of the needle, should be
parallel to the length of the optical bench.
2. The auxiliary lens L must have sufficiently large focal length.
3. The parallax should be removed tip to tip while removing the parallax, the eye should be kept at the
least distance of distinct vision i.e., 25 cm away from the needle.
4. In the second part of the experiment i.e., after removing the mirror M, the position of L and O should
not be disturbed at all.
AIM : TO FIND FOCUS DISTANCE OF A CONCAVE MIRROR USING U-V METHOD.
1 1 1
Principle : For different u, we measure different v, and find f using mirror’s formula = + .
f v u
In this experiment, a concave mirror is fixed at position MM’ and a knitting needle is used as an
object, mounted in front of the concave mirror. This needle is called object needle (O in fig)
Image
Image
needle Object
needle
First of all we make a rough estimation of f. For estimating F roughly, make a sharp image of a
far away object (like sun) on a filter paper. The image distance of the far object will be an approx.
estimation of focus distance).
Now, the object needle is kept beyond F, so that its real and inverted image (I in fig) can be formed.
You can see this inverted image in the mirror by closing your one eye and keeping the other eye
along the pole of the mirror.
To locate the position of the image, use a second needle, and shift this needle such that its peak
Coincide with the image. The second needle gives the distance of image (v), so it called “image
needle” (I' in figure). Note the object distance ‘u’ and image distance ‘v’ from the mm scale on
optical bench.

Using Mirror Formula :
1 1 1
(i) Use mirror formula : = + to find focus distance from each u – v observation. Finally
f v u
take average of all.
1 1
v u
1 1 1 1/ u 1/ v x y
+ =  + = 1  + = 1 1/v
v u f 1/ f 1/ f a b
1 1
So curve between v/s should be a straight line having 1/f
v u
1 1 1/u
x and y intercepts = and 1/f
f f
1 1 1/v (in 1/m)

from the observations of u and v, plot v/;s So f = -1/10
v u =1/f
curve as a straight line, find the x and y -10
1 1 1/u (in 1/m)

intercepts, and equate them to and . -10 =1/f
f f So f = -1/10

1 1 1
+ = ..............(1)
v u f
So curve between v v/s u is a rectangular hyperbola as shown. fig2
u = v ..............(2)
Fig. 2 Graph of v vs. u for a Concave Mirror

then their intersection points should be v = 2f, u = 2f (By solving equation (1) and equation
(2)) from u – v datas, plot v v/s u curve, and draw a line bisecting the axis. Find the
intersection point and equate them to (2f, 2f).
(iv) Meeting u n and v n :

Indicate u1, u2, u3 ....... un on x-axis, and v1, v2, v3 ........ vn on y-axis. If we join u1 with v1,
u2 with v2, u3 with v3 and ............... so on. All line intersects at a common point (f, f).
EXPLANATION
x x
+ = 1 ..............(1)
u1 v1
1 1 1 f f
where, + = or + = 1 ..............(1’)
u1 v1 f u1 v1
x y
+ = 1 ..............(2)
u2 v2
f f
where + = 1 ..............(2’)
u2 v2
Similarly Line joining un and vn is
x y
+ = 1 ..............(3)
vn un
f f
where + = 1 ..............(3’)
un vn

From equation (1’), (2’), (3’), we can say that x = f and y = f will satisfy all equations (1),
(2), (3). So point (f, f) will be the common intersection point of all the lines.
From u – v datas draw u1, u2 ...... un on x-axis and v1, v2, ........ vn datas on y-axis. Meet u1
with v1, u2 with v2 ........ un with vn. Find common intersection point and equate it to (f, f).
INDEX ERROR
In u – v method, we require the distance between object or image from the pole (vertex) of the
mirror (actual distance).
But practically we measure the distance between the indices A and B. (Observed distance),
which need not exactly coincide with object and pole, there can be a slight mismatch called
index error, which will be constant for every observation.
Index error = Observed distance – Actual distance

(Just like zero error in screw gauge, it is the excess reading).
To determine index error, mirror and object needle and placed at arbitrary position. For mea-
suring actual distance, a knitting needle is just fitted between the pole of mirror and object
needle “O”. The length of knitting needle will give the actual object distance while the sepa-
ration between indices A and B at that instant is the observed distance.
So index error is -
e = Observed distance – Actual distance
= Separation between indices A and B – Length of knitting needle
once we get e, in every observation, we get
Actual distance = Observed distance (separation between the indices) – Excess reading (e)
*There is an another term , Index correction which is invert of index error.
Index correction = - index error
Ex.1 To find index error for u , when a knitting needle of length 20.0 cm is adjusted between pole
and object needle, the separation between the indices of object needle and mirror was observed
to be 20.2 cm.
Index correction for u is -
(1) –0.2 cm (2) 0.2 cm (3) –0.1 cm (4) 0.1 cm

