Module 5 - XII NEET - Chemistry

COMPREHENSIVE
SELF – STUDY MATERIAL

FOR
NEET & AIIMS
CHEMISTRY - XII
Content Page
Module 5 .............................................................................................................................. 2
(1) Nitrogen and Its Derivatives ................................................................................. 3

(2) Biomolecules & Polymer .................................................................................... 41
(3) Chemistry in Everyday Life .............................................................................. 109
COMPREHENSIVE
SELF - STUDY MATERIAL
FOR
NEET & AIIMS
CHEMISTRY
Module - 5
n Nitrogen and Its Derivatives

o Biomolecules & Polymer
p Chemistry in Everyday Life
2
NITROGEN AND ITS
CHAPTER
13
DERIVATIVES
Many years ago it was taught that plants and animals were composed
of different materials: Plants, of a chemical substance of three
elements- Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen; animals of one of four
elements, nitrogen being added to the other three.
''ASA GRAY''
INTRODUCTION
A
mines constitute an important class of organic compounds derived by replacing
one or more hydrogen atoms of ammonia molecule by alkyl/aryl group(s). In nature,
they occur among protein, vitamins, alkaloids and hormones. The chief commerical
use of amines is as intermediates in the synthesis of medicines and fibres. Synthetic
examples include polymers, dyestuffs and drugs. Two biologically active compounds,
namely adrenaline and ephedrine, both containing secondary amino group, are
used to increase blood pressure. Novocain, a synthetic amino compound, is used
as an anaesthetic in dentistry. Benadryl, a well known antihistaminic drug also
contains tertiary amino group. Quaternary ammonium salts are used as surfactants.
Diazonium salts are intermediates in the preparation of a variety of aromatic
compounds including dyes. In this Unit, you will learn about amines, cyanide,
isocyanide and diazonium salts.
3
CHEMISTRY FOR NEET & AIIMS
AMINES
Amines are derivatives of ammonia in which one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced by alkyl groups(s).Amines are
classified as primary, secondary and tertiary depanding on the number of alkyl groups attached to nitrogen atom.
General formula
1° amine 2° amine 3° amine

CnH2n+1NH2 or CnH2n+3N (CnH2n+1)2NH (CnH2n+1)3N
GENERALMETHOD OF PREPARATION :
(I) AMMONOLYSIS OFALKYLHALIDES AND ALCOHOL :
(a) From Ammonolysis of alkyl halides [Hofmann's ammonolysis] :
When an aqueous solution of ammonia is heated with alkyl halide all the three types of amines and
quaternary ammonium salt are formed.
NH3 RX RX RX
R—X HX
R—NH2 HX
R2—NH HX
R3 N R4NX
(Quaternary ammonium salt)
If ammonia is taken in excess, 1° amine is the main product.
(b) Ammonolysis of alcohols :

When ROH and NH3 are passed over Al2O3 or ThO2 at 350° C all the three types of amines are formed.
NH3 R OH R OH
R—OH R—NH2 Al2O3 R2—NH Al2O3 R3N
Al2O3/ 400°C
Note : (i) Quaternary ammonium hydroxide is not formed due to steric hindrance.
(ii) If excess of ammonia is used, then main product will be primary amine.
(II) BY REDUCTION :
LiAlH4
(a) With RCONH2 : RCONH2 or Na/C 2H5OH
RCH2NH2
Na/C2H5OH
(b) With RCN : RCN + 4H RCH2NH2
This reaction is called mendius reaction.
The reduction of alkyl isocynides with sodium and ethanol gives secondary amines.
Na/C2H5OH
R—NC + 4H RNHCH3
LiAlH4
(c) With Oximes : R CH N OH + 4H RCH2 NH2 + H2O
Na/C 2H5OH
(d) With RNO2 : RNO2 + 6H Sn/HCl RNH2 + 2H2O

'
In lab method we use Sn/HCl while in industrial method we use Fe / HCl.
(III) BY HYDROLYSIS OF :
(a) R—NC : Alkyl isocyanide undergoes hydrolysis with mineral acid and forms alkyl amine.
R—NC + 2H2O HCl RNH2 + HCOOH
4
NITROGEN AND ITS DERIVATIVES
(b) RNCO : Alkyl isocyanate undergoes hydrolysis on heating with KOH.
R—N=CO + 2 KOH
o RNH2 + K2CO3
(IV) FROM GRIGNARD REAGENT :

Alkyl magnesium iodide reacts with chloramine to yield alkyl amine.
o I
R Mg I + Cl NH2 R NH2 + Mg
Cl
(V) GABRIEL PHTHALIMIDE SYNTHESIS :

Phthalimide is first treated with KOH to obtain potassium phthalimide which is then treated with alkyl iodide.
Then alkyl phthalimide on hydrolysis yields alkylamine. This method is used in the formation of pure aliphatic
primary amines.
(VI) BY HOFMANN'S BROMAMIDE REACTION (HOFMANN'S HYPOBROMITE REACTION) :

This is a general method for the conversion of alkane amides in to one carbon less primary amines. Ethanamide
is heated with bromine and excess of KOH.
CH3CONH2 + Br2 + 4KOH o CH3NH2 + K2CO3 + 2KBr + 2H2O
Mechanism :
Step 1 CH3—CONH2 + Br2 + KOH o CH3CONHBr + KBr + H2O
N–bromo ethanamide

CH3 C NHBr KOH
: :
Step 2 CH3 C N —Br + H2O + K

O O
Step 3 (Methyl isocyanate)
Step 4 CH3 N C O + 2KOH o CH3 NH2 + KCO

2 3
(VII) CURTIUS REACTION :

Acid chloride on treatment with sodium azide give acid azides which on pyrolysis gives isocyanates which on
hydrolysis gives corresponding amines.
N
RCON3 'N2 RCON3 ' 2 R N= C= O
N2
' R NH 2
Acylazide Alkyl isocyanate Alkyl amide
5
Mechanism :
RCOCl + NaN3 o RCON3 + NaCl
O
–CO2
R—N C—OH R—NH—C—OH R—NH2
OH
(VIII) SCHMIDT REACTION :

In presence of conc. H2SO4 alkanoic acid reacts with hydrazoic acid (N3H) to yield alkylamine.
conc. H2SO 4
R—COOH + N3H R—NH2 + N2 + CO2
Mechanism :
(IX) LOSSEN REARRANGEMENT REACTION :

In this reaction hydroxamic acid undergoes rearrangement and gives alkyl amine.
H2O
R—N=C=O R—NH2
–CO2
6
(X) REDUCTIVEAMINATION OFALDEHYDEAND KETONE :
Ni
C O + NH3 + H2 CH—NH2 + H2O
'
1° amine
Ni
C O + RNH2 + H2 CH—NHR + H2O
'
2° amine
Ni
C O + RN
2 H + H2
' CH —NR2 + H2O
3° amine
Physical Properties :
(i) CH3NH2 is gas and C2H5NH2 is a volatile liquid.
(ii) Higher amines have fishy smell.
(iii) H - Bonding (weaker as compared to H – O – H)
R R R R R R
H H H R R R
(1º amine) (2º amine)
In 3º amine (due to absence of H–atom) H – bonding is not possible.
(iv) Boiling point : Due to weak intermolecular H-bonding the b.p. of 1º and 2º amines are lower than those of
alcohols of comparable molecular weight .The boiling point of 3º amines which form no H–bonds are near to
those of alkanes of comparable molecular.
Boiling point D molecular weight
Order of B.P. : 1º amine > 2º amine > 3º amine

so order of volatility 3º amine > 2º amine > 1º amine
(v) Solubility : Low molecular weight amines are soluble in water. The water solubility of amines decreases with
increasing size of alkyl group.
(1º amine) (2º amine) (3º amine)
Order of solubility o p – amine > s – amine > t – amine

Chemical Properties :
(i) Basic character of amines is due to the presence of lone pair of electrons on the N - atom.
(ii) Basic strength depends on electron donating tendency.
Basicity order in aqeous solution and in liquid phase. Et2 NH > Et3 N > Et NH2. Due to steric hindrance in 3°
amine, it is less basic, than 2° amine.
Steric hindrance of three –C2H5 group protect the lone pair of nitrogen from the attack of H.
7
<< << << <<
But in gaseous phase basic order is R2NH > RNH2 > R3N > NH3
Some other basic order of different amine if alkyl group would be change
Alkyl groups (R–) Relative base strength
(a) CH3 – R2NH > RNH2 > R3N > NH3
(b) C2H5 – R2NH > RNH2 > NH3 > R3N
(c) (CH3)2CH – RNH2 > NH3 > R2NH > R3N
(d) (CH3)3C – NH3 > RNH2 > R2NH > R3N
(1) SPECIAL POINT :

(I) Tertiary amine is less basic then secondary due to following reasons :
(i) Steric hindrance : In tertiary amines (R3N) , three alkyl groups attached to N are bulkier and as such exert
steric hindrance.
(ii) Decrease in hydration :

In tertiary amine In secondary amine
(II) The basic strength of aniline is less than aliphatic amines as the lone pair of electron present on N– atom interact with
the delocalized S - orbital of benzene ring. Hence it is less available for protonation on N–atom.
The basic order nature for aniline, pyridine and pyrrole o Pyridine > Aniline > Pyrrole
(2) REACTIONS SHOWING BASIC NATURE :

(i) It reacts with acids to form salts.
'
RNH2 + HCl o [RNH3]Cl High temp. R—Cl + NH3
Alkyl ammonium chloride
(Acidic salt)

H2SO4
2RNH2 (RNH 3 )2 SO 4–2 Alkyl ammonium sulphate
(ii) Amines reacts with auric acid and platinic chlorides in presence of HCl to form double salts.These double salts
decompose on ignition to pure metal. Therefore the formation and decomposition of the double salts is used
for determining the molecular weight of amines.

