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Theory Notes
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“ Heat Engines ”
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Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
• Zeroth law defines temperature (T)
• does not tell how to measure temperature
• no thermodynamic basis for measurement of T
• does not tell us about ‘higher’ and ‘lower’ comparatively. It tells us only T1  T2
• does not tell about the direction of heat transfer
A B
As shown in the figure for two systems, A and B, the zeroth law tells us whether they are isothermal. TA
= TB or TA  TB.
It tells us there is a heat transfer between A and B. First, however, it needs to tell us about its direction.
Ithe .e., the direction of heat transfer (Q) is not decided by zeroth law. So there is a need for the second law.
The First Law
• Defines energy and heat interaction.
• No place for temperature in it.
• A statement of conservation of energy.
• Nothing directional about it
First Law: interaction between W, Q, U
U = Q − W
Example 1
As shown in the figure, a stirrer stirs the liquid, and the liquid gets heated. Then
W  0 ( work on the system ) 
 Possible
Q  0 (heating being lost to surrounding 
The converse of the above situation, i.e., heat is absorbed from the surroundings and motion of the stirrer is
impossible. i.e.,
Q  0 ( heat being absorbed from surrounding ) 
 impossible
W  0 (system work on stirrer) 
Both are possible from Ist law. But the above two cases are possible from the first law ( there is no violation
of the principle of conservation of energy)
Example 2:
Diathermic Wall
Adiabatic Wall
Common final temperature
(This process is possible)
(Fig.1)
Diathermic Wall
Adiabatic Wall
Final Temperatures
(not possible)
(Fig – 2)
Diathermic Wall
Adiabatic Wall
This reverse process is not possible
Common final temperature
(Fig – 3)
As shown in figure (1), two bodies, A and B, at temperatures 300C and 900C, respectively, are placed together,
and then the combined temperature will be 600C. However, there is no possibility of 400C and 800C for the
two bodies, as shown in figure (2). This is not possible. But possible from 1st law of thermodynamics.
After reaching the combined(expected) temperature of 600C, again, regaining their temperatures is
impossible. Nevertheless, from 1st law, it is possible. ( there is no violation of the principle of conservation
of energy)
Example 3:
• Ist law tells about the conservation of energy principle to open and closed systems.
• However, it needs to tell whether the process takes place or not.
Adiabatic
chamber
Figure 3
When hot coffee is placed in an insulated room (adiabatic chamber)
Ecoffee  0 (decreases)
The energy gained by room
E room  0 (increases)
E coffee = −E room
From 1st law, it generally occurs, but the room cannot supply heat to coffee to heat up. So it will never
happen even if there is no violation of the Ist law.
Example 4
Using the electrical circuit comprising of a battery and a resistor, the ideal gas inside the adiabatic chamber
gets heated (as shown in the figure). Nevertheless, converse only happens if there is a violation of the first
law.
Adiabatic chamber
Ideal gas
Example 5
As shown in the figure, when the mass goes down, the fan rotates, and the internal energy of the fluid
increases due to the fan's rotation. However, converse never happens even though there is no violation of
1st law.
• There needs to be more than just law to define or predict whether the process can occur. It (1st law)
is one of the tests that any process that does take place has to satisfy. However, just because a
process or hypothetical process satisfies the Ist law does not mean that it will occur, and we know
that through these explicit examples. To bridge the gap, we have another general principle called the
second law of thermodynamics.
These are known as the adiabatic transformation of kinetic energy (mechanical energy) into
intermolecular energy. This is known as the dissipation of energy, and these processes are unidirectional.
Second Law of Thermodynamics
→ The second law of thermodynamics is inequality.
→ It provides a thermodynamic basis for temperature.
→ The Ideal gas scale of temperature (or) Celsius scale of temperature depends on the system of mercury in
glass thermometers up to some extent; it depends on the properties of mercury (up to a small extent).
Kelvin's scale of temperature is independent of the properties of the substance.
→ It tells us whether the process is possible or not possible.
→ For example, several processes are not unidirectional.
Ex: A Body can be heated from a lower temperature T1 to a higher temperature T2.
However, the body can also be cooled from a higher temperature T2 to a lower temperature T1. In this case,
the process can be reversed.
However, these processes (natural), when they occur in both directions (go in one direction and come back
in another direction), make permanent changes in the surrounding. Therefore, they follow a particular
principle because of the change in the surroundings, and that principle or law is the second law of
thermodynamics, expressed in various forms. This directional constraint is imposed because of the
occurrence of the process in both directions as a permanent change in the surrounding expressed in different
forms.
→ Unlike 1st law, this law does not have a unique statement.
Caratheodory’s statement
* (State-space )
(Quasi-static, adiabatic)
(non-accessibility of states.)
Caratheodory says that in the neighbourhood of any state, there are states which are not accessible or it
cannot reach those states by executing quasi–static adiabatic process.
Not accessible
Key concepts relating to the second law of thermodynamics
Thermal Reservoir: It is considered a body with very high heat capacity so that if it supplies heat or receives
heat, its temperature does not change. If it supplies heat, the reservoir is known as a source. If it receives
heat, the reservoir is known as a sink.
Thermal Reservoir
Source Sink
Example 1:
large ocean, fast-moving rivers, ponds, and lakes.
Example 2:
The mixture of water and steam is taken at a temperature of 1000C and a pressure of 1 atm.
If a small amount of heat is extracted from/added to the reservoir, the temperature of the reservoir cannot be
changed.
Water (small amount heat extract)
1 atm
+
(small amount heat added)