Sol. Index error (Excess reading) = Observed reading – Actual reading
= 20.2 – 20.0
= 0.2 cm
Ex.2 To find index error for v, when the same knitting needle is adjusted between the pole and the
image needle, the separation between the indices of image needle and mirror was found to be
19.9 cm. Index error for v is
(1) 0.1 cm (2) –0.1 cm (3) 0.2 cm (4) –0.2 cm
Sol. e = 19.9 cm – 20.0 cm
= –0.1 cm
Ex.3 In some observation, the observed object distance (Seperation between indices of object needle
and mirror) is 30.2 cm, and the observed image distance is 19.9 cm. Using index correction
from previous two equations, estimate the focus distance of the concave mirror!
Sol. u = 30.2 – 0.2 (excess reading)
= 30.0 cm.
v = 19.9 – (–0.1) (excess reading)
= 20.0 cm.
1 1 1
= +  f = 12.0 cm.
f v u
Maximum permissible error in f due to imperfect measurement of u & v :
In this experiment, from a set (u, v), focus distance F can be calculate from equation.
1 1 1 df du dv
= +  2 = 2 +
f u v f u v2
 df  u v  df  u v  u v 
 2 =± 2 ±  2 =+ 2 + 2 df max   2  2  f2
f  u v2  f max u v u v 
Ex.4 In u – v method to find focus distance of a concave mirror, if object distance was found to be 10.0 cm
and image distance was also found to be 10.0 cm then find max - permissible error in f, due to error in
u and v measurement.
1 1 1 1 1 1
Sol. + =  + =  | f | = 5 cm
u v f ( 10 ) ( 10 ) f
 u v   0 .1 0. 1 
df max   2  2  f2  df max   2  2   5 2 = 0.05 cm
u v   10 10 
so, f = (5 ± 0.05) cm
EXPERIMENT # 21 (iii)
AI M
To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v and between 1/u and
1/v.
Apparatus
A convex lens of short focal length (say 15 to 20 cm.), two needles, three uprights, one clamp, an optical
bench a half meter rod and a knitting needle.
Theory
Position of the image formed by a convex lens depends upon the position of the object with respect to
the lens fig.(1) below shows the different positions of the images formed by a convex lens for different
object positions. The relation between u, v and f for a convex lens is
1 1 1
 –
f v u
Procedure
1. Find the rough focal length of the given convex lens by focussing a sharp, clear and inverted
image of a distance object on a white paper and measuring this distance between the lens and
the white paper with a meter scale.
2. If the optical bench is provided with levelling screw, then level it using a spirit level.
3. Mount the convex lens (held in its holder) on the central upright of the optical bench. Also
amount the two needles on the remaining two uprights. Arrange the tips of the needles at the
same vertical height as the centre of the lens.
Fig. (1)
S. Figure Position of Nature of the image Size of the image

No.
the object the image
1. (a) At infiity At F Real and inverted Highly diminshed
2. (b) Beyound 2F Between F and 2F Real and inverted Diminished
3. (c) At 2 F At 2 F Real and inverted Same size as object
4. (d) Between F and 2F Beyound 2 F Real and inverted Magnified
5. (e) At F At infinity Real and inverted Highly magnified (blurred)
Between F and the On the same side
6. (f) lens as object Virtual and errect Enlarged
Fig. 2 Two pin method for determining the focal length f of a convex lens.
(Arrangement on the optical branch)
4. Mark one needle as AB object needle and the other one CD as image needle and distinguish
between them by rubbing tip of one of the needles with a piece of chalk or putting a paper
flag on it.
5. Find the index corrections for u and v using a knitting needle.
6. Shift the position of the object needle AB to a distance greater than 2f from the lens. Look from
the other side of the lens along its principal axis near the end of the bench. If the setting is
correct, an inverted, real image AB is seen. Now adjust the position of the second needle CD
such that parallax between the image of the object needle and the image needle is removed.
The position of the second needle is so adjusted that parallax is removed tip to tip as shown
in fig.2.

7. Note the positions of the lenses, the object needle and the image needle on the bench scale
and thus find the observed values of u and v. Apply index corrections to get the corrected values
for u and v.
8. Repeat the above steps for 5 different positions of the object by placing it beyond 2F and
between F and 2F. Record your observations as detailed below:
Observations :
(i) Approximate focal length of length of the lens f = ........ cm
(ii) For index correction
Actual length of the knitting needle x = ........ cm
(a) For u
1. Observed distance between the object needle and the lens
When knitting needle is inserted between them, y = ........ cm
2. Index error for u, e1 = (y – x) = ........ cm
3. Index correction for u, –e1 = (x – y) = ........ cm
(b) For v
1. Observed distance between the image needle and the lens
When knitting needle is inserted between them, z = ........ cm
2. Index error for v, e1 = (z – x) = ........ cm
3. Index correction for v, –e2 = (x – z) = ........ cm
Table
Object distance u(cm) Image distance v (cm) 1/u 1/v
No. Position of
of Lens Object Image Observed Corrected u Observed Corrected
Obs. at O needle needle (O– A) = u = u+ (–ei) (C– O) = v v
at A at C = v+ (–e2)
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
(cm–1) (cm–1)
(cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
9. Plotting Graphs and Calculations of f
(a) u – v Graph -
(i) Choose a suitable but the same scale to

represent u along x-axis and v along y-axis
Remember that u is negative and v is positive
for a convex lens, according to the coordinate
sign convention used these days
(ii) Plot the points for various sets of value of u and

v from the observation table. The graph will be
a rectangular hyperbola as shown in fig. 15(3).3
Find f from this graph : Draw a line OC bisecting the angle X OY and cutting the graph at point C.
The coordinates of this point are (–2f, 2f) as shown in fig. Note the distances if the foot of the perpen-
diculars OA and OB respectively on X and Y axis. Half of these distances given the focal length of the
convex lens. Thus
OA
f = = ........cm
2
OB
also f = = ........cm
2
take the mean of these two values of f.

(b) Calculation of f from graph between 1/u and 1/v : Choose a suitable but the same scale to
1 1 1
represent along x-axis and along y-axis, taking O as the origin (0,0). Plot the graph between
u v u
1
and . The graph would be a straight line as shown in figure below making equal intercepts (OA and
v
OB) on them measure AO and OB. Then
1 1
f =  = ................. cm
OA OB
Result :
The focal length of the given convex lens as determined from the graph of
(i) (u, v) from fig. above =............ cm
 1 1
(ii)  ,  fig. fig. above =............ cm
u v 
Precaution
1. The tips of the needles should be as high as the optical centre of the lens.
2. The uprights carrying the lens and the needles should not be shaky.
3. Parallax should be removed tip to tip.
4. The eye should be placed at such a position that the distance between the image needle and
the eye is more than 25 cm.
5. The image and object needles should not be interchanged for different sets of observations.
6. A piece of chalk may be rubbed on the tip of the object needle or a paper flag put on it, so
as to distinguish it from the image needle.
Exercise
1 1
1. By plotting versus focal length of a convex mirror can be found -
v u
(1) No, as it forms a virtual image (2) Yes, only if scale is large
(3) Yes, only if scale is small (4) Yes, only if aperture is small
2. The focal length of which of the following can not be obtained directly-
(1) convex mirror and convex lens (2) convex mirror & concave lens
(3) convex lens and concave mirror (4) concave lens and concave mirror
3. Which of the following statement is false -