–2
2R NH2 + PtCl4 + 2HCl o [RNH3]2PtCl6
(chloro platinic acid) Alkyl ammonium chloroplatinate
8

RNH2 + AuCl3 + HCl o [RNH3]AuCl4
[Chloroauric acid] Alkyl ammonium chloroaurate

'
(RNH 3 )2 PtCl6–2 Pt
(iii) Reaction with H2O : It forms alkyl ammonium hydroxide with water ammonium hydroxides are used for
precipitation of IInd and IIIrd group cations in qualitative analysis

RNH2 + H2O o (RNH3)OH
Base
1 1
FeCl3 + 3[RNH3 ]OH
o Fe(OH)3 + 3 [RNH 3 ]Cl
Brown ppt
1 1
AlCl3 + 3[RNH 3 ]OH
o Al(OH)3 + 3 [RNH 3 ]Cl
White ppt.
1 1
CrCl3 + 3[RNH 3 ]OH
o Cr(OH)3 + 3 [RNH 3 ]Cl
Green ppt.
(3) REACTION WITH ALKYLHALIDES :

Alkyl amine reacts with alkyl halides and form sec., ter. amines and quaternary ammonium salt.
RX
HX RX
RNH2 + R—X R2NH HX
R3N R4NX
ETOOS KEY POINT

Separation of 1°, 2° and 3° amines :
1°, 2°, 3° amine + R4NX distillation Mixture of 1°, 2°, 3° amine
R4NX does not undergo distillation.
Mixture of 1°, 2°, 3° amine can be separated by following methods.
(i) Fractional distillation : The mixture of amines may be separated by fractional distillation because their boiling
points are quite different. It is used in industry.
(ii) Hinsberg method : In this method mixture of amines is seperated by using benzene sulphonyl chloride (Hinsberg's
reagent).
C6H5SO2Cl + 1° amine o Product KOH dissolve
C6H5SO2Cl + 2° amine o Product KOH insoluble
3° amine does not react with benzene sulphonyl chloride.
(iii) Hofmann method : In this method mixture of amines is separated by using ethyl oxalate.
1° amine + ethyl oxalate o solid product
2° amine + ethyl oxalate o liquid product
3° amine + ethyl oxalate o No reaction
9
(4) ACETYLATION :
Acetylation takes place when alkyl amine combines with acetyl chloride or acetic anhydride.
RNH2 + ClCOCH3 o RNHCOCH3 + HCl
(N –alkyl acetamide)
RNH2 + (CH3CO)2O o RNHCOCH3 + CH3COOH
(N –alkyl acetamide)
(5) BENZOYLATION (SCHOTTEN BAUMANN REACTION) :

COCl CONHR
+ H NH R NaOH + HCl
Benzoylchloride N–alkyl benzamide
(6) ACIDIC NATURE :

Amines are very weak acids only 1° and 2° amines show acidic nature.
1
R—NH2 + Na o RNHNa + H
2 2
N– alkyl sodamide
(7) REACTION WITH TILDEN REAGENT :

When alkylamine reacts with nitrosyl chloride (Tilden reagent) alkyl chloride is formed. This reaction is important in
interconversion.
R—NH2 + NOCl
o RCl + N2 + H2O
(8) REACTION WITH PHOSGENE :

R—NH2 + COCl2
o R N C O + 2HCl
Alkyl isocyanate
(9) REACTION WITH HALOGEN :

The hydrogen atoms of the amino group are replaced by halogen atoms in presence of alkali solution.
NaOH
R—NH2 + Br2 R—NH—Br + HBr
or KOH
N– bromo alkylamine
NaOH
R—NH—Br + Br2 R—NBr2 + HBr
N, N–dibromo alkyl amine
(10) REACTION WITHALDEHYDES :

Alkylamine reacts additively with aldehydes to form D - hydroxyl amines which are changed to schiff bases with
elimination of water molecule.
H H H
H2O
R NH2 + O C R o R N C R RCH NR (Schiff's base)
OH
10
(11) MANNICH REACTION :
O O
H2O
R—CH2NH2 + CH2O + HCH2 C C6H5 R CH2NHCH2 CH2 C C6H5
Acetophenone Mannich base
(12) OXIDATION :
KMnO4 / H+ : Alkylamine on oxidation with acidified potassium permaganate forms aldimine which on hydrolysis
gives aldehyde and ammonia.
[O] H 2O
R—CH2NH2 + R—CH NH RCHO + NH3
KMnO4/H H
+
(Aldimine)
[O] R2C NH H 2O
R2CHNH2 + R2C O + NH3
H
(Ketimine) (Ketone)
[O]
R3CNH2 R3CNO2 (Nitroalkane)
With H2SO5 (Caro's acid) Or H2O2 /Fe+2 (Fenton reagent) :

O
[O]
RCH2NH2 R—CH2—NH—OH + RCH NOH + R C NHOH
N-alkyl hydroxylamine Aldoxime Hydroxamic acid
[O]
R2CH NH2 R2C N OH (Ketoxime)
[O]
R3CNH2 RCNO (Nitroso compound)
(13) CARBYLAMINE REACTION (ISO CYANIDE TEST) :

When alkyl amine's heated with chloroform and alc. KOH alkyl isocyanide is formed which has very bad smell.
This test is also given by aniline . This is a test for p– amines.
R—NH2 + CHCl3 + 3 KOH R — N C + 3KCl + 3H2O
Nucleophile RNH2 attacks electrophilic intermediate [:CCl2] dichlorocarbene.
Mechanism :
(14) HOFMANN'S MUSTARD OIL TEST :

When alkyl amine is heated with carbon disulphide and mercuric chloride alkyl isothiocyanate is formed which has
smell like mustard oil.
S S
HgCl
R NH2 + C S o R NH C SH R N C S + HgS + 2HCl
2
Alkyl isothiocyanate
11
S S
HgCl2
R2NH + C S o R2N C SH No reaction
S
R3N + C S o No reaction
(15) REACTION WITH HNO2 (NaNO2 + HCl or H2SO4) :

(a) Primary amines react with nitrous acid to produce nitrogen gas [seen as bubbles]
R—NH2 + HONO o R—OH + N2 n + H2O
CH3 NH2 + HNO2 o CH3—O—CH3

(b) R2 NH + HONO o R2 N—NO + H2O
N–nitroso amine (Yellow oily layer)
This is called libbermann's nitroso test
(c) R3N + HONO o R3NHNO2 Trialkyl ammonium nitrite (Soluble in water)
KEY POINTS
(i) Nitrosoamines are carcinogens (Cancer causing agents)

(ii) Amines can have chiral N-atom but cannot be resolved into enantiomeric forms because of rapid inversion of one
enantiomeric form into the other.
(iii) The Schiff's bases formed by reaction of 1°-amines and aldehyde/ketones are also called anils.
(iv) The mixture of 1°, 2°, 3° amines can be distinguished by Hoffmann's test or Hinsberg's reagent or carbylamine test
or nitrous acid test.
(v) In Hoffmann test CS2 + HgCl2 are used and in Hinsberg test benzene sulphonyl chloride (C6H5SO2Cl) is used.
Aniline is also called aminobenzene or phenyl amine. Aniline was first prepared by Unverdon 1826 by the distillation
of indigo which is called anil in spanish and hence the name aniline. In aniline —NH2 group is directly attached
to benzene ring.
General Methods of Preparation :

(1) Lab method : Aniline is prepared in the lab by reduction of C6H5NO2 with Sn + HCl.
(i) Sn + HCl
C6H5NO2 C6H5NH2 + H2O
(ii) NaOH
(2) Industrial method : Aniline is obtained by reduction of nitrobenzene in presence of Fe/HCl.