Steam
If m or C →  and T → 0
Q = mCT = finite (heat transfer)
Note: - We can change the pressure and temperature at which the reservoir is maintained.
Example 3:
If fuel is burnt in the chamber by supplying enough oxygen/air to maintain a constant temperature, the heat
can be taken or given through the exhaust.
(burnt fuel to maintain
constant temperature)
exhaust
By supplying enough
amount of oxygen or air
Note:- Here, we can change the amount of fuel and air and maintain the temperature at which the furnace is
maintained, i.e. the thermal reservoir is characterised by its temperature. (i.e. we talk C about the reservoir
at temperature T.
Heat Engine: -
Thermal Reservoir
Heat engine
It is a cyclic device which will produce a proper positive amount of work (efficiency to define Carnot
theorem & to do many other things)
It is a device where the working system operates on a thermodynamical cycle (a thermodynamical
cycle consists of several processes executed by the system such that the system comes back to its initial state
after the final process where the initial and final state are the same)
The requirements for the heat engine
→ 1. There should be no change of state inside the heat engine. ( U = 0 )
→ 2. The net work done Qnet >0 (some part of the cycle may absorb the work and some part of the cycle do
the work, but the net work done should be positive.
→ 3. U = 0, Wnet  0  Qnet (absorb)  0 (1st law satisfies)
HEAT ENGINE (HE) INTERACTING WITH THE NUMBER OF RESERVOIRS
1T HE 2T HE no, HE
(1T, 2T → represent the no. of heat reservoirs that an engine may interact with)
(HE: Reversible Heat engine (continuously))
Not
Possible
E
W>0
(1T heat engine interacts thermally only with a single thermal energy reservoir)
Immediately, it can be noticed that KP – the statement says that it is not possible to have a 1T heat engine
because it violates the kelvin plank statement of the IInd law
Conclusion: - 1T HE – Not possible
2THE:
T1  T2 (do not assume which one is higher or which one is lower)
(If T1 = T2 and reservoir is again single, it will not be possible)
Case 1
W>0
Since Wnet  0 Qnet (abs)  0 (from T1 & T2 )
It is possible that if at least one of them must supply heat to this engine, the other one can supply (or) reject
some heat to T2
Let us assume that the heat absorbed Q1 is ( QabS ) = +ve
Let us assume that the heat absorbed Q2 is ( QabS ) = +ve
We have to check whether it is possible or not.
• If it is not possible, it has to be shown that it violates IInd the law
• Naturally, if it is equivalent to a 1T heat engine, it violates the K.P. statement of IInd law.
Here T1  T2 , they are not isothermal reservoirs, and hence if they are allowed to interact with each other
(not through the engine, directly only), there will be heat transfer either from t1 → t 2 or from t 2 →t1
• Let us assume the interaction takes place as shown in fig below.
>0
H.E W>0
H.E W>0 H.E
W>0
T2 (reservoir) → absorbs Q2 & rejects Q2 , i.e. reservoir does nothing.
This whole thing is an extended engine and works only by absorbing energy from this reservoir T1 , i.e.
it is equivalent to 1T HE violates Kelvin Planck's statement of IInd law. i.e. our assumption that a 2T
HE can work by absorbing heat from another reservoir at different temperatures is not possible.
Case 2
2T-HE
W>0
No violation of II laws
If Q3 = Q2 , then it will be troubling.
H.E absorbs ( Q1 − Q2 ) and produces W.
It is Equivalent to 1T H.E.
It violates the II law.
Case 3:
W>0
It is possible It is not possible
It gives the idea of lower & Higher temperatures.
Special Case 1
Three distinct temperatures T1  T2  T3  T1 (Mathematically not equal)
Let
and not violets IInd law
If we assume the fourth situation in (fig. 4) is accurate, combine 1+2+3 situations as shown in (fig-1,2,3)
→ 1T heat engine is obtained, which violates the 2nd law
Special Case 2
T1 T2 T3 T4
Q2
Q1
W W W
W0
If the engine works between T1 and T2, it absorbs heat from T1 and rejects heat to T2.
If the engine works between T2 and T4 absorbs heat from T2 and rejects heat to T4.
*But the converse cannot be accurate.
Special Case 3
The ability of an engine to absorb heat from a reservoir, reject it to some other reservoir and produce work
to get the possibility of the above situation.
Heat transfer can also occur if engines are removed, as shown in the figure below.
i.e., 1 → 2, 2 → 3, 3 → 4 ( or ) 1 → 3, 2 → 4, 1 → 4
Hierarchy of temperature
T1  T2  T3  T4
Thermodynamic definition of higher / lower Temperatures :
T1  T2
If
Which also means
Other directions for Q not possible ( it voilates 2nd law )
The efficiency of a heat engine: -
W>0
When one looks into the working of a heat engine. Sum up all work interactions Wnet  0 .
If one looks at heat interactions Wnet  0 (If Wnet  0 it is not the engine)