(1) The bench correction is always equal to the negative of bench error
(2) larger the distance between the two objects larger the magnitude of parallax
(3) parallax disappear if the positions of two objects coincide
(4) parallax can occur between any two objects

4. The focal length of a convex mirror is obtained by using a convex lens. The following observations are
recorded during the experiment
object position = 5 cm
lens = 35.4 cm
Image = 93.8 cm
Mirror = 63.3 cm
Bench error = –0.1 cm
then the focal length of mirror will be -
(1) 7.5 (2) 8.4 cm (3) 15.3 cm (4) none of these
1 1
5. For spherical mirrors, graph plotted between – and – is -
V u
(1) straight line with slope 1 (2) straight line with slope - 1
(3) Parabola (4) none
Answers :
Q. 1 2 3 4 5
A. 1 2 2 3 2
EXPERIMENT # 22
AI M
To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given glass prism by plotting a graph between
the angle of incidence and angle of deviation and hence find the refractive index of the material of
the prism.
APPARATUS
A drawing board, a sheet of paper, glass triangular prism, pins, a half meter scale, a graph paper
and a protractor
THEORY :
Refraction Through a prism (angle of minimum deviation)
Figure 1 Refraction of light through a prism

Minimum Deviation - In (Fig 1), ABC represents the principal section of a glass prism. Let EF be
a ray of light that is incident on the refracting face AB of the prism. The straight path FG represents
the refracted ray through the prism and GH represents the emergent ray. FN1 and GN2 are drawn
normal to the refracting faces AB and AC at points F and G respectively. Incident ray EF Produced
to PT, as result of refraction through the prism ABC emerges along GH. The incident ray shown
as EF (extruded as dotted line FPT) deviates and follows the path PGH. The angle  is the angle
between the incident ray EFPT (produced) shown dotted and the emergent ray GH (produced
backwards) to meet EFT at the point P. This angle  is known as the angle of deviation. the angle
BAC of the prism (i.e., the angle between its two refracting faces) is called the angle of the prism
and it is denoted by the letter ‘A’ It can be proved from simple geometrical considerations that
A +  = i + e .......(i)
and A = r1 + r2 .......(ii)
where i = angle of incidence
e = angle of emergence
r1 = angle of refraction at face AB
r2 = angle of refraction at face AC.
The relation (i) clearly shows that angle of deviation  varies with the angle of incidence i.
The variation of angle  with angle i is represented graphically in Fig 2
It is obvious from Fig 2. That the angle  decreases with the increase in the value of i initially, till
a particular value (i0) of the angle of incidence is reached. For this value of angle of incidence, the
corresponding value of the angle of deviation is minimum and it is denoted by the letter m. This
angle of deviation is called the angle of minimum deviation. When a prism is so placed with respect
to the incident ray that the angle of deviation produced by it is minimum, then the prism is said
to be in the position of minimum deviation. In this position, the following relation holds between the
angles.
i.e., i = e and r1 = r2 .......(iii)
In this position, the incident ray and the
emergent ray are symmetrical with respect
to the prism and the ray passes through the
prism is parallel to its base. Refractive index
of material of prism is given as,
 A  m 
sin 
  2 
A
sin
2
Where m is the angle of minimum
deviation and A is the angle of the prism.
Fig. 2 Variation of angle of deviation with
angle of incidence for refraction through a
prism
PROCEDURE :
1. Fix the sheet of the white paper on the drawing board with cello-tape or drawing pins.
2. Draw a straight line XY nearly at the centre of the sheet parallel to its length. Mark points
marked as O at suitable spacing on this line XY and draw normal to the line XY at points
O as shown in Fig. 3 Draw straight line PQ corresponding to the incident rays that are
drawn at angle of incidence ranging from 30º to 60º, i.e., for angles of 30º, 40º, 50º and
60º using a protractor.
3. Place the prism with one of its refracting
surfaces on the line XY and trace its boundary
ABC as shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3
4. Fix two pins P and Q about 8 cm apart on the incident ray line and view its image with
your with your one eye closed from the face BC of the prism. Fix two pins R and S on
the paper such that the tips of these pins and the tips of the images of the incident ray
pins P and Q all lie on the same straight line.
5. Remove the pins R and S and encircle their pin pricks on the paper. Remove the pins P
and Q and also encircle their pin pricks.
6. Join the points (i.e., pin pricks) S and R and produce it backwards to meet the incident
ray PQ produced (shown by dotted lines). Thus RS is the emergent ray corresponding to
the incident ray PQ. Draw arrow heads to show the direction of the rays.
7. Measure the angle of deviation  with a protractor.
8. Repeat the steps (3 to 7) for different values of angle of incidence (Fig.3) and measure
the corresponding angles of deviation . Take at least seven values of angle i ranging from
30º – 60º.

Measurement of refracting angle ‘A’ of the prism.
1. Draw a line XY on the drawing sheet as depicted in Fig.(4) below.
Fig. 4 Measurement of the refracting angle A of the prism.