(i) Fe + HCl
C6H5—NO2 C6H5 —NH2 + H2O
(ii) NaOH
(3) From Phenol : Aniline is obtained when phenol is treated with ammonia in presence of ZnCl2 at 300°C.
ZnCl2
C6H5OH + NH3 C6H5NH2 + H2O
300° C
12
(4) From benzamide (Hofmann's reaction): Aniline is formed when benzamide is treated with Br2 and KOH.
C6H5CONH2 + Br2 + 4KOH o C6H5NH2 + K2CO3 + 2KBr + 2H2O
(5) From benzoic acid (Schmidt reaction) : Benzoic acid is dissolved in conc. H2SO4 and hydrazoic acid is dissolved
in chloroform. When both solutions are mixed aniline obtained.
conc.
C6H5COOH + N3H H 2SO 4 C6H5NH2 + N2n + CO2n
(Hydrazoic acid)
(6) From chloro benzene : Aniline can be manufactured by the action of ammonia on chloro benzene in presence
of cuprous oxide (Cu2O).
2C6H5Cl + Cu2O + 2NH3 o 2 C6H5NH2 + 2CuCl + H2O
(7) From Grignard reagent :
C6H5MgBr + ClNH2 o C6H5NH2 + Mg Br

Cl
(8) From Benzene:
FeCl3
C6H6 + NH2OH C6H5NH2 + H2O
(9) From phenyl isocyanide :
C6H5N C + 2H2O o C6H5NH2 + HCOOH
(10) From phenyl isocyanate:-

C6H5N C O + 2KOH o C6H5NH2 + K2CO3
Similarities and Differences between Aromatic and Aliphatic amines :

(A) Similarities :
(i) Both are basic, although aliphatic amines are more basic than the aromatic amines.
(ii) Both form salts with acids, however salts of aromatic amines are easily hydrolysed.
(iii) Both undergoes alkylation and acylation.
(iv) Both react with Grignard reagents forming hydrocarbons.
(v) Both forms schiff's bases.
(B) Differences :
(i) Aniline is insoluble in water while aliphatic amines are soluble in water (due to H-bonds)
(ii) Aniline gives diazonium salt with HNO2 while aliphatic amines gives alcohol and nitrogen (except CH3NH2)
(iii) Aniline undergoes coupling and electrophilic substitution reactions in benzene ring while aliphatic is not.
(iv) Aniline has characteristic aromatic smell while aliphatic amines have smell like ammonia
(v) Aniline gives aniline black dye with acidic K2Cr2O7 while aliphatic does not form dye.
(vi) Aniline gives violet colour with NaOCl while aliphatic amines does not give.
(i) Fresh, aniline is a colourless oily liquid. On standing the colour becomes dark brown due to action of air and light.
(ii) It’s B.P. is 183ºC.
(iii) It is heavier than water.
(iv) It has characteristic unpleasent odour. It is toxic in nature .
13
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES :
(I) REACTIONS DUE TO – NH2 GROUP
(i) Basic nature : Aniline is weak base but it forms salt with strong acids. it accepts a proton.
< <
C6 H 5 N H 2 H o C 6 H 5 N H 3 Aniliniumion
4
C6 H 5 NH 2 HCl o C 6 H 5 N H 3C l Aniliniumhydrochloride

2C6H 5NH2 + H2SO4 (C6 H5NH3)SO 4 Anilinium sulphate

2C6H5NH2 + H2PtCl6 (C6H5NH3)PtCl6–2 Anilinium platinic chloride
Chloroplkatinic acid
(ii) Acylation : Aniline reacts with acid chlorides or anhydrides to form corresponding amides called anilides.
[The reaction of C6H5NH2 with benzoyl chloride is called “Schotten Baumann reaction”]
C6H 5NH2 + Cl – C – CH3 C 6H 5 – NH – C – CH 3 (Acetanilide)
O O
(iii) Carbylamine reaction :
C6H 5NH2 + CHCl3 + 3KOH C 6H 5NC + 3KCl + 3H 2O
Phenyl isocyanide
Note : (i) Intermediate species is dichloro carbene [:CCl2]
(ii) This is a test of aniline and other primary amines and is known as isocyanide test .
(iv) Hoffmann’s mustard oil reaction : When aniline is heated with alc. CS2 and excess of HgCl2 phenyl
isothiocyanate having a characteristic smell of mustared oil is formed.
HgCl2
C6H5NH2 + S = C = S C6H5 = C = S
Phenyl isothiocyanate
(v) Reaction with Hinsberg’s reagent :

–HCl
C6H5 – SO2Cl + HNHC6H5 C6H5SO2NHC6H5
(N-Phenylbenzene sulphonamide)
(vi) Diazaotisation : Diazotisation is a reaction in which ice cooled solution of aniline in an inorganic acid
reacts with sodium nitrite solution leading to the formation of diazonium salt.
(II) REACTIONS DUE TO BENZENE RING :
Note : (a) In aniline 2, 4, 6 or ortho and para positions are electron rich so electrophile attacks here.In aniline
3, 5, or meta position is electron deficient so nucleophile attacks here.
(b) The benzene ring of aniline undergoes halogenation, sulphonation and nitration.
(c) The NH2 group is o-, p-directing.
14
(i) Halogenation : Chlorine and bromine react with aniline and form trichloro and tribromo aniline respectively
NH2 NH2
NH2
Br Br Cl Cl
Polar solvent
+ 3Br2 or 3Cl2 e.g. H2O or
Br Cl
2,4,6– Tribromo aniline
(white ppt.)
NH2 NH2
Br
NH2 +
Non polar solvent
+ Br2 (CS2 or CCl 4) Br
o– and p–Bromoaniline
Note :
However, monobromo or chloro derivative of aniline can be prepared if -NH2 group is first protected by acetyl
group. Here the reactivity decreases due to -I effect of acetyl group.
(ii) Nitration :
(a) Direct nitration : The direct nitration of aniline by conc. HNO3 and conc. H2SO4 give meta-nitroaniline.
Due to positively charged N, m-position becomes electron rich as compared to o, p–position.

NH2 NH3HSO4 NH2
H2SO4 +
+NO 2
HNO 3 H2SO4
NO2
(b) Indirect nitration : In indirect nitration amino group is protected by acetylation to give acetanilide, which
on nitration and subsequent hydrolysis give o- and p- nitro-aniline.
15
Ex. Azo dye test is given by
(A) All amines (B) Only secondary amine
(C) Only primary aliphatic amine (D) Only primary aromatic amine
Sol. (D)
(iii) Sulphonation : Aniline reacts with fuming H2SO4 to give sulphanilic acid.(p-Amino-benzene sulphonic acid)

NH2 NH3HSO4 NHSO3H NH2
H2 O
+ H2SO4 (Fuming) o
1 80 q C
o Rearrangement
SO3H
Sulphanilic acid
Note : (i) This process is called baking.

(ii) Sulphanilic acid is an important intermediate in the manufacturing of dyes and drugs.
(iii) The compounds in which both proton donating & proton accepting groups present are called ampholite
(dipolar ion).
(iv) Catalytic hydrogenation :

Aniline undergoes hydrogenation in presence of Ni at high temp. to form amino cyclohexane.
NH2 NH2
Ni
+ 3H2 High temp.
(v) Mercuration : When treated with alc. solution of mercuric acetate aniline undergoes mercuration.
NH2 NH2
HgOCCH3
+ (CH3COO)2Hg o + CH3COOH
O
o– Amino phenyl
mercuric acetate
16
TESTS OF ANILINE :
Carbylamine test : Aniline gives carbylamine test or Isocyanide test.
C6H5NH2 + CHCl3 + KOH o C6H5NC
(Bad smelling)
Dye test : Aniline is first diazotised. On adding alkaline soln. of E-naphthol to the diazotised product a scarlet red
dye is formed.
On heating with bromine water, a ppt. is formed.
17
NITRO BENZENE [C6H5NO2]
It is also called as artificial oil of bitter almonds or oil of mirbane as its odour is like that of bitter amonds.
General Methods of preparation :