(In some actions, heat is absorbed)
(In some actions, heat is rejected)
I law:
Wnet = Q abs − Q rej
 Wnet < Qabs
Hence, the total energy Qabs (received from the source) cannot be converted into work continuously in a
cyclic operation by the heat engine. In this context, thermal efficiency can be defined as
Wnet Q
(def ) = = 1 − rej
Qabs Qabs
def Ist law
From the second law of thermodynamics
W < Q1  Q2 > 0 (always)
Hence   1 (always), i.e., the heat engine can never reach 100% efficiency.
Even if the heat engine is ideal and consists of all ideal processes, i.e. reversible processes in the absence of
all dissipative effects like friction and hysteresis and everything, this engine cannot achieve 100% efficiency
(by the imposition of the second law).
Kelvin's statement (Kelvin Planck's statement)
It is not possible for any device that operates on a cycle to exchange heat from a single reservoir and produce
some amount of work.
The efficiency   1 (always)
Heat
Executes Engine
only
Cyclic
processes
We know 1st law
u = Q − W
u = 0
Q1 = Wnet
W
= =1 ⎯
⎯⎯⎯
→ (1)
Q1
From 1T H.E,  = 1
This is not possible
H.E
Wnet Q H − Q L Q
= = = 1− L
QH QH QH
U = 0 = QH − QL − Wnet
(for reversible heat engine U = 0 )
QH − QL = Wnet
From II law  QL  0    1
from 2T Reservoir   1
 1
From II law, it is possible.
(Extract heat from a single system and producing work is not possible)
• This is the basic idea of kelvin – Planck's statement
• Definition of higher & lower Temperature.
• The thermodynamic scale of temperature
• Maximum efficiency of the engine
• The maximum coefficient of performance of a refrigerator or a heat pump
• The idea of entropy
Everything will follow from this single Kelvin Planck statement of the second law.
Before we know about all the concepts mentioned above, we must know some definitions.
CLAUSIUS STATEMENT:
High Temperature
Heat Pump
or
Refrigerator
Low Temperature
It is impossible to make a device (Instrument) that operates in a cycle and does not produce any effect other
than transferring heat from a lower-temperature body to a higher-temperature body.
The above two statements are equivalent, i.e., if one statement is invalid, the second statement is also invalid
or vice versa.
Equivalence of Kelvin Planck's statement and Clausius's statement:
Statement 1:
If the Kelvin Planck statement is invalid, then Clausius's statement is also invalid
Proof :
Let us consider that the heat engine receives heat QH from the source at temperature T1 and develops net
work done Wnet , i.e., by violating the Kelvin – Planck statement heat engine converts total heat into work
(there is no other. It has only a single reservoir). We consider a heat pump or a refrigerator that takes heat
Q L from a low-temperature body T2 < T1. A heat engine runs the heat pump by taking network Wnet t. The
heat pump rejects heat QH ' into a hot body of temperature T1.
Let us consider Kelvin's statement invalid.
Heat
Engine
Hence, statement 1 is proven.
Heat Pump
Heat H.E
Engine
R or
But,
Refrigerator
Take a device as ( H.E + R ) , then.
i.e., Clausius's statement is invalid.
i.e., Kelvin Planck's statement is invalid, then Clausius's statement is also invalid.
Statement 2:
If Clausius's statement is invalid, then kelvin Planck's statement is also invalid.
Equivalence of Kelvin Planck's statement and Clausius's statement
K.P
H.E
=0
>0
K.P
=0
H.E
>0
net Q'H = Q1 − QH
net W ' = Wnet = Q1 − QH
net Q 'L = 0
Overall it takes heat from the source and does work without rejecting heat
Violation of Clausius's statement automatically leads to violation of Kelvin Planck's statement.
Heat pump/Refrigerator(reverse of heat engine)
High Temperature
Heat Pump
or
Refrigerator
Low Temperature
It takes heat from a low-temperature body and pumps heat into a high-temperature body. However, it is not
possible, according to Clausius’s statement.
However, by taking work W from outside, it can take heat not spontaneously from low-temperature T2 (< T1)
without any effect on the surroundings.
From the conservation of energy
Q1 = Q 2 + W
 coefficient of performance (COP)
It is called a heat pump when the desired objective is to pump heat to a higher temperature. When the desired
objective is to pump heat from a lower temperature, it is called a refrigerator.
The refrigerator and heat pump is the same device and can be seen in our houses. A person standing beside
the Refrigerator will be hot, exchanging heat with the surroundings. If a person thinks he gets heat from the
Refrigerator outside, that is the heat pump. Whereas the heat is being taken from inside of the Refrigerator
(like evaporator box, deep fridge, cold places)
If the desired objective is to take from low temperature, it is called a refrigerator.
 The coefficient of performance of the Heat Pump is COPH.P =