2. Mark points O in the middle of XY and E and F on either side of O equidistant from E
such that OE = OF (say 1 cm each).
3. Draw three vertical lines EG, OI and FH through E, O and F respectively, such that these
are parallel to each other.
4. Place the prism with its refracting edge A on the line Ol such that BC is along XY. The
points E and F would be symmetric with respect to edges B and C.
5. Draw the boundary ABC of the face of prism touching the board.
6. Fix pins P1 and P2 vertically, 4 cm apart, observe their refection in the face AB and fix
the pin P3 such that the images of P1,P2 and P3 are in a straight line. Fix another pin P4
such that prick of P4 is also in the same straight line. Join the pricks of P3 and P4 by
line LK and product it backward. KL is reflected ray of incident ray GK.
7. Similarly locate NM by joining P’3 P’4 as the reflected ray of incident ray HM. Draw NM
backward to meet the line LK product backward at point P. The point P should lie on the
line OI if observations are correctly taken.
8. The angle LPN is equal to 2A(it can be proved geometrically from the figure). Measure
the angle LPN and determine A, the angle of prism.
OBSERVATIONS :
(i) Table for angle i and 
(ii) Plotting the graph between i and  Plot a graph between angles i and  for various sets
of values recorded in the observation table. The graph will be a curve as shown in Fig.2
(iii) For angle ‘A’ of prism
LPN = ...........°= 2A
or Angle A =............°
CALCULATIONS : Determine the angle of minimum deviation m from the graph.
RESULT : The angle of deviation  first decreases with the increase in the angle of incidence,
attains a minimum value and then increases with further increase in the angle of incidence as
indicated in the (—i) graph fig. 2

PERCAUTIONS :
1. A sharp pencil should be used for drawing the boundary of the prism.
2. The separation between the pins should not be less than 8 cm.
3. The angle of incidence should lie between 30° to 60°.
4. The same angle of prism should be used for all the observation. So an ink mark should
be placed on it to distinguish it as the refracting angle A of the prism.
5. The pins should have sharp tips and fixed vertically and the pin pricks should be encircled
immediately after they are removed.
6. proper arrows should be drawn to indicate the incident, the refracted and the emergent
rays.
7. A smooth curve practically passing through all the plotted points should be drawn.
EXPERIMENT # 23
AIM :
To determine the refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.
APPARATUS :
A piece of paper, a marker, glass slab, travelling microscope, lycopodium powder.
THEORY :
Refraction is a phenomenon of propagation of light from one transparent medium into the other
medium such that light deviates from its original path. The ratio of velocity of light in the first medium
to that in the second medium is called refractive index of second medium with respect to the first.
Usually the first medium is air. The bottom surface of a vessel containing a refracting liquid appears
to be raised, such that apparent depth is less than the real depth. Refractive index of refracting
liquid is defined as the ratio of real depth to the apparent depth.
real depth
Mathematically, Refractive index  
apparent depth
For accurate measurements of depths, a travelling microscope [Fig. 17(a)] is used.

If reading of real depth at the bottom of the slab is r1, if reading at cross due to refraction is r2 and at
the top of slab if reading is r3, then
real depth = r3 — r1 , and apparent depth = r3 — r2
r r
Therefore , refractive index of glass (material of slab)   3 1
r r
3 2
Fig. 17 Travelling microscope taking reading (a) at the cross mark (b) at the cross mark with slab placed
on it (c) at powder sprinkled on the top of the slab

PROCEDURE :
For accurate measurement of depth, travelling microscope is used.
1. Note the number of divisions of vernier which coincide with number of full scale divisions.
2. Find the value of each main division and hence least count of the microscope scale as
(1 M.S.D —V.S.D)
3. Set the microscope in its stand such that it is capable of sliding vertically up and down
as the screw attached to rack and pinion is turned.
4. On a sheet of white paper, a cross and place it below the objective of the microscope.
5. Move the microscope very gently. Using the screw, focus the eye piece on cross mark and
bring the cross in focus such that the cross wires, coincides with the marked cross on
the paper. Note the reading of the microscope as r 1 [Fig. 17(a)]
6. Place the given glass slab on the cross mark. You would observe that the cross mark
appears to be raised.
7. Move the microscope gradually and gently upward to bring the cross mark in focus and
on cross of cross wires. Record the reading as r2 [Fig. 17(b)]
8. Sprinkle some fine lycopodium powder on the glass slab and move the microscope upward
till the powder particle come into focus. Record the reading on the scale as r3 [Fig 17(c)]
9. Difference of readings r 3 and r 1 i.e r 3 — r1 gives the real depth whereas r3—r2 gives the
apparent depth.
10. Record your observations as follows and calculate the value of refractive index m.
OBSERVATIONS :
Least count of travelling microscope.
10 Vernier Scale Division = 9 Main Scale Divisions
(Scales may differ from instrument to instrument).
Value of one main scale division = 1mm i.e. 0.1 cm.
10 V.S.D =9 M.S.D (V.S.D. Vernier Scale Division, M.SD. Main Scale Divisions)
9
 1 V.S.D  M.S.D
10
9 1 1
L.C = 1 M.S.D —1V.S.D = 1M.S.D — M.S.D = M.S.D or  0.1cm  0.01 cm
10 10 10
Reading of microscope focussed on

Cross mark without slab Cross mark with slab placed on it Powder sprinkled on top of slab
Main scale Vernier div. Reading N Main scale Vernier Reading Main scale Vernier Reading
reding (N) Coinciding + n × L, C. reading div. N + n × L, C. reading div. N + n × L,
No. (cm) n =r1 (N) Coinciding = r2 (N) Coinciding C. = r3
of n (cm) n (cm)
Obs.
1.
2.
3.
Mean values r1 =.......cm, r2=........r3=......cm
CALCULATIONS :
Real depth = dr= r3 – r1 =....... cm.
Apparent depth = da = r3 – r2 =....... cm.
Re al depth dr
refractive index  = Apparent depth  d =.......
a

PERCAUTIONS :
1. Least count of the scale of travelling microscope should be carefully calculated.
2. Microscope once focussed on the cross mark, the focussing should not be disturbed
throughout the experiment.
3. Eye piece should be adjusted such that cross wires are distinctly seen.
4. Cross wires, cross should be set on the ink cross mark on the paper.
5. Only a thin latyer of powder should be spread on the top of slab
6. Express your result upto significant figures keeping in view the least count of instrument.
Resu lt
The refractive index of the glass slab by using travelling microscope is determined as .......
EXPERIMENT # 24
AIM
To study the static and dynamic curves of a p–n junction diode in forward bias and to deter-
mine its static and dynamic resistances
A P PA R AT U S
A p-n junction diode, a 3V battery, a high resistance rheostat, 0-3 volt voltmeter, one milliam-
meter, one way key and connecting wires.
THE O RY
When a junction diode is forward biased, a forward current is produced which increases with
increase in bias voltage. This increase is not proportional.
The ratio of forward bias voltage (V) and forward current (I) is called the static resistance of
VF
semiconductor diode, i.e., R = IF .
In case of a varying bias voltage and varying forward current, the ratio of change in forward bias
voltage (V) and corresponding change in forward current (I)is called the dynamic resistance
 VF 
 r  
 I F  .
To find the static and dynamic resistance of semiconductor diode, a graph has to be plotted
between forward bias voltage(V) and forward bias current (I). This graph is called the charac-
teristic curve of semiconductor diode.
PROCEDURE :
(a) Make the connections as shown in figure.