Lab method :
NO2
50-60ºC
+ Conc. H2SO4 + Conc. HNO3
N2Cl NO2
(i) HBF4
(2) +N2 + NaBF4
(i) Nitrobenzene is light yellow oily liquid.
(ii) It has smell of bitter almonds
(iii) It is steam voltile. It’s vapours are poisonous in nature
(iv) It is heavier than water
(v) It’s B. P. is 211ºC
(vi) Smell of nitro benzene and benzaldehyde is same
Chemical Properties :
Nitrobezene shows following chemical reactions-
(1) Reactions due to NO2 group
(2) Reactions due to benzene ring :
(A) Electrophilic substitution
(B) Nucleophilic substitution
18
NO2 NO 2
Conc. HNO3+
Conc. H2SO4 NO2
'
O2N NO2
NO2
NO 2
Fuming H2S O4
Electrophilic
Substitution
Reaction
SO 3H
NO2
Cl2/AlCl4
NO2 Cl
Fe/HCl or Sn/HCl
Or H2 /Pd
Nitro Benzene NH2
Zn + NH4 Cl
N–OH
H
REDUCTION
Fe/H2O
N=O
Dil. H2SO 4
NH2
Electrolytic
reduction
Conc. H2SO4 rearrangeme nt
N – OH HO NH2
H
CH3OH/NaOH O
or g lucose/NaOH
Bimolecular Reduction
N=N (Azoxy benzene)
or Na 3AsO3
CH3 OH/NaOH/Zn
N=N (Azobenzene)
or Na2 SnO 3
H2O/NaOH/Zn
N– N (Hydrazobenzene)
H H
Test of Nitrobenzene :
Mullikan Barker Test : Ethanolic solution of nitrobenzene is treated with zinc. dust and NH4Cl solution. The mixture
is heated and filter in a test tube containing Tollen’s reagent a grey or black pricipitate (Ag mirror) is formed.
Tollen's reagent
C6H 5NO2 + Zn + NH 4Cl C 6H 5NH – OH C6H 5NO + Silver mirror
Phenyl hydroxyl amine
Uses :
(i) As a solvent
(ii) In manufacture of aniline and azo dye
19
General formula
1° amine 2° amine 3° amine

CnH2n+1NH2 or CnH2n+3N (CnH2n+1)2NH (CnH2n+1)3N
Genral method of prepratiomn :

NH3 R OH R OH
1. R—OH R—NH2 Al2O3 R2—NH Al2O3 R3N
Al2O3/ 400°C
LiAlH4
2. RCONH2 or Na/C 2H5OH
RCH2NH2
Na/C2H5OH
3. RCN + 4H RCH2NH2
o I
4. R Mg I + Cl NH2 R NH2 + Mg
Cl
Ni
5. C O + NH3 + H2 CH—NH2 + H2O
'
1° amine
6. C6H5CONH2 + Br2 + 4KOH o C6H5NH2 + K2CO3 + 2KBr + 2H2O
conc.
7. C6H5COOH + N3H H 2SO 4 C6H5NH2 + N2n + CO2n
Chemical reaction :
'
1. RNH2 + HCl o [RNH3]Cl High temp. R—Cl + NH3
S S
HgCl2
2. R NH2 + C S o R NH C SH R N C S + HgS + 2HCl
3. R—NH2 + HONO o R—OH + N2 n + H2O

NH2 NH3HSO4 NH2
H2SO4 +
+NO 2
4. HNO 3 H2SO4
NO2
20
SOLVED EXAMPLE
Ex. 1 Amongst the following, the strongest base in aqueous medium is .........
(A) CH3NH2 (B) NCCH2NH2 (C) (CH3)2NH (D) C6H5NHCH3
Sol. (C) Compound Factors responsible for basic character are
(A) Ch3 – NH2 Inductive effect (+I)
(B) NC – CH2 – NH2 Inductive effect (–I)
(C) (CH3)2NH Inductive effect (+I) and Solvation
H
(D) N –I effect and resonance
CH3
Since, +I effect and solvation increases basic character while –I effect and resonance decreases basic character.
Ex. 2 Which of the following reagents would not be a good choice for reducing an aryl nitro compound to an amine
(A) H2(excess)/ Pt (B) LiAlH4 in ether (C) Fe and HCl (D) Sn and HCl
Sol. (B) Aryl nitro compound can’t be converted into amine using LiAlH4 in ether.
H2(excess)/Pt NH2
NO2 NH2
Fe/HCl
NH2
Sn/HCl
LiAlH 4/ether
No reaction
Ex. 3 The source of nitrogen in Gabriel synthesis of amines is ......
(A) Sodium azide, NaN3 (B) Sodium nitrite, NaNO3
(C) Potassium cyanide, KCN (D) Potassium phthalimide C6H4(CO2)N–K+
Sol. (D) Source of nitrogen in Gabriel phthalimide synthesis is potassium phthalimide
O
C CO
–H2 O – + RI, '
NK –KI
C CO
O
Phthalimide
CO COOH
H+/H 2O, '
or
N–R HO–/H2O,' + RNH2
1° amine
CO COOH
Ex. 4 The best reagent for converting 2-phenylpropanamide into 2-phenylpropanamine is ........
(A) Excess H2 (B) Br2 in aqueous NaOH
(C) lodine in the presence of red phosphorus (D) LiAlH4 in ether
Sol. (D) The best reagent for converting 2-phenylpropanamide into 2-phenylpropanamine is LiAlH4 in ether. Reaction is
as given below
O
NH2 NH2
LiAlH4 in ether
2-phenyl propanamide 2-phenyl propanamine
21
Ex. 5 The correct increasing order of basic strength for the following compounds is .......
NH2 NH2 NH2
NO2 CH3
(I) (II) (III)
(A) II < III < I (B) III < I < II (C) III < II < I (D) II < I < III
Sol. (D) The correct increasing order of basic strength is as follows
NH2 NH2
> >
I
CH3 NO2
III II
Greater the electron density towards ring, greater will be its basic strength. Electron withdrawing group decreases
basic strength while electron donating group increases basic strength.
Ex. 6 Best method for preparing primary amines from alkyl halides without changing the number of carbon atoms in the
chain is
(A) Hofmann bromamide reaction (B) Gabriel phthalimide synthesis
(C) Sandmeyer reaction (D) Reaction with NH3
Sol. (B) Best method of preparing primary amines from alkyl halides without changing the number of carbon atoms in the
chain is Gabriel phthalimide synthesis.
O O O
KOH (alc.) R– – X –
NH NK+ N–R
O O O
NaOH/ H2O
+ R – NH2 + OH
Primary amine O OH
Ex. 7 Which of the following comound wil not undergo azo coupling reaction with benzen diazonium chloride
(A) Aniline (B) Phenol (C) Anisole (D) Nitrobenzene
Sol. (D) Nitrobenzene will not undergo azo coupling reaction with benzene diazonium chloride while other three undergo
diazo coupling reaction very easily. Diaxzonium cation is a weak E+ and hence reacts with electron rich compounds
cotaining electron donating group i.e., –OH1 –NH2 and –OCH3 groups and not with compounds containing electron
withdrawing group, i.e., NO2 etc.
NH2
N=N NH2
OCH3
+ –
N { NCI N=N OCH 3
OH
N=N OH
22
Ex. 8 The correct decreasing order of basic strength of the following species is ........... H 2O, NH3, OH–, NH2–
(A) NH 2 ! OH ! NH 3 ! H 2 O (B) OH ! NH 2 ! H 2 O ! NH 3
(C) NH 3 ! H 2 O ! NH 2 ! OH (D) H 2 O ! NH 3 ! OH ! NH 2
N OH N O
Sol. (A) H H H H H H
Most basic H Least basic
Basic strength of the above species can be explained on the basis of electrogativity of central atom and its proton
accepting tendency. here, amide ion is most basic among given compounds due to presence of negative charge and
two pair of electrons on nitrogen atom.
Ex. 9 The product obtained by the alkaline hydrolysis of C2H5 – = C – O when treated with t-butyl magnesium bromide, the
compound obtained will be
(A) t-butylamine (B) n-butylamine (C) Isobutane (D) n-butane
alkline hydrolysis
Sol. (C) C2H5 – N = C = O C2H5NH2
CH3 CH3
CH3– C – MgBr + C2H5 NH2 CH3 –CH
CH3 Active Hydrogen
CH3
+
Mg(Br)(C2H5NH)
HNO2
Ex. 10 A
C6H5CHO
B
C2H5NH2
NOCl C
C6H5SO2Cl
D
Which product is a Schiff’s base :-

(A) a (B) b (C) c (D) d
HNO2
C2H5OH
Sol. (B) C2H5NH2
Ph–CHO
C2H5N = CH – Ph
NOCl C2H5Cl
C6H5SO2Cl
C2H5NHSO2C6H5
23
Ex. 11 N, N–dimethyl acetamide is obtained in the reaction
(A) Acetyl chloride and methanamine (B) Acetyl chloride and ethanamine
(C) Acetyl chloride and dimethylamine (D) Acetyl chloride and diethylamine
CH3 CH3
Sol. (C) CH3 – C – Cl + H – N CH2 – C – N
CH3 CH3
O O
Ex. 12 Aniline in a set of reactions yielded end product D