Q1
=
Q1
W Q1 - Q 2
 (Coefficient of performance of Refrigerator is COPR =

Q2
=
Q2
W Q1 - Q 2
SECOND LAW EFFICIENCY
The second law of efficiency is the ratio of actual efficiency to reversible efficiency.
actual
second law =
reversible
9.5
actual = = 9.5%
100
TL
reversible = 1 −
TH
TL
reversible = 1 −
TH
9.5
IInd Law = = 95%
10
( COP )actual
Second Law =
( COP )rev
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A STEAM POWER PLANT
Combustion of fuel (coal) takes place
Boiler
Pump Turbine
Condenser
Combustion takes the place of fuel (coal), and high-temperature gas after combustion heats the water in the
boiler. Here water is the working substance. This water is converted into steam and then expands into the
turbine to give work. Then after expansion, the low-temperature and low-pressure steam are passed through
a condenser, which rejects heat to the atmosphere. Usually, the atmospheric water is the water from the
atmosphere that is taken as cooling water which takes the heat from the steam to the condenser; then it is
given to the pump where it works. Pressure is boosted to that of the boiler pressure. This is a thermodynamic
cycle, and the energy source (furnace) where the combustion occurs, and hot gas gives the heat, i.e., the
working system water takes heat, so this is our reservoir. The condenser where the steam after the expansion
is condensed is the sink (the low temperature), i.e. cooling water from the atmosphere. So this is a heat engine
with two reservoirs one is the boiler's furnace, and the second is cooling water from the ambient or
atmosphere in the condenser.
As a result, we get a network output.
Wnet =(Woutput ) turbine -(Winput ) to pump
(Woutput ) turbine >>(Winput ) to pump
Irreversible Process:
Some processes are only unidirectional.
Definition: Reversible processes is that after the conclusion of a process, if it is reversed back, we can restore
both the system and the surroundings to their initial state. Those processes are said to be irreversible if these
conditions are not satisfied.
Reversible Processes never happen.
Heating
Diathermic
Q Q
wall
Cooling
Q Q
Causes of irreversibility:
Lack of thermodynamical equilibrium, i.e.,
1) Lack of mechanical equilibrium p  0
2) Lack of temperature difference T  0
3) Concentration difference due to chemical potential responsible for chemical reaction c  0
4) mass transfer μ  0
If p = 0 , T = 0 , c = 0 , μ = 0 , then the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium, then the system does not
interact with its surroundings.
 For the irreversible process, the above terms must be zero. Therefore, the above terms are causes for an
irreversible process as the terms depart from their zero values.
Dissipative effects
1) Mechanical friction
2) Fluid viscosity
3) Inelasticity
4) Magnetic hysteresis (magnetic watt transfer)
5) Electrical resistance (electric watt transfer)
The essential purpose is to convert the mechanical, electrical, or chemical work; whichever work is
constituted by any natural process lies in its essential requirements for the process to occur. Moreover, pure
reversible can never occur.
However, some processes are close to the reversible process.
Reversible Process
If p → 0, T → 0, c → 0,  → 0 dissipative effects → are 0, the process is prolonged and passes through
equilibrium states; this process is called a quasi-reversible or quasistatic process.
T → Heat transfer under an infinitesimal temperature difference
P → Watt transfer under an infinitesimal pressure difference
 → Mass transfer under an infinitesimal concentration difference
c → Chemical reaction transfer under an infinitesimal chemical potential difference
If the slight infinitesimal departure from thermodynamical equilibrium and the process is prolonged, every
state of the process is in thermodynamical equilibrium.
It should pass through each infinitesimal state difference and at rest for some time.
The process should pass through all thermodynamical equilibrium states, and it is prolonged and takes place
under infinite minor differences. p → 0, T → 0, c → 0,  → 0
The reversible process can be explained by heat transfer.
or
Heating Heating Heating Heating
Infinite Reservoirs
Cooling Cooling Cooling Cooling
Infinite Reservoirs
Representation for Reversible Process
Representation for Reversible cycle
Representation for Reversible Engine
R R
Carnot theorem:
It is the most important corollary of the second law of thermodynamics.
Statement 1: It is said that The efficiency of a reversible heat engine with the same reservoirs is always more
significant than the efficiency of an irreversible
  R
 → heat engine
The efficiency of irreversible heat engine
R → The efficiency of reversible heat engine
Statement 2: The efficiencies of all reversible heat engine operating between the same two reservoirs is the
same.
Proof of Statement – 1:
A reversible heat engine means the working system of the heat engine operates in a thermodynamic cycle.
The thermodynamical cycles are composed of several processes such that the initial state is equal to the final
state, i.e. all processes are reversible processes that constitute a reversible cycle known as a reversible heat
engine, and any process of a thermodynamic cycle is an irreversible heat engine.
(Fig-1)
Let us consider 2T H.E working between temperatures T1 , T2
Assume that let   R (working b/w same temperatures)
 w  w'
   Q1 = w + Q2 
  = w & Q = Q = same  Q 2  Q12  
   
 Q
1
  Q1 = w '+ Q2 '
If R is reversed, then.
(Fig – 2) (Fig – 3 )
As shown in (Fig-3), Consider an engine made up of essential I.E + R −1 and thermal reservoirs, but it is noticed
that the thermal reservoir. However, it is noticed that the thermal reservoir will not undergo any state change.
( It rejects Q1 I.E. It absorbs Q1 from R −1 Now the engine looks like, as shown in (Fig-4), there is no
interaction with a reservoir T1 . We can notice that.
Q'2  Q2 ( W'  W )
It is a 1T – HE
It is a violation of II law. It is not possible.
(Fig – 4)
Hence our assumption is absurd
Hence   R
Corollaries of Carnot theorem: -
(Proof of statement – 2):-
To compare these efficiencies of engines R A , R B with each other, we use Carnot theorem twice
R A → any engine (neglecting the fact that R A it is reversible)
R B → Reversible engine
RA  RB … (1)
Now let
R A → Reversible engine
R B → Any engine
RA  RB … (2)
(1) & (2)
RA = RB (working between same temperatures T1 , T2 )
→R of any reversible 2T HE depends only on an T1 and T2
→ It is independent of other engine details, e.g. fluids used, the material used, design and implementation
details.
Since T1, T2 are fixed  R is fixed
** hence R is the function of T1, T2 .
 R ( T1, T2 )
 It gives us the thermodynamical scale of temperature.
The thermodynamic scale of temperature: -
W Q
R ( T1 , T2 ) = = 1− 2
Q1 Q1
Q  1
 1 = = f ( T1, T2 )