(b) Keep the moving contact of the rheostat to the minimum and insert the key K.
Voltmeter and milliammeter will show a zero reading.
(c) Move the contact towards the positive to apply the forward bias voltage V = 0.1 V.
The current remain zero
(d) Increase the forward bias voltage to 0.3 V in steps. The current will still be zero. (This
is due to the junction potential barrier of 0.3 V).
(e) Increase V to 0.4 V. Record the current.
(f) Increase V in step of 0.2 and note the corresponding current.
(g) At V = 2.4 V. The current increases suddenly. This represents the forward breakdown
stage.
(h) Draw a graph of I on y- axis and V on x-axis. The graph will be as shown in figure

Record of Readings
(i) Least count of voltmeter = .........V Zero error of mA = .........mV
(ii) Least count of milliammeter = .........mA Zero error of voltmeter = .........V
S.No. Forward bias voltage V F (V) Forward bias current IF (mA)

1 0 0
2 : 0
3 : 0
4 : :
: : :
: : :
: : :
: : :
Graph :
Calcu lations
(i) For static resistance (R)
VF
R = IF
OA 
From the graph R = = .........., ohm
OA 
Diode is ...... (specify the code)
(ii) For dynamic resistance (r)
VF
r = I F
AC
 From the graph r = ohms
BC
Resu lt
(i) The static resistance of the given semiconductor diode = ........... ohm
(ii) The dynamic resistance of the given semiconductor diode = ........... ohm
Precautions
(i) Make all connections neat, clean and tight
(ii) Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not in use
(iii) Avoid applying forward bias voltage beyond breakdown
Possible sources of errors
(i) The connection may not be tight
(ii) The junction diode may be faulty

EXPERIMENT # 25
AIM
To draw the characteristic curves of a zener diode and to determine its reverse breakdown
voltage.
APPARATUS
A zener diode (with reverse breakdown voltage of 6 V), a ten volt battery, a rheostat, two
voltmeters (range 0, 10 V), one milliammeter, one 20 resistance, one way key, connecting
wires.
THEORY :
Zener diode is a semiconductor diode in which the n-type sections are heavily doped, This heavy
doping results in a low value of reverse breakdown voltage.
The reverse breakdown voltage of Zener diode is called Zener voltage (Vz). The reverse current that
results after the breakdown is called zener current (Iz).
Vi = Input voltage
V0 = Output voltage
Ri = Input resistance
i = Input current
z = Zener diode current
L = Load current
L = i – z
V0 = Vi – Ri  i
V0 = RL  L
Initially as Vi increases, Ii increases hence V0 increases linearly. At break-down, increase of Vi
increases Ii by large amount, so that V0 = Vi – RiIi becomes constant.
This constant value of V0 Which is the reverse breakdown voltage, is called zener voltage.
PROCEDURE :
(a) Make the connections as shown in figure above making sense that zener diode is reverse biased
(b) Bring the moving contact to rheostat to the minimum and insert the key K. Voltmeter and ammeter
will read zero
(c) Move the contact a little towards positive end to apply some reverse bias voltage (Vi). Milliammeter
reading remains zero.
(d) As Vi is further increased, Ii starts increasing and V0 becomes less than Vi. Note the values of Vi V0
and Ii.
(e) Keep increasing Vi in small steps of 0.5 V. Note the corresponding values of Ii and V0
(f) At one stage as Vi is increased, Ii increases by large amount and V0 does not increase. this is reverse
break down situation.
(g) As Vi is increased further, Ii will increase keeping V0 constant. Record your observation in tabular
column
(h) Draw graph of output voltage V0 along y-axis and input voltage along x-axis. The graph will be as
shown in figure.

(i) Draw graph of input current along y-axis and input voltage along x-axis. The graph will be as shown
in figure
RECORD OF READINGS
Least count of voltmeter V1 = ...........V
Least count of voltmeter V2 = ...........V
Least count of milli-ammeter = ...........mA
Serial No. Input voltage Vi Input current Ii Output voltage V0

(V) (mA) (V)
1 0 0 0
2 0.5 : :
3 1 : :
4 1.5 : :
5 : : :
6 : : :
RESULT :
The Breakdown voltage of given Zener diode is 6 volts.
PERCAUTIONS :
(i) Use voltmeter and milliammeter of suitable range.
(ii) Connect the zener diode p-n junction in reverse bias.
(iii) The key should be kept open when the circuit is not in use.
EXPERIMENT # 26
AI M
To study the characteristics of a common emitter n-p-n or p-n-p transistor and to find out the values of
current and voltage gains.
REQUIREMENTS
An n-p-n transistor, a 3 V battery, a 30 V battery, two rehostats, one 0–3 V voltmeter, one 0–30 V
voltmeter, one 0–500 A microammeter, one 0–50 mA milliammeter, two one way keys, connecting
wires.