NH 2
NaNO2 + HCl CuCN H2 HNO2
0–5°C A B Ni C D
The structure of the product D would be

(A) C6H5CH2OH (B) C6H5CH2NH2 (C) C6H5NHOH (D) C6H5NHCH2CH3
NH2 N 2Cl CN CH2 – NH2

Sol. (A)
NaNO 2 CuCN H2
+HCl Ni
HNO2
CH2 – OH
Ex. 13 In the reaction sequence identify the functional group present in A, B, C :-

Sn/HCl HNO 2 C2 H5 OH
A B 0° C C C6 H 6
(A) NO2, NH2, N - N (B) NO2, NH2, OH (C) –OH, –NH2, –NO (D) –NH2, –NO2, –N = N–
NO2 NH2 N2Cl
Sn/HCl HNO 2 C2H 5 OH

Sol. (A) 0–5°C
C6H6
24
Exercise PART - 1 PREVIOUS YEAR (NEET/AIPMT)
1. The final product C, obtained in this reaction 4. Electrolytic reduction of nitrobenzene in weakly
NH2 acidic medium gives [CBSE AIPMT 2005]
(A) aniline
Ac2O Br 2 H2O
(B) nitrosobenzene
A CH COOH B C
(C) N-phenyl hydroxylamine
+
3 H
(D) p-hydroxyaniline
CH3
5. Which of the following is mroe basic than aniline ?
Would be [CBSE AIPMT 2003]
[CBSE AIPMT 2006]
NH2 NHCOCH3 (A) Diphenylamine (B) Triphenylamine
Br Br (C) p-nitroaniline (D) Benzylamine
(A) (B) 6. Which one of the following on reduction with LiAlH4
yields a secondary amine ?[CBSE AIPMT 2007]
CH3 CH3 (A) Methyl isocyanide (B) Acetamide
NH2 COCH3 (C) Methyl cyanide (D) Nitroethane
COCH3 Br 7. Nitrobenzene on reaction with conc. HNO3/ H2SO4
at 80-100°C forms which one of the following
(C) (D) products ? [NEET 2007]
CH3 CH3 (A) 1, 2-dinitrobenzene (B) 1, 3-dinitrobenzene
2. Aniline when diazotised in cold and then treated (C) 1, 4-dinitrobenzene (D) 1, 2, 4-trinitrobenzene
with dimethyl aniline, gives a coloured proeduct. Its
structure would be [CBSE AIPMT 2004] 8. In a reaction of aniline a coloured products C was
obtained.
CH3
(A) CH3NH N=N NHCH3 NH2 N
CH3
NaNO2
HCl B Cold
C
(B) CH 3 N=N NH 2
A
The structure of C would be [CBSE AIPMT 2008]
(C) (CH3)2N N=N
(A) N=N–CH2–N
CH3
(D) (CH3)2 N N=N CH3 CH3 CH3
N=N
3. Aniline in a set of reactions yielded a product (B)
NH2
NaNO2 H2 HNO2 CH3
A CuCN B Ni C D
HCl NH–NH N
CH3
(C)
The structure of the product D would be

[CBSE AIPMT 2005] CH3
N=N N
(A) C6H5CH2NH2 (B) C6H5CH2NHCH2CH3 CH3
(D)
(C) C6H5NHOH (D) C6H5CH2OH
25
9. Predict the product, [CBSE AIPMT 2009]
NHCH3 CH3
(A) N=N N
NaNO2 + HCl o Product CH3
CH 3 CH3
CH3
(B) HN NH NH2
N–N=O
(A)
CH3 N=N
(C) H3C NH2
N – NO2
(B)
CH3 CH3
(D) HN N=N NH2
NHCH3 NHCH3
NO
+ 12. Which of the following statements about primary
(C) amines is false ? [CBSE AIPMT 2010]
(A) Alkyl amines are stronger bases than aryl
NO amines
OH (B) Alkyl amines react with nitrous acid to produce
N – CH3 alcohols
(D) (C) Aryl amines react with nitrous acid to produce
phenols
(D) Alkyl amines are stronger bases than ammonia
10. The correct order of increasing reactivity of C – X
13. Acetamide is treate with the following reagents
bond towards nucleophile in the following
separately. Which one of these would yield methyl
compounds is [CBSE AIPMT 2010]
amine ? [CBSE AIPMT 2010]
X X (A) NaOH/Br2 (B) Sodalime
NO2 (C) Hot conc. H2SO4 (D) PCl5
(CH3)3C – X 14. In a set of reaction, m-bromobenzoic acid gave a

product D. Identify the product D.
[CBSE AIPMT 2011]
NO2 COOH
I II
(A) I < II < IV < III (B) II < III < I < IV SOCl2 NH3 NaOH
B C Br2 D
(C) IV < III < I < II (D) III < II < I < IV
Br
11. Aniline in a set of the following reactions yielded a COOH NH2
coloured product Y. [CBSE AIPMT 2010]
NH2 (A) (B)

NH2 Br
CONH2 SO2NH2
NaNO2/HCl N, N-dimethylaniline
(273 – 278 K)
X X
(C) (D)
The structure of Y would be Br Br
26
15. What is the product obtained in the following 17. Which of the following will be most stable diazonium
reaction ? salt RN 2 X ? [CBSE AIPMT 2014]
[CBSE AIPMT 2011]
(A) CH 3 N 2 X (B) C6 H 5 N 2 X
NO2
Zn (C) CH 3 CH 2 N 2 X (D) C6 H 5 CH 2 N 2 X
........... ?
NH4Cl
18. The electrolytic reduction of nitrobenzene in
strongly acidic medium produces
[CBSE AIPMT 2015]
N
(A) p-aminophenol (B) azoxybenzene
N
(C) azobenzene (D) aniline
(A)
19. The number of structural isomers possible from the
molecular formula C3H9N is[CBSE AIPMT 2015]
O– (A) 4 (B) 5
N =N (C) 2 (D) 3
+
(B) 20. The following reaction,
NH2
+ Cl NaOH
NH2
H
N
(C)
O
NHOH is known by the name [CBSE AIPMT 2015]

(A) Friedel-Crafts reaction
(D) (B) Perkins reaction
(C) Acetylation reaction
(D) Schotten-Baumann reaction
16. In the following reaction, the product (A) is 21. Method by which aniline cannot be prepared is
[CBSE AIPMT 2014] [CBSE AIPMT 2015]
+ (A) hydrolysis phenyl isocyanide with acidic
N {NCl– NH2 solution
(B) degradation of benzamide with bromine in
alkaline solution
+ H+ (A) (C) reduction of nitrobenzene with H2/Pd in ethanol
Yellow dye (D) potassium salt of phthalimide treated with
chlorobenzene followed by the hydrolysis with
aqueous NaOH solution
(A) N=N–NH 22. A given nitrogen-containing aromatic compound A

reacts with Sn/HCl, followed by HNO2 to give an
unstable compound B. B, on treatement with phenol,
H 2N forms a beautiful coloured compound C with the
molecular formula C12H10N2O. the structure of
(B) N=N compound A is [NEET 2016, Phase II]
NH2 NO2
NH2
(A) (B)
(C) N=N
CN CONH2
(D) N=N NH2 (C) (D)
27
23. Consider the reaction 28. Identify A and predict the type of reactions
CH3CH2CH2Br + NaCN o [NEET 2017]
CH3CH2CH2CN + NaBr OCH3
This reaction will be the fastes in
(A) ethanol [NEET 2016, Phase II]
(B) methanol NaNH2
A
(C) N, N’-dimethyloformamide (DMF)
(D) water Br
OCH3
24. Which one of the following nitro-compounds does
not react with nitrous acid ?[NEET 2016, Phase II]
(A) and substitution reaction
H2 H2
H3C C H3C C NH2
OCH3
(A) C NO2 (B) CH NO2
H2 H3C NH2
CH3 (B) and elimination addition reaction