Q  
 2  rev 2T HE 1 −  R ( T1 , T2 )
To know which f is which kind of function, we follow the procedure given below:
Q1
= f ( T1 , T2 ) for ( R a ) → (1)
Q2
Q2
= f ( T2 , T3 ) for ( R b ) → ( 2 )
Q3
Q1
= f ( T1 , T3 ) for ( R c ) → ( 3)
Q3
 From (1) , ( 2 ) & ( 3) this, it can be obtained as
f ( T1, T2 ) .f ( T2 , T3 ) = f ( T1, T3 )
f → To satisfy the above relation, the function must be a ratio.
The most straightforward function which satisfies this relationship is the ratio.
A simple scheme to satisfy this requirement:-
T1
Let f ( T1, T2 ) =
T2
→ we can use this as the basis for the thermodynamic scale of temperature.
To get the Kelvin temperature scale, consider a reference system and its state.
Assign a value to Tref . Then we define a thermometer and using the thermometer; we will define a
procedure for assigning Tref .
Reference system
of state R
System
We run a reversible engine between the reference system and the system for which Ts it is to be measured.
It is possible that system. Ts  Tref ( or ) Ts  Tref
In either case, the result will be the same.
T Q
Now =
Tref Q ref
Reference system and reference state Tref : to be defined (or) assigned
Then thermometer: 2TR HE
Measurement: Q and Qref
We will use this equation to obtain TS
In this way, we get the thermodynamic scale of temperature.
Now the thermodynamic scale of temperature (def)
Ref system:- water (ordinary water substance)
Ref state:- triple point
Tref : 273.16 K
(Kelvin in thermodynamic scale)
273.16
0 1
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Carnot Engine
A B Insulated
Hot body B
We can conceive the physically reversible engine that Carnot first gave.
As shown in figure (1), consider a cylinder + piston system. The system is at T1. A hot body of temperature
T1 + dT. Due to the infinitesimal difference in temperature, heat is transferred slowly into the system from a
hot body. Moreover, the process is isothermal. ( temperature of the system is fixed at T1), and the piston is
pushed outside. As shown in Figures (2) and (3), allow the piston to go to position C. This expansion is
prolonged, and its temperature is T2. From figures (3) and (4), when insulation is removed and makes contact
with a cold reservoir of temperature T2 – dT. So heat is transferred from T2 to T2 – dT, i.e. heat transfer occurs
at limiting (quasi) reversible condition.
To make T2 constant, just like the heating process, we make a displacement of the system as shown in figure
(4), i.e. while it rejects heat, the piston pushes back. We make the system cold, and the piston raises the
temperature. So that balance is there. Because T2 – dT is fixed.
If T2 is going low, the temperature difference will be higher. So, we want the temperature difference to be
the same. i.e. it is an isothermal heat rejection. (figure (4)). (figure (1) is isothermal heat addition)
If the system is completely insulated, as shown in figure (5), the substance (gas) is compressed slowly to its
initial position at temperature T1. This way, we conceive the Carnot cycle or Carnot engine.
If we draw this in the PV diagram
Reversible isothermal expansion
Reversible
adiabatic
compression Reversible Adiabatic expansion
Slow expansion process
at very low P & T
Isothermal heat rejection
WBC – WDA = Q1 – Q2
Q2
 = 1− (for reversible heat engine)
Q1
Q2 T
 = 1− = 1 − 2 (for any reversible heat engine between T1 and T2 )
Q1 T1
Q 2 T2
= for the thermodynamical scale of temperature
Q1 T1

PROBLEMS
1. An ideal gas undergoes a cyclic process consisting of alternate isothermal and adiabatic processes.
The isothermal processes occur at temperature T1 s T2 and T3 . Calculate the efficiency of the cycle if,
in each isothermal expansion, the gas volume increases in the same proportion.
P
1
6 3 4
5
V
Sol: Process 1 → 2, 3 → 4 5 → 6 and are the isothermal processes.
Since the volume of gas in the expansion process increases in the same proportion, therefore,
V2 V4
(1) = =K
V1 V3
V2
(2) Q g = nRT1 ln
1
V1
V4
(3) Qg = nRT2 ln
2
V3
V5
(4) Q r = nRT3 ln
V6
Qg1 + Qg2 − Qr  Q given − Q rejected 


= = 
Qg1 + Qg2  Q 
 given 
(5) T1V2−1 = T3V3−1 ,
T2 V4−1 = T3V5−1 ,
T3V6−1 = T1V1−1
 V2 V4 V6 = V3V5 V1
V2 V4 V5
 . =
V3 V1 V6
V5
= k2
V6
T1 ln k + T2 ln k − T3 ln k 2
=
T1 ln k + T2 ln k
T1 + T2 − 2T3
=
T1 + T2

2. Calculate the efficiency of a cycle consisting of two isochores and two adiabats. The volume of the
ideal gas changes by k times within the cycle.
Sol: Process 1 → 2 is an isochoric heating process and 3 → 4 isochoric cooling Process.
Qg = nCv ( T2 − T1 )
Qr = nCv ( T3 − T4 )
Qg − Qr
=
Qg
nC v  ( T2 − T1 ) − ( T3 − T4 ) T3 − T4
=  = 1−
nC v ( T2 − T1 ) T2 − T1
(Equation for the adiabatic process)
T2 V0−1 = T3 ( kV0 ) and T1V0−1 = T4 ( kV0 )

−1 −1
T3 − T4 1
( T2 − T1 ) V0−1 = ( T3 − T4 )( kV0 ) =>
−1
 = −1
T2 − T1 k
1
  = 1−
k −1

3. A gas is made to undergo a cycle of two isobars and two adiabats. Calculate the efficiency if the
pressure changes k times within the cycle and  is given.
Sol: Qg = nCp ( T2 − T1 )
Qr = nCp ( T3 − T4 )
=
Qg − Qr
=
( T2 − T1 ) − ( T3 − T4 )
Qg ( T2 − T1 )
T3 − T4
 = 1−
T2 − T1
( kP0 ) ( kP0 )
1− 1−
T2 = P01− T3 and T1 = P01− T4
( kP0 )(
1− ) / 
T2 = P0(1− ) /  T3 … (1)
( kP0 )(
1− ) / 
and T1 = P0(1− ) /  T4 … (2)
By equation (1) – (2),
(1− )
k 
( T2 − T1 ) = T3 − T4
3 − T4 1
 = (1− ) / 
T2 − T1 k
1
 = 1− (1− ) / 
k

4. An ideal gas undergoes a cycle of two isochores and two isobars. The gas's absolute temperature rises
k times in isochoric heating and isobaric expansion. I  t is given and then calculated the efficiency of
the cycle.
Sol: Qg = nCv ( kT − T )
1
Qg2 = nCp ( k 2 T − T )
Q r1 = nCv ( k 2 T − nT ) ; Qr2 = nCP ( kT − T )
Qg1 + Qg2 − Qr1 − Qr2

=
Qg1 + Qg2
P1V1 = nRT … (1)
P2 V2 = nR ( kT ) … (2)
P2 V2 = nR ( k 2T ) … (3)
P1V2 = nRT3 … (4)
V2 V2
By equation (3) / (2) =k ; V1 =
V1 k
P1V2
Put in (1) = nRT P1V2 = nR ( kT ) … (5)
k
From equations (4) and (5), T3 = kT