THEORY :
A transistor can be considered as a thin wafer of one type of semiconductor between two layers of
another type. A npn transistor has one p-type wafer in between two n-type. Similarly p-n-p the transistor
has one n-type wafer between two p-type.
In a common emitter circuit, the emitter base makes the input section and the collector base the output
section, with emitter base junction, forward bise and the collector base junction, reverse biased.
The resistance offered by the emitter base junction is called input resistance R i and has a low value. The
resistance offered by the collector base junction is called output resistance R0 and has high value. Due
to the high output resistance, a high resistance can be used as a load resistance.
RL R0
The ratio R or R measures the resistance gain of the common emitter transistor..
i i
The ratio of change in collector current to the corresponding change in base current, measures the current
gain in common emitter transistor and is represented by .
 c
= 
b
The product of current gain and the resistance gain measures the voltage gain of the common emitter
transistor.
FORMULA USED
 b
Input resistance, Ri = 
b
Vc
Output resistance, R0 = 
c
R0
Resistance gain, =R
i
 c
Current gain,  = 
b
Voltage gain = Current gain × Resistance gain
R0
i.e., AV =  R
i
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE
(a) Make circuit diagram as shown in given figure (A)
(b) Drag the moveable contact of rheostat to the minimum so that voltmeters, V1 and V2 read zero volt
FOR INPUT CHARACTERISTICS
(c) Apply the forward bias voltage at the emitter base junction note the base voltage (V b) and the base
current (Ib)
(d) Keep increasing Vb till Ib rises suddenly
(e) Make collector voltage 10 V and repeat the above steps

(f) Now make collector voltage 20 V, 30 V and repeat the above steps. Note the value of Vb and Ib in each
case
FOR OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
(g) Make all reading zero. Keep the collector voltage zero.
(h) Make base current Ib = 100 A by adjusting the base voltage. You will be able to read some collector
current even though the collector voltage is zero.
(i) Make the collector voltage 10V, 20V, 30V, etc. and note corresponding collector currents. Record your
observations in the tabular form as given below.
(j) Make the current Ib equal to 200 A, note the values of Ic corresponding to the different values of Vc
RECORD OF REOBSERVATIONS
Least count of voltmeter, V1 = .........V
Least count of voltmeter, V2 = .........V
Least count of milliammeter = .........mA
Least count of microammeter = .........A
Table–1 For base voltage and base current
Base voltage(Vb) Base current Ib (µA)

Sr.No. (V) V=0V V = 10 V V = 20 V V = 30 V
1
2
3
4
5
Table–2 For collector voltage and collector current
Collector voltage Vc Collector current IC (mA)

Sr.No. (V) V=0V V = 10 V V = 20 V V = 30 V
1
2
3
4
5
GRAPHS
I (For Input Characteristics)
Draw a graph of base voltage (Vb) on the x-axis
and base current (Ib) on the y-axis from table
no. 1. The graph will be as shown in figure.
 c
The slope of the graph gives the value of  V and
c
its reciprocal gives the value of input resistance R1.

Vb
R1 =  = .........ohms
b

II For Output Characteristics
Draw the graph between collector voltage Vc and colletor current Ic for 10 mA base current Ib taking Vc
along x-axis and Ic along y-axis from table no.2. The graph will be as shown in figure.
 c
From the graph the slope gives the value of V and its reciprocal gives the output resistance.
c
Vc
R0 =  = ...........ohm
c
III For Calculation of Current Gain

Plot a graph of base current (Ib) on x-axis and collector
current Ic on y-axis. The graph will be as shown in
figure.
 c
The slope of the graph will give the value of  I which
b
is the value of current gain ().
AC = .......................mA
= .......................A
BC = .......................A
= .......................A
AC
 = = ..............
BC
For calculation of voltage gain (Av)
Voltage gain = Current gain × Resistance gain
Ro
Av =  × R
i
RESULT :
For the given common emitter transistor, Current gain  = .........
Votage gain Av = ..........
PERCAUTIONS :
(i) Use voltmeter and milliammeter of suitable range
(ii) The key should be kept open when the circuit is not in use
POSSIBLE SOURCES OF ERROR :

(i) Voltmeter and ammeter may have a zero error
(ii) All the connections may not be tight

EXPERIMENT # 27
AI M
To identify a diode, a L.E.D., a transitor, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of such item
APPARATIUS
A multimeter and a collection of a junction diode, L.E.D., a transister, a resistor, a capacitor and
integrated circuit.
THEORY :
For identification of different items, we have to consider both, their physical appearance and working
1. An IC (integrated circuit) is in the form of a chip (with flat back) and has multiples terminals,
say 8 or more. Therefore, it can easily be identified.
2. A transistor it a three terminal device and can be sorted out just by apperance
3. A resistor, a capacitor, a diode and an LED are two terminal devices. For identifying these we
use the following facts :
(i) A diode is a two terminal device that conducts only when it is forward biased
(ii) An LED is a light emitting diode. It is also a two terminal device which conducts and emits light
only when it is forward biased.
(iii) A Resistor is a two terminal device. It conduct both with d.c. voltage and a.c. voltage. Further,
a resistor conducts equally even when teminals of d.c. battery are reversed.
(iv) A capacitor is a two terminal device which does not conduct with d.c. voltage applies either
way. But, conducts with a.c. Voltage
PROCEDURE :
1. Looks at the given mixture of various components of electrical circuit and pick up the one having
more than three terminals. The number of terminals may be 8, 10, 14 or 16. This component
will have a flat face. This component will be the integrated circuit i.e., IC.
2. Now find out the component having three legs or terminals. It will be a transistor
3. The component having two legs may either be a junction or capacitor or resistor or a light
emitting diode. These items can be distinguished from each other by using a multimeter as an
ohmmeter.
4. Touch the probes to the two ends of each item and observe the deflection on the resistance
scale. After this, interchange the two probes and again observe the deflection
5. (i) If the same constant deflection is observed in the two cases (before and after interchanging
the probes), the item under observation is a resistor.
(ii) If unequal deflections are observed, it is a junction diode.
(iii) If unequal deflections are observed in the two cases along with emission of light in the
case when deflection is large, the item under observation is an LED
(iv) On touching the probes, if a large deflection is observed, which then gradually decrease
to zero the item under observation is a capacitor.
In case the capacity of the capacitor is of the order of picofarad, then the deflection will become
zero within no time.