H 3C
HC C
(C) H 3C – C – NO 2 (D) 3 H NO
OCH 3
H 3C
O 2
Br
25. The correct statement regarding the basicity of (C) and cine substitution reaction
arylamines is [NEET 2016, Phase I]
(A) Arylamines are generally more basic than OCH3
alkylamines because the nitrogen lone-pair
electrons are not delocalized by interaction with
the aromatic ring S–electron system (D) and cine substitution reaction
(B) Arylamines are generally more basic than
alkylamines because of aryl group
29. Which of the following reaction is appropirate for
(C) Arylamines are generally more basic than
alkylamines, because the nitrogen atom in converting acetamide to methanamine ?
arylamines is sp-hybridized [NEET 2017]
(D) Arylamines are generally less basic than (A) Carbylamine reaction
alkylamines because the nitrogen lone-pair
electrons are delocalized by interation with the (B) Hofmann hypobromamide
aromatic ring S-electron system. (C) Stephens reaction
26. Consider the nitration of benzene using mixed conc.
(D) Gabriels phthalimide synthesis
H2SO4 and HNO3. If a large amount of KHSO4 is
[NEET 2016, Phase I]
(A) slower (B) unchanged 30. Nitration of aniline in strong acidic medium also
gives m-nitroaniline because [NEET 2018]
(C) doubled (D) faster
(A) In absence of substituents nitro group always
27. The correct increasing order of basic strength for goes to m- position
the following compounds is [NEET 2017] (B) In electrophilic substitution reactions amino
NH2 NH2 NH2 group is meta directive.
(C) In spite of substituents nitro group always
goes to only m - position
(D) In acide (strong) medium aniline is present as
anilinium ion
NO2 CH3
(I) (II) (III)
(A) II < III < I (B) III < I < II
(C) III < II < I (D) II < I < III
28
Exercise PART - 2 PREVIOUS YEAR (AIIMS)
1. Among the following the weakest base is 9. Pyridine is less basic than triethylamine because
(A) C6H5CH2NH2 (B) C6H5CH2NHCH3 (A) pyridine has aromatic character
(C) O2NCH2NH2 (D) CH3NHCHO
[2003]
(B) nitrogen in pyridine is sp2 hybridised
(C) pyridine is a cyclic system
2. Nitrobenzene gives N-phenylhydroxylamine by
(A) Sn/HCl (B) H2/Pd–C (D) in pyridine. lone pair of nitrogen is delocalised.
(C) Zn/NaOH (D) Zn/NH4Cl [2005]
[2003]
10. C 6 H 5 CONHCH 3 can be converted into
3. Among the following the dissociation constant is C6H5CH2NHCH3 by
highest for
(A) C6H5OH (B) C6H5CH2OH (A) NaBH4 (B) H2-Pd/C
(C) CH3C { CH (D) CH3NH3+ Cl– (C) LiAlH4 (D) Zn-Hg/HCl
[2004] [2005]
4. The strongest base among the following is

11. Nitrobenzene on treatment with zinc dust and
aqueous ammonium chloride gives
(A) (B) N
N H (A) C6H5 == N–C6H5 (B) C6H5NH2
(C) C6H5NO (D) C6H5NHOH
NH 2 [2006]
(C) N (D)
H
12. In the following sequence of the reaction, what is D
[2004]
?
5. Aromatic nitriles (ArCN) are not prepared by reaction
CH3
: [O] SoCl 2 NaN3 Heat
(A) ArX + KCN (B) ArN2+ + CuCn A B C D
(C) ArCONH2 + P2O5 (D) ArCONH2 + SOCl2
[2004] (A) Primary amine
(B) An amide
6. Melting points are normally the highest for
(A) tertiary amides (B) secondary amides (C) Phenyl isocyanate
(C) primary amides (D) amines (D) A chain lengthed hydrocarbon [2007]
[2004]
13. Cyanogen gas is obtained in the reaction
7. Which of the following chemicals are used to
manufacture methyl isocyanate that caused “Bhopal (A) CuSO4(aq) + KCN
o
Gas Tragedy” ?
(i) Methylamine (ii) Phosgene (B) K4[Fe(CN)6]
heat
o
(iii) Phosphine (iv) Dimethylamine
(C) CH3CH + H2O
'
o
(A) (i) and (iii) (B) (iii) and (iv)
(C) (i) and (ii) (D) (ii) and (iv) (D) CH3CONH2 + P2O5
'
o [2007]
[2005]
14. Which of the following amines will not give N2 gas
8. Among the following which one does not act as an on treatment with nitrous acid (NaNO2 + HCl) ?
intermediate in Hofmann rearrangement ?
(A) C2H5NH2 (B) CH3NH2
(A) RNCO
(B) RCON (C) (CH3)2CH – NH2 (D) All will give N2

(C) RCONHBr (D) RNC [2005] [2007]
29
15. Which of the following statement is true ? 21. The compound which on reaction with aqueous
(A) Trimethyl amines form a soluble compound nitrous acid at low temperature produces an oily
with Hinsberg reagent and KOH. nitrosoamine is
(A) methyl amine (B) ethyl amine
(B) Dimethylamines react with KOH and phenol to
form an azo dye. (C) diethyl amine (D) triethyl amine.
[2010]
(C) Methylamine reacts with nitrous acid and
liberates N2 from aq. soln. 22. Best method to form aromatic iodide is
(D) None of these. [2007] (A) ArN 2 HI o (B) RNH 2 I 2 o
16. The reaction, (C) ArN 2 KI o (D) ArN 2 PI3 o
N3H [2011]
R C R RCONHR + N2 is called
H 2SO 4
O 23. Which is the major product formed when
C6H5CONHC6H5 undergoes nitration ?
(A) Claisen-Schmidt reaction
NO2
(B) Kolbe-Schmidt reaction
CONH
(C) Schmidt reaction
(D) Kolbe’s reaction. [2008] (A)
17. Which of the following amines, can give N- CONH
nitrosoamine on treatment with HNO2 ?
(B)
NH3 CH CH3 NO2
NH 2
(A) (B)
NH2 CO -- NH
NH -- R NR2 (C) O2N
(C) (D)
[2008]
CO -- NH
18. Toluene is nitrated and the resulting product is
reduced with tin and hydrochloric acid. the product
(D)
so obtained is diazotised and then heated with
cuprous bromide. The reaction mixture so formed NO2
contains
Zn NH Cl
(A) mixture of o- and m-bromotoluenes 24. Nitrobenzene (PhNO2) 4
oP
(B) mixture of o- and p-bromotoluenes P will be
(C) mixture of o- and p-dibromobenzenes (A) C6H5NH2 (B) C6H5NHOH
(C) C6H5 – N = O (D) C6H6 [2012]
(D) mixture of o- and p-bromo anilines
[2008] 25. PhCH2Cl
aq.NaCN
o?
19. The reaction of an organic compound with ammonia
Catalytic hydrogenation
o(u)
followed by nitration of the product gives a powerful The final product (U) is :
explosive called RDX. The organic compound is (A) C6H5CH2NH2 (B) C6H5CH2CONH2
(A) phenol (B) toluene (C) C6H5CH2NH2 (D) C6H5CH2NHCH3
(C) glycerine (D) formaldehyde. [2012]
[2008]
26. Reaction of aniline with HNO2 followed by treatment
20. Which of the following reactions does not yield an of dilute acid gives
amine ? (A) C6H5NHOH (B) C6H5OH
(A) R – X + NH3 o (C) C6H5NHNH2 (D) C6H6 [2013]
(B) R – CH = NOH + [H]

Na/C2 H 5OH
o
27. Which of the following will give carbylamine test ?
(C) R – CN + H2O H
o (A) CH3NH2 (B) CH3NHCH3
(D) R – CONH2 LiAlH 4
o [2010] (C) CH3N(CH3)CH3 (D) CH3CONH2
[2013]
30
28. Which of the following does not given nitroalkane 34. CH3 - CH = CH - CH = N - CH3 LiAlH 4
o
?
What is final product [2018]
KMnO4
(A) CH3 N CH3 (A) CH3 - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - NH - CH3
(B) CH3 - CH = CH - CH2 - NH - CH3
CH3
(C) CH3 - CH2 - CH2 - CH - N - CH3
(B) C 2 H 5 I
alc.AgNO 2
o (D) CH3 - CH = CH - CH2 - OH
(C) CH3 CH3