Cv ( kT − T ) − Cp ( k 2T − T ) − C v ( k 2T − nT ) − C p ( kT − T )
=
Cv ( kT − T ) + Cp ( k 2T − T )

5. An ideal gas undergoes a process consisting of an isochore, an adiabat and an isotherm. The
isothermal process is carried out at a minimum temperature. Calculate the efficiency if the absolute
temperature varies k times within the cycle.
Sol: The process 2 →3 is an adiabatic expansion, and the process 3 →1 is an isothermal compression.
From the state 2 → 3 , the internal energy continuously decreases (since the temperature continuously
decreases).
V3
Point 2 is at the highest temperature Qg = nCv ( kT − T ) ; Q r = nRT ln
V1
V3 1
Process 2 → 3 ( kT ) V1−1 = TV3−1  = ( k ) ( −1)
V1
Qr
 = 1−
Qg

6. An ideal gas undergoes a process consisting of an isobar, an adiabat and an isotherm. The isothermal
process has the minimum temperature. Absolute temperature changes by k times within the cycle.
Find out the efficiency.
Sol:
V3
Qg = nCP ( kT − T ) Q r = nRT ln
V1
V1 V2
Process 1 → 2 is isobaric, = Process 2 → 3 is adiabatic,
T kT
V3 1
kTV2−1 = TV3−1 => = ( k ) −1
V2
V3 1
V2 ( k ) −1 V3 1
= => = k ( k ) −1
V1 1 V1
V2 k
V3
nRT ln
Q V1
 = 1− r = 1−
Qg nC p T ( K − 1)
R ln V3 / V1 ln K
 = 1− = 1−
R
( K − 1) ( K − 1)
 −1

7. An ideal gas undergoes a clockwise cycle consisting of adiabat, isobar and isochore. The volume of
the gas increases by k times in the adiabatic process. Calculate the efficiency.
Sol: Qg = nCv ( T2 − T1 )
Qr = nCp ( T3 − T1 )
T1 T
For Process 3 →1 = 3 ;
V0 kV0
T2 V0−1 = T3 ( kV0 )
−1
For Process 2 →3
T3 = kT1 ; T2 = T3k −1
Qr C (T − T )
 = 1− = 1− P 3 1
Qz C v ( T2 − T1 )
T3 − T1 T −T
= k − 1 and 2 1 = k  − 1
T1 T1
  = 1− 
( k − 1)
(k 
− 1)

8. A cycle comprises two isobars and two isotherms. The volume changes by k times, and the
temperature changes by p times within the cycle. Calculate the efficiency.
Sol: Qg1 = nCv ( pT − T )
Qg2 = nR pT ln k
Qr1 = nCv ( pT − T )
Q r2 = nRT ln k
Qr1 + Qr2
 = 1−
Qg1 + Qg2

9. 1 mole of a monoatomic gas is taken through a cyclic process, as shown in the P-V diagram. During
Process ABC, heat is absorbed by the system till point B, and after point B, heat is rejected by the
100 m
system. The efficiency of the cycle (in percentage) is . Find m.
37
Sol: Percentage efficiency
Wcycle
==  100
Heat sup plied
9
P0 V0
= 2  100
nC v ( TA − TD ) + nC v ( TB − TA ) + WAB
9
P0 V0
= 2  100
3
R ( TB − TD ) + area under AB
2
9
P0 V0
= 2  100
3  25 

P0 V0 − P0 V0  + 6P0 V0
2  4 
12
=  100 = 12
37

10. Figure shown is a cycle undergone by an ideal gas, known as the Otto cycle. Its efficiency is
− b
v 
 = a − 1  v1 / v 2 . It is called the compression ratio. Find a + b ?
 v2 
3 Adiabatic
2
1
(A) 1 (B) 2 (B) 3 (D) 4

Ans: B
Sol: The heat exchanges take place at constant volume.
QH = nCv ( T3 − T2 )
QL = nCv ( T4 − T1 )
The heat engine efficiency is given by

QL
 = 1−
QH
T −T 
= 1−  4 1 
 T3 − T2 
Process 1 →2 is adiabatic
T2  v1 
−1
= 
T1  v 2 
T3  v 4   v  −1
−1
=   =  1 
T4  v3   v2 
As v4 = v1 an v3 = v2 [isochores], therefore,

T2 T3
=
T1 T4
T3 T4
=
T2 T1
T3 T
−1 = 4 −1
T2 T1
T4 − T1 T1  v 2 
−1
= = 
T3 − T2 T2  v1 
 v  −1
Hence  = 1 −  2 
 v1 
11. The p-V diagram shows a Diesel cycle. It consists of two adiabats, one isobar and one isochore. The
V1 V
efficiency of this cycle, in terms of compression ratio rk = , expansion ratio re = 4 , and cut-off
V2 V3
V3
ratio rc = , is
V2
2 3
1 1  c − 1 1 1  c − 1 1 1  c + 1 1 1  c + 1
(A) 1 − (B) 1 + (C) 1 + (D) 1 −
  k−1  c − 1   k−1  c − 1   k−1  c + 1   k−1  c + 1
Ans: A
Sol: Heat is supplied at constant pressure
QH = nCp ( T3 − T2 )
Heat is rejected at constant volume.
QL = nCv ( T4 − T1 )
The efficiency of the cycle,
QL
 = 1−
QH