RESULT :
When the item is observed physically
S.No. Number of legs (or pins) of the item Inference

1 More than three The item is an IC
2 Three The item is a transistor
Junction diode, L.E.D.,
3 Two resistor or capacitor
With multimeter as an ohmmeter :
S.No. Possible deflection before and after Inference

interchanging the probes
1 Same constant deflection The item is a resistor
2 Small deflection in one case and large The item is a junction diode
deflection in the other
3 Small deflection in one case and large deflection The item is an L.E.D
in the other along with emission of light
4 Large deflection, which gradually falls to zero The item is a capacitor
of small capacity
PERCAUTIONS :
Observe all those precautions which were related to multimeter and explained at the end of multimeter.
EXPERIMENT # 28
AI M
Use of multimeter to :
(a) Identify base of transistor.
(b) Distinguish between N-P-N and P-N-P type transistor.
(c) Identify terminals of an IC
(d) See the unidirectional flow of current in case of a diode and LED.
(e) Check whether the given electronic component (e.g., diode, transistor or IC) is in working order.
APPARATUS
A multimeter, P-N-P transistor, N-P-N transistor, an IC, junction diode, L.E.D., etc
THEORY :
Multimeter : It is an electrical instrument which can be used to measure all the three electrical quantities
i.e., electrical resistance, current (a.c. and d.c.) and voltage (direct and alternating). Since it can measure
Ampere (A) (unit of current), Volt (V) (Unit of e.m.f) and Ohm (unit of resistance), that is why also called
as AVO meter. In this single instrument will replace the voltmeter and Ammeter.
CONSTRUCTION
The most commonly used form of multimeter is shown in figure, which is basically a pointer type moving
coil galvanometer. The pointer of the multimeter can move over its dial, which is marked in resistance,
current and voltage scales of different ranges. The zeros of all the scales are on the extreme left, except
that of resistance scale, whose zero is on the extreme right. A dry cell of 1.5 V is provided inside it. When
the multimeter is used as an ohmmeter, the dry cell comes in closed circuit.

1. Circuit jacks : In the multimeter shown in fig. there are two circuit jacks, one each at the extreme corners
of the bottom of the multimeter. The jack at right corner is marked positive ( + ), while the other at left
corner is marked negative ( – ). In certain multimeters, the positive circuit jack is not provided but circuit
jacks are provided in front of all the markings in regions A, B, C and D. When the range switch is turned
in any region, then all the circuit jacks in that region act as the positive circuit jacks.
Two testing leads (generally one black and the other red in colour) are provided with a multimeter. Each
lead carries two probes (One smaller than the other) as its two ends. The smaller probe of red lead is
inserted in jack marked positive, while the smaller probe of black lead is inserted in jack marked negative.
It may be pointed out that the battery cell remains connected to the meter only, when the range switch
is in region A. Further, actually the positive of the battery cell is connected to the negative circuit jack
and the negative of the battery cell is connected to the positive circuit jack.
2. Zero ohm switch : This is provided at the left side of the multimeter. However, in some multimeters, the
zero ohm switch is also provided on its front panel. This switch is set, while measuring a resistance. In
order to set this switch, the smaller probes are inserted in the two jacks and the bigger probes are short
circuited. This switch is worked, till the pointer comes to zero mark, which lies at the right end resistance
scale. The section of multimeter as different types of meters is explained below
(i) Ammeter : The galvanometer gets converted into d.c. ammeter when range switch lies in the region
B of the multimeter panel. When range switch is in region B, it can be used as d.c. ammeter of range
0 to 0.25 mA, 0 to 25 mA and 0 to 500 mA by bringing the knob in front of the desired mark when the
range switch is in the region B, a very small resistance called shunt resistance whose value is different
range, gets connected in parallel to the galvanometer. In this position, the battery cell is cut off from the
meter.
(ii) Voltmeter : Multimeter can be used to measure both direct and alternating voltage
(a) d.c. Voltmeter : The galvanometer gets converted into d.c. voltmeter when the range switch lies in
the region C of the multimeter panel. With different position of range switch in this region, it can be used
as d.c. voltmeter of ranges 0-0.25 V, 0-2.5 V 0-50 V and 0 to 1000 volts. When the ranges switch is
in region C, a high resistance, whose value depends upon the range selected, gets connected in series
to the galvanometer. In this case the battery cell is not in circuit with the meter.
(b) a.c. Voltmeter : The galvanometer gets converted into a.c. voltmeter when the range switch is turned
and it lies in the region D of the multimeter panel. With the different positions of the range switch in this
region, multimeter can be used as a.c. voltmeter of range 0 to 10 V, 50 V, 250 V and 1000 V. A solid
state crystal diode rectifier is incorporated in the circuit so as to use it for a.c. measuement.
(iii) ohm-meter : When the knob in the lower part of the multimeter i.e., the range switch is turned so
as to be in the region A of the multimeter panel, the galvanometer gets converted into a resistance meter.
When range switch is in front of a small black mark against ×K mark, it works as resistance meter
of range 0 to 50 K and when knob is in front of × M mark, it works as a resistance meter of range
0 to 50 × 106 ohm. When the range switch is in region A, a battery cell of 0.5 V and suitable resistor
whose value is different for × K and × M marks, gets connected in series to the galvanometer.
PROCEDURE
(1) Take a multimeter and plug in the smaller probse of the testing leads into jack sockets marked as
positive ( + ) and negative ( – ).
(2) Turn the selector switch in the region A, so that it points towards the small black mark against ×M
or ×K. Adjust the zero ohm switch till the pointer of he multimeter comes to zero mark of the resistance
scale (on exterme right), when the two probes are short ciruited.
(a) To identify the base of transistor :
(3) In most of the cases the central lead of a transistor is base lead but in some cases it may not be
so. In order to identify the base lead, the two probes to the extreme two legs of the transistor. Note the
resistance of transistor between these two legs. Now, interchange the probes touching the two extreme
legs of the transistor again and note the resistance of transistor between these legs.
If in both cases the resistance of transistor is high, then the central leg is base of transistor and the two
exterme legs are emitter and collector, because emitter collector junction offers high resistance in both
direction.
But if the resistance is high in one direction and low in the other direction, then one of the extreme legs
is base of transistor.
(4) To find, which of the extreme legs is base, touch one probe to the other to the central leg. Note the
resistance between these two legs. Now interchange the two probes and again note the resistance.
In case the resistance is low in one direction and high in other direction, then the left leg is base
otherwise the right leg is base of the transistor.
(b) To find whether the given transistor is N-P-N or P-N-P :
(5) First find the base of transistor as explained above
(6) Now touch the probe of black wire to the base and the probe of the red wire to any one of the
remaining two legs and note the resistance from the multimeter.
(7) In case the resistance of the transistor is low, it is an N-P-N transistor, otherwise P-N-P
(c) Flow of current in junction diode :
(8) Touch the two probes of the multimeter with the two legs of the diode and note the value of resistance.
Now interchange the two probes and note the resistance. If in one case resistance is low and in other
case resistance is high, then it shows the unidirection flow of current through a junction diode.
Flow of current in a L.E.D.
(9) Touch the two probes of the multimeter with the two legs of the L.E.D. and note the value of
resistance. Now interchange the two probes and note the resistance. If in one case resistance is low and
in other case resistance is high, also the L.E.D. will glow by emitting light when its resistance is low,
then it shows the unidirectional flow of current through a L.E.D.