Fuming HNO3
o ASSERTION AND REASON
In each of the following questions, two statement
(D) Both (A) and (B) [2013] are given one is assertion and the other is reason.
Examine the statement carefully and mark the correct
29. Which one of the following forms propanenitrile as
answer according to the instruction given below
the major proudct ?
(A) If both the assertion and reason are true and
(A) Propyl bromide + alcoholic KCN reason explains the assertion
(B) Ethyl bromide + alcoholic KCN (B) If both the assertion and reason are true but
(C) Ethyl bromide + alcoholic AgCN reason does not explain the assertion
(D) Propyl bromide + alcoholic AgCN (C) If assertion is true but reason is false
[2014] (D) If assertion is false but reason in true
(E) Both assertion and reason are false
30. The reaction of a primary amine with chloroform
and ethanolic solution of KOH is called 35. Assertion : p-O2N – C6H5COCH3 is prepared by
(A) Hofmann’s reaction Friedel Crafts acylation of nitrobenzene.
(B) coupling reaction Reason : Nitrobenzene easily undergoes
(C) carbylamine reaction electrophilic substitution reaction. [2005]
(D) Curtius reaction [2015] 36. Assertion : Alkyl isocyanides in acidified water give
alkyl formamides.
31. Which of the following reagents cannot be used for
Reason : In isocyanides, carbon first acts as a
the given conversion ?
nucleophile and then as an electrophile.[2005]
NO2 NH2
37. Assertion : Anilinium chloride is more acidic than
ammonium chloride.
Reason : Anilinium ion is not resonance-stabilised.
(A) Sn–HCl (B) Fe–HCl [2006, 2008]
(C) LiAlH4 (D) Pd/C [2016]
38. Assertion : Benzene diazonium salt on boiling with
32. Which amine amongst the following will answer water forms phenol
positively the carblamine test ? Reason : C – N bond is polar. [2007]
(A) C6H5–NH–CH3 (B) Me NH 2 39. Assertion : C2H5Br reacts with alcoholic solution of
AgNO2 to form nitroethane as the major product.
(C) C6H5–N(C2H5)2 [2016]
Reason : NO2– is an ambidient ion. [2009]
33. The major organic product formed in the following 40. Assertion : When acetamide reacts with NaOH and
reaction Br2, methyl amine is formed.
O (i) CH3NH2 Reason : The reaction occurs through intermediate
...is formation of isocyanate. [2016]
(ii) LiAlH4 (iii) H2O
O NHCH 3 41. Assertion : Aniline does not undergo FriedelCrafts
(A)
reaction. [2017]
(B) Reason : –NH2 group of aniline reacts with AlCl3

NHCH3 (Lewis acid) to give acid-base reaction.
N(CH3)2
(C) [2016] 42. Assertion : Aniline is better nucleophile than
OH anilium ion. [2017]
Reason : Anilium ion have +ve charge.
31
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE : PART # I
1. A 2. C 3. D 4. A 5. D 6. A 7. B 8. D 9. A 10. A 11. A 12. C 13. A
14. B 15. D 16. D 17. B 18. A 19. D 20. D 21. D 22. B 23. C 24. C 25. D 26. A
27. D 28. A 29. B 30. D
PART # II
1. C 2. D 3. D 4. C 5. A 6. C 7. C 8. D 9. D 10. D 11. D 12. C 13. A
14. D 15. C 16. C 17. C 18. B 19. B 20. C 21. C 22. C 23. B 24. B 25. A 26. B
27. A 28. A 29. B 30. C 31. C 32. B 33. B 34. B 35. D 36. A 37. C 38. B 39. B
40. A 41. A 42. A
32
40-65*0/4 NITROGEN AND ITS DERIVATIVES
EXERCISE NO2 NH2

P-1 (NEET/AIPMT)
Electrolytic
+ 4H Reduction in weakly + H2O
NH2 NHCOCH3 4. (A) acidic medium
1. (A)
Aniline
Ac2O Br2
CH 3COOH 5. (D) Benzylamine, C6H5CH 2–NH is more basic than
aniline because benezyl group (C6H5CH2–) is electron
donating group due to +I-effect. So, it is able to increase
CH3 CH3
the electron density of N of –NH2 group. Thus, due to
NHCOCH3 A NH2 higher electron density, rate of donation of free pair of
Br Br electron is increased, i.e. basic character is higher. Phenyl
H2 O/H+
and nitro group are electron withdrawing groups, so they
decreases the electron density on N of –NH group.
hence, they are less basic than aniline.
CH3 CH3 LiAlH4
B C 6. (A) CH3–N {C+4[H] CH3NHCH3
Dimethylamine
2. (C) Aniline on diazotisation in cold (at 0° to 5° C) gives On catalytic reduction or with lithium aluminum hydride
benzene diazonium chloride. (LiAlH4) or with nascent hydrogen, alkyl isocyanide yield
2° amine whereas cyanide gives 1° amine on reduction.
0-5°
NH2 + NaNH2 + 2HCl Diazotisation 7. (B) No2 group being electron withdrawing that’s why it
reduces the electron density at ortho and para-positions.
+ _ Hence, as compare to ortho and para the meta-positions.
N = N – Cl + NaCl + 2H2O Hence, as compare to ortho and para the meta-position
Benzene diazonium chloride is electron rich on which the electrophile (nitronium ion)
This benzene diazonium chloride on coupling with can easily attacks during nitration.
dimethyl aniline gives a coloured product, i.e. p-(N, N- HNO3 + H2SO4 o H2NO3+ + H2O4–
dimethyl) amino azobenzene (azo dye).
CH3
N=N – Cl + H N H2O + pNO2+
CH3 Electrophile
(nitronium ion)
_ CH3
+
N–N N NO2 NO2
CH3
p-(N,N-dimethyl) amino
azobenzene + NO2+ o
[azo dye]
NO2
m-dinitrobenzene
+ – or 1, 3-dinitrobenzene
NH2 N2 Cl
3. (D) NaNO2+ CuCN + –
HCl (Sandmeyer's 8. (D) NH2 N=NCl
(Diazotisation) reaction)
NaNO2
A HCl
Benzene diazonium
chloride
CN CH2NH2 A B
Benzene diazonium
H2/Ni Aniline chloride
(Reduction)
CH3
B C H N
Cyanobenzene Benzyl amine CH3 CH3
N=N N
CH2OH Cold CH3
HNO2
p-(N, N-dimethyl) amine azobenzene
(azodye
D
Benzyl alcohol
33
9. (A) Both alphatic and aromatic secondary amines reacts 12. (C) Key Idea (i) Presence of electron withdrawing
with NaNO2 + HCl or (HNO2) to form N-nitrosamines substituent decreases the basicity while the presence of
which are insoluble in dilute mineral acids and separate electron releasing substituent like, –CH3, –C2H5, etc,
out as nautral yellow oily compounds. increases the acidity.
CH3 CH3 (ii) HNO2 converts –NH2 group of aliphatic amine into –
NH N–N=O OH while that of aromatic amines into –N = NCl.
+ NaNO 2 Since, phenyl group is a electron withdrawing group, it
+ HCl or HNO2 decreases the basicity. Alkyl group, on the other hand,
N-methylaniline N-nitroso-N-methylaniline being electron releasing, increases the basicity. Thus,
(2° amine) (nitroso compound)
(yellow oily liquid) alkyl amines are more basic as compared to aryl amines
as well as ammonia.
10. (A) Key Idea Alkyl halides are more reactive towards
nucleophilic substitution. Reactivity depends upon the R – NH 2
HNO2
o R OH
stability of carbocation intermediate formed. Alkyl a min e
Among the given halides, aryl halide (C6H5X) is least Thus, HNO2 (nitrous acid) converts alkyl amines to
reactive towards nucleophile as in it the C – X bond alcohols.
acquire some double bond character due to resonance. But aryl amines react with nitrous acid to form diazonium
Presence of electron withdrawing groups like –NO2 at salt.
ortho and para-positions facilitate the nucleophilic
HNO2 +
displacement of –X of aryl halide Among alkyl halides, C6H5NH2 0–5°C C6H5 –N2 Cl
Aryl amine
3° haldies are more rective as compared to 2° halides due (273-278 K)
to the formation of more stable carbocation. hence, the at 0–5°C temperature
order of reactivity of C – X bond towards nucleophile is
as follows : NaNO 2 HCl
o HNO 2 NaCl
X X Thus, HNO2 does not convert aryl amies into phenol.
NO2 13. (A) Key Idea The reagent which can convert –CONH2
< < (CH3 )2CH – X group into –NH2 group is used for this reaction.
IV Among the given reagents only NaOH/Br2 converts –
CONH 2 group to –NH 2 group, thus it is used for
I NO2 < (CH3)3C – X converting acetamide to methyl amine. This reaction is
II III called Hoffmann bromamide reaction, in which primary
11. (A) Key Idea NaNO2/ HCl causes diazotisation of –NH2 amides on treatement with Br2/ NaOH form primary
group and the diazonium chloride gives a coupling amines.
product with active aryl nucleus. CH3 CONH 2 NaOH Br2
o Ch 3 NH 2
NH2 N = NCl Acetamide Methyl a min e
+ naBr + Na2CO3 + H2O