C v ( T4 − T1 )
= 1−
Cp ( T3 − T2 )
= 1−
( T4 − T1 )
 ( T3 − T2 )
T4  V3 
−1
1
=   = −1
T3  V4  re
We can see that
rk = re .rc
rC−1
Thus, T4 = T3 −1
rk
Process 2 → 3 is isobaric
T2 V2 1
= =
T3 V3 rc
1
T2 = T3 .
rC
T1  V2 
−1
= 
T2  V1 
1
= −1
rk
Substituting the values of T1 ,T2 and T4 in the expression for efficiency, we obtain
 rc−1 T3 1 
T3 . r −1 − r r −1 
 = 1−  k c k 
 1
 T3 − T3 . 
 rc 
1 1 rc − 1
 = 1 − −1
 rk rc − 1

12. An ideal monoatomic gas is taken through linear expansion from a state ( Po , Vo ,To ) to a state
( P1, V1,T1 ) , followed by adiabatic compression back to the initial state. Given that
Po = 32, Vo = 8, P1 = 1and V1 = 64 in SI units. The thermal efficiency of the cycle is
(A) 28% (B) 52% (C) 37% (D) 58%

Ans: B
Sol: P-V equation for the Process AB can be written as

P = aV + b
31 255
Where a = − and b =
56 7
The area under the P-V curve
1
WAB = ( Po + P1 )( V1 − V0 ) = 924J
2
is defined as the work done by the gas and is given by
Therefore in adiabatic compression, The work done by the gas is given by

PB VB − PA VA P1V1 − P0 V0
WBA = =
 −1  −1
64 − 32  8
= = −288 J
5
−1
3
Thus, the net work done by the gas during this cycle is 924-288 =636 J. From the first law, net  Q
for the whole process is also 636 J (as U = 0 ). Along the linear path AB, heat both enters and

leaves the system. A transition point ( Pm , Vm ,Tm ) represents the point on this path at which the heat
flow reverses direction changing from the heat in to heat out.
So, first, we will find an equation Q as a function of V, the heat input as a function of V, and then
find the particular volume Vm at which Q is a maximum. Using the first law of thermodynamics.
Q(V) = W + U ….. (i)
The P-V equation along the path AB is,
P = aV + b
or PV = aV 2 + bV
 Q(V) = W + U
1
= ( Po + P )( V − V0 ) + nCV T
2
1 3nR
= ( Po + P )( V − Vo ) + ( T − T0 )
2 2
1 3
= ( Po + aV + b )( V − V0 ) + ( PV − Po Vo )
2 2
1 3
Q(V) = ( Po + aV + b )( V − V0 ) + ( aV 2 + bV − Po Vo ) …. (ii)
2 2
dQ(V)
Putting =0
dV
aV0 1 3
or aV − + ( Po + b ) + ( 2aV + b ) = 0
2 2 2
aVo 1 3b
or 4aV = − ( Po + b ) −
2 2 2
Vo 1 3b
V = − ( Po + b ) −
8 8a 8a
Substituting the values we have
8 56  255  3  255 56
Vm = +  32 +  + 
8 8  31  7  7 8  31
or Vm = 41.13 (SI units)
From Eq. (ii)

1 31 255  3  31   255  
 ( 41.13 − 8 ) +  −  ( 41.13) +   ( 41.13 − 32  8 ) 
2
Q+ ve =  32 −  41.13 +
2 56 7  2  56   7  
 1215 J
 The efficiency of the cycle is,

W 
 =  Total   100
 Q+ ve 
636
=  100
1215
= 52 %
13. 2 moles of an ideal monoatomic gas undergo a cyclic process ABCDA, as shown in the figure. The
Process BCD is a semicircle. The thermal efficiency of the cycle is
(A) 12.8% (B) 25.8% (C) 37.8% (D) 50.8%

Ans: B
Sol: Process AB is isochoric (V = constant). Hence WAB = 0

 V 
WBCD = P0 V0 + ( P0 )  0 
2  2
 
=  + 1 P0 V0
4 
1 P 
WDA = −  0 + P0  ( 2V0 − V0 )
2 2 
3
= − P0 V0
4

3   3 
U AB = nCV T = (2)  R  ( TB − TA )  n = 2, C V = R 
2   2 
PV PV 
= 3R  0 0 − 0 0 
 2R 4R 
3  PV 
= P0 V0 = Q AB T = 
4  nR 
3 
U BCD = nCV T = ( 2 )  R  ( TD − TB )
2 
 2P V P V  3
= ( 3R )  0 0 − 0 0  = P0 V0
 2R 2R  2
  5
Hence Q BCD = U BCD + WBCD =  +  P0 V0
 4 2
UDA = nCV T
3 
= ( 2 )  R  ( TA − TD )
2 
 P V 2P V  9
= ( 3R )  0 0 − 0 0  = − P0 V0 QDA = UDA + WDA
 4R 2R  4
9 3
= − P0 V0 − P0 V0
4 4
= −3P0 V0
 3
Net work done is Wnet =  + 1 −  P0 V0
4 4
= 1.04 P0 V0
And heat absorbed is Qab = Q+ ve
 3  5
=  + +  P0 V0 = 4.03P0 V0
 4 4 2
Wnet
Hence the efficiency of the cycle is  =  100
Qab
1.4P0 V0
=  100 = 25.8%
4.03P0 V0

14. A reversible engine takes heat from a source a 627 o C nd gives heat to the sink at temperature 177o C .
For example, if the engine's power is 850 watts, what is the heat it takes per second from the source?
(A) 500 J (B) 1000 J (C) 1500 J (D) 2000 J
Ans: C
Sol: T1 = 627 + 273 = 900K T2 = 177 + 273 = 450K
T2 1
 = 1− =
T1 2
work done per second

Further  =
Heat taken from the source
1 850
 =
2 Q
Q = 1700 J
15. Carnot engine’s efficiency between 2000 K and 500 K is the same as that between TK and 1000 K
(the temperature of the sink in this case). Find the value of T.
(A) 1000 K (B) 2000 K (C) 3000 K (D) 4000 K
Ans: D
500 1000
Sol: 1 = 1 − and 2 = 1 −
1500 T
Given that 1 = 2
500 1000
1 − = 1−
1500 T