(d) Check whether the given diode or transistor is in working order :
(10) Set the multimeter as resistance meter as explained in steps 1 and 2. Now touch the probes with
the two legs of the junction diode and note the value of resistance. Now interchange the probes and again
note the resistance. If in one case resistance is low and in the second case resistance is high, then
the junction diode is in working order. If in both cases the resistance is then the junction diode is spoilt.
FOR A TRANSISTOR
(11) Confirm the base, emitter and collector of the given transistor. Find the resistance of E-B junction
and B-C junction using the multimeter, keeping in mind either the given transistor is P-N-P or N-P-N. again
find the resistance of E-B junction and B-C junction by interchanging the probes. If in both directions the
resistances of both the junctions come to be low, then the given transistor is spoiled if in one direction
resistance is low while in other direction the resistance is high, show that the transistor is in working
order.
PERCAUTIONS :
The following precautions should be observed while using a multimeter.
(1) The electrical quantity to be measured should be confirmed each time before starting the measure-
ment otherwise the multimeter may get damaged if one starts measuring voltage and the selector switch
is in the region of current or resistance etc.
(2) The instrument should not be exposed to high temperature and moisture for long time, otherwise it
will get damaged.
(3) When order of the magnitude of voltage or current is not known, measurement is always started on
the highest range and then adequate lower range is selected in gradual steps.
(4) while handling high voltages, probes should be held from their insulating covers.
(5) Due to high sensitivity of the instruments, it should not be given big shocks/vibrations.
(6) Batteries out of life should be immediately replaced by new ones. Otherwise components inside will
get corroded by leakage of the electrolyte.

XI JEE Physics Theory 02

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

3. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

3.1 TYPES OF SHM

3.2 EQUATION OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM) :

3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF SHM

RESONANCE SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION - 1

v = A cos t +  or, v =  A 2  x2

RESONANCE SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION - 2

RESONANCE SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION - 3

 Equation of SHM can be written as

Consider a particle moving on a circle of radius A with a a x(t) P vx (t)

Suppose the particle is on the top of the circle (Y-axis) at O Q x

5. GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY & ACCELERATION IN SHM

These relations are true for any equation of x.

time, t 0 T/4 T/2 3T/4 T

RESONANCE SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION - 5

3. The acceleration amplitude is 2 times the displacement amplitude (amax = A).

Frequency of KE = 2 × (frequency of SHM)

6.2 Potential Energy (PE)

RESONANCE SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION - 6

(3) If spring has mass ms then

RESONANCE SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION - 7

Solution : When the elevator is stationary, the spring is stretched to support

RESONANCE SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION - 8

(b) Let the amplitude of blocks be A and A .

RESONANCE SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION - 9

x = A cost and x =   A cost

Hence, length of spring at time t can be written as; x=0

Solution : Initial extension in the spring

Since only block of mass m is oscillating

RESONANCE SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION - 10

8.2 Parallel combination :

 F = – (k1 x + k2 x)  F = – (k1 + k2 ) x  F = – keqx

RESONANCE SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION - 11

 If  is change in length & g is change in acceleration due to gravity then,

RESONANCE SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION - 12

(c) Angular speed at displacement 0.02 rad is

 = (5 s–1) (0.04 )2  (0.02)2 rad = 0.17 rad/s.

where speed of the bob at this instant

Net tension in string

Now, suppose the string is further deflected by an angle  as

RESONANCE SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION - 13

then it is called compound pendulum.

RESONANCE SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION - 14

The restoring torque produced is given by C A X C X

mr 2 (0.200 kg)(5.0  10 2 m)2

If  = 0, both SHM’s are in phase and A = A1 + A2

RESONANCE SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION - 15

If equation of resultant SHM is taken as x = A sin (t + )

RESONANCE SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION - 16

Example 23 A particle is subjected to two simple harmonic motions

RESONANCE SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION - 17

RESONANCE SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION - 18

RESONANCE SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION - 19

Dividing equation (1) & (3)

natural length. Find, maximum extension in the string.

Solution : Let x = maximum extension

applying conservation of energy

The velocity at the point of maximum extension is zero. m

RESONANCE SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION - 20

RESONANCE SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION - 21

Hence in equilibrium position the string is perpendicular to incline plane.

Resultant Amplitude | R | = 8 2  6 2 = 10 Ans.