16. An ideal gas acting as a working substance in a Carnot’s engine is driven by a ½ kW electric motor
of efficient 60% in the reverse direction to freeze water 0 o C . Find the time taken to freeze 20kg of
water. Assume the work temperatures of the engine are 15o C 0 o C and, and there are no heat losses in
the refrigerator unit.
(the latent heat of fusion of ice = 336 K J/kg)
(A) 20.3 minutes (B) 11.3 minutes (C) 12.3 minutes (D) 13.3 minutes
Ans: A
Sol: Power output of motor = 60% of ½ kW = 60% of 500 W = 300 watts.
Q2 T2 273
= =
W T1 − T2 15
273
 Q2 =  300 = 5460 watts
15
To freeze 10kg of water 0 o C , heat is extracted.
= 10  336KJ = 10  336  103 joules
10  336  103
Time required = sec onds ]
5.46
17. How much work must be supplied to transfer 1500 joules of heat from a cold reservoir −73o C to a
hot reservoir 27 o C using a refrigerator?
(A) 250 J (B) 500 J (C) 750 J (D) 1000 J
Ans: C
Q  T 
Sol: W = Q1 − Q2 = Q3  1 − 1 = Q2  1 − 1
 Q2   T2 
Q2 = 1500 joules, T2 = −73o C = 200K and T1 = 27 o C = 300 K]

18. A Carnot refrigerator accepts heat from the water a 0 o C nd rejects it to the room at a temperature of
27 o C . If 100 Kg of water 0 o C is to be changed to ice, what is the required work in joules? Latent
heat of ice = 3.4  105 joules / kg .

(A) 1.16 106 J (B) 2.16 106 J (C) 3.36 106 J (C) 4.36 106 J
Ans: C
Q1 T1
Sol: = or Q1 = Q2 ( T1 / T2 ) … (1)
Q 2 T2
Given that Q 2 = 100kg  ( 3.4  105 joule / kg )
= 3.4  107 joules
T1 = 300K and T2 = 273K
Substituting these values in eq. (1) we get Q1 = 3.736  107 joules,

Now, W = Q1 − Q2
19. The efficiency of a Carnot's engine is 25%. On reducing the temperature of the sink 50o C , the
efficiency becomes 50%. The temperatures of the source and sink, respectively, are
(A) 200 K and 150 K (B) 150 K and 150 K
(C) 100 K and 200 K (D) 100 K and 100 K
Ans: A
Sol: The efficiency of Carnot's cycle is given by
T2 1 T
 = 1− or 25% = = 1 − 2
T1 4 T1
T2 3
 = … (1)
T1 4
Reducing the temperature of the sink by 50o C

1 ( T − 50 ) or T1 − 50 = 1
= 1− 2
2 T T1 2
T2 50 1
or − = … (2)
T1 T1 2
Solving eq.(1) and (2), we get T1 and T2

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YOUTUBE : INDIAN SCHOOL OF PHYSICS [ INSP ]

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JEE ADV [EXTRA SYLLABUS ]

[INSP][www.inspedu.in] YT : Indian school of physics NITIN SACHAN

INSP BOOKS FOR JEE & OLYMPIAD

Target of 1000 likes to release next booklet for channel

“ Physics will never be the same again ”

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YouTube : INDIAN SCHOOL OF PHYSICS

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

• Zeroth law defines temperature (T)

• does not tell how to measure temperature

• no thermodynamic basis for measurement of T

• does not tell about the direction of heat transfer

The First Law

• Defines energy and heat interaction.

• No place for temperature in it.

• A statement of conservation of energy.

• Nothing directional about it

First Law: interaction between W, Q, U

[INSP][www.inspedu.in] YT : Indian school of physics NITIN SACHAN

W  0 ( work on the system ) 

Q  0 (heating being lost to surrounding 

Q  0 ( heat being absorbed from surrounding ) 

of the principle of conservation of energy)

[INSP][www.inspedu.in] YT : Indian school of physics NITIN SACHAN

Common final temperature

(This process is possible)

[INSP][www.inspedu.in] YT : Indian school of physics NITIN SACHAN

This reverse process is not possible

Common final temperature

[INSP][www.inspedu.in] YT : Indian school of physics NITIN SACHAN

• However, it needs to tell whether the process takes place or not.

When hot coffee is placed in an insulated room (adiabatic chamber)

The energy gained by room

E coffee = −E room

happen even if there is no violation of the Ist law.

[INSP][www.inspedu.in] YT : Indian school of physics NITIN SACHAN

second law of thermodynamics.

[INSP][www.inspedu.in] YT : Indian school of physics NITIN SACHAN

Second Law of Thermodynamics

→ The second law of thermodynamics is inequality.

→ It provides a thermodynamic basis for temperature.

Kelvin's scale of temperature is independent of the properties of the substance.

→ It tells us whether the process is possible or not possible.

→ For example, several processes are not unidirectional.

the process can be reversed.

[INSP][www.inspedu.in] YT : Indian school of physics NITIN SACHAN

cannot reach those states by executing quasi–static adiabatic process.

[INSP][www.inspedu.in] YT : Indian school of physics NITIN SACHAN

Key concepts relating to the second law of thermodynamics

heat, the reservoir is known as a sink.

large ocean, fast-moving rivers, ponds, and lakes.

Water (small amount heat extract)

(small amount heat added)

Q = mCT = finite (heat transfer)

[INSP][www.inspedu.in] YT : Indian school of physics NITIN SACHAN

can be taken or given through the exhaust.

(burnt fuel to maintain

amount of oxygen or air

[INSP][www.inspedu.in] YT : Indian school of physics NITIN SACHAN

theorem & to do many other things)

It is a device where the working system operates on a thermodynamical cycle (a thermodynamical