NaNO2 /HCl
(273-278-K)
14. (B) COOH COCl
X
N3C CH3 SOCl2 NH3
N = NCl N
Br Br
B
+ CONH2 NH2
NaOH
H +Br2
N,N-dimethylaniline
Br Br
CH3 C D
N=N N
CH3
The conversion of ‘C’ to ‘D’ is an example of Hofmann
Coupling product
Y bromamide degradation reaction.
34
15. (D) Reduction of nitrobenzene with Zn/NH4Cl (neutral 19. (D) Structural isomers of C3H9N are
medium) give phenyl hydroxyamine. CH3CH2 CH2 NH2 , CH3 – CH – CH3
NO2 NH2
NH – OH 1° amine
Zn/NH 4Cl
+ 4[H](Neutral medium) + H2O
CH3 – CH2 – NH – CH3, CH3 – N – CH3
2° amine
CH 3
3° amine
16. (D) The complete reaction is
20. (D) Schotten-Baumann reaction is a method to synthesise
+
N{NCl + H –
NH2
H+
– HCl
amides from amines and acid chlorides.
21. (D) Due to resonance in chlorobenzene C – Cl bond
Diazonium Aniline
chloride acquires double bond character hence, C – Cl bond is
inert towards nucleophile (phthalimide ion). Therefore
N=N NH2 aniline cannot be prepared.
22. (B) The complete road map of the reaction can be seen
(Yellow dye)
(p-azo benzene compound)
as
+ –
The above reaction is a coupling reaction of aniline with NO2 NH2 N2 Cl
diazonium salt to give azo benzene compound. This
coupling reaction takes place at the para-position to – Sn/HCl HNO 2
Reduction
NH2 group of benzene. This reaction of aniline.
17. (B) Diazonium salt containing aryl group directly linked Aniline (B)
(A)
to the nitrogen atom is most stable due to resonance Nitro benzene Benezene diazonium
chloride unstable
stabilisation bwetween the benzene nucleus and N-atom.
Ph–OH
Diazonium ion act as a electrophile. N=N OH
+ + _ + _ Red colour dye
N{N: N=N: N=N:
+ 23. (C) The given reaction follows SN2 mechanism and SN2
reactions are favoured in polar aprotic medium like
DMSO, DMF ... etc.
+
+ + _ CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 Br NaCN
DMF
o CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CN NaBr
N{N: N=N:
So, the corect option is (c).
+
24. (C) Key Idea 1° and 2° nitro compounds react with HNO2
while 3°-nitro compound does not.
[Resonance structure of benzene diazonium ion] The reactions of given compounds with HNO2 are as
18. (A) Under weakly acidic conditions nitrobenzene one follow
electrolytic reduction gives aniline but under strongly CH3CH2CH2NO2 CH3–CH2–C–NO2
acidic conditions gives p-aminophenol. 1°-nitro ||
NO2 NO2 NH2
compound N–OH
N–OH
H2
4e
–
2H
+
H3 C C HO–N=O
CH 3 –CH–C–NO 2
4H
+
weakly CH NO2
H3 C CH3
1°-nitro compound
Nitrobenzen
H
+
Aniline CH3
strongly HO–N=O
CH3–C–CH–NO2
NH2 O CH3–CH–C–NO2
1°-nitro compound
CH3 N–OH
H3 C HO–N=O
H3C C – NO2 No reaction
H3 C
3°-nitro compound
OH
p-aminophenol Thus, option (c) is incorrect.
35
OCH3 OCH3 OCH3

NH2 NH2
NaNH2
+
28. (A)
Br NH2
direct cine
25. (D) substitution substitution
R – NH2
Aryl amine Alkyl amine If nucleophile occupies same position of the leaving
(less basic) (more basic)
group, product is caleld direct substitution product.
Due to dalocalisation of lone parir of electrons of N- If nucleophile occupies adjacent position of the leaving
atome to the benzene ring, it losses its basicity and group, product is called cine substitution product.
becomes less basic than alkyl amine. Intermediate formed in this reaction is benzyne.
On the other hand, alkyl amine has free lone pair of
electron as well as +I-effect of alkyl group increases
electron density on N-atom enhancing its basic nature. OCH3 OCH3
26. (A) In the nitration of benzene in the presence of conc.

H2SO4 and HNO3, nitrobenzene is formed. H + NH2

HNO3 H 2SO 4 U NO HSO HSO H 2 O
2 4 4 Br
Electrophile Nucleophile Benzyne
If large amount of KHSO4 is added to this mixture, more OCH3 OCH3

HSO 4
ion furnishes and hence the concentration of
+ NH2 + H–NH2
NO2 , i.e. electrophile decreases.
NH2
As concentration of electrophile decreases, rate of
Attack of nucleophile
electrophilic aromatic reaction also decreases. at the original position
(from where Br– leaves)
27. (D) Thinking process This type of problem can be solved OCH3
by application of electron-withdrawing and electron
donating group.
NH2
NH2 NH2 NH2
Direct substitution
product
OCH3 OCH3
(I) NO2 CH3
NH2
(II) (III)
+ NH2
In III, – CH3 group is an electron donating and o/p
directing group which increase the electron density on H–NH2
benzene ring at ortho or para position while in II, –NO2 Attack of nucleophile
at the adjacent
group is an electron withdrawing group which decrease carbon
the electron density on benzene ring. Hence, the III is OCH3
more basic than II. In I, there is no substituent attached,
NH2
due to which I is more basic than II and less basic than
III.
Therefore, the correct order of basic strength of above
compounds is II < I < III. Cine substitution
product
36
29. (B) The conversion of amide with no substituent on
nitrogen to an amine containing one carbon less by the
action of alkaline hypobromide or bromine in presence
of NaOH. It involves the migration of alkyl or aryl group
with its electron pair to electron deficient N from adjacent
carbon. The reaction involves the intermediates of
isocyanate.
O
CH3 – C – NH2 + Br2 + NaOH
Acetamide
' CH3NH2 + NaBr + Na2 CO3 + H2 O

Mathanamine
O O
Step I : CH3 – C – NH 2 + Br2 o CH3 – C – N – Br
Acetamide
N
Step II :
O O
Step III : CH3 – C – N – Br o CH3 – C – N: + Br
O
intermolecular
Step IV : CH3 – C – N: alkyl migration CH3 NCO
' CH NH + CO 2–
Step V : CH 3NCO + 2OH –o 3 2 3
30. (D) Refer to theory
37
EXERCISE H
P-2 (AIIMS) C6 H5 NO2 + Zn + H2 O
NH 4Cl
C6H5N -- OH + ZnO
warm
1. (C) : –NO2 group exerts a strong electron withdrawing nitrobenzene phenyl hydroxyl
amine
effect dut to which basicity at –N atoms decreases.
CH3 COOH COCl
NO2 NHOH [O] SOCl2
12. (C) : --SO2, --HCl
Zn/NH4Cl
2. (D) : (A) (B)
CON3 NCO

NaN3
3. (D) : CH 3 N H 3C l is a salt which can be sompletely --NaCl --N2, rearrangement
ionized in aqueous solution. (C) (D)
4. (C) : The basicity is a measure of a compound’s ability to 13. (A) : 2CuSO4 + 4KCN o (CN2) + 2CUCN + 2K2SO4
accept a proton (H+). (B) and (D) are weaker bases as the On combining solution of copper (II) salts and cyanides,
lone pair are involved in resonance. ln (A) carbon an unstable copper (III) cyanide is formed which rapidly
adjacent to N is sp 2 hybridised hence is more decomposes into copper (I) cyanide and cyanogen.
electronegative therefore, pulls the electron density from
nitrogen. 14. (D) : All aliphatic primary amines liberate N2 gas on
treatment with HNO2.
5. (A) R – NH2 + HONO 273 278 K
o R – OH + N2 + H2O
6. (C) : Melting points are normally higher for primary Since no other class of amines liberate N2 gas on treatment
amides due to presence of hydrogen bonding. with HNO2, this reaction is used as a test for aliphatic
primary amines.
7. (C) : Methyl isocyanate is industrially prepared by the
action of methyl amine with phosgene. 15. (C) : Aliphatic 1° amines react with cold nitrous acid to
CH3NH2 + COCl2 HCl
o [CH3NH – CO – Cl] give alcohols with quantitative evolution of N2 gas.
273 278 K
-- HCL
CH3 N C O CH3NH2 + HONO o CH3Oh + N2 + H2O
methyl isocyanate
Methylamine
O This reaction is used as a test for aliphatic primary amines.
8. (D) : (i) RCNH2 + Br2 + KOH RCONHBr 16. (C) : O OH

+
R H N N N
+
H
+ KBr + H2O R C R R C
+
OH
(ii) RCONHBr + KOH RNCO + KBr + H2O --H 2O
R R R C R
(iii) RNCO + 2KOH RNH2 + K2CO3
C H N N N
RCONH2 + Br2 + 4KOH RNH2 + 2 KBr N N
+
N
+ K2CO3 + 2H2O
--N 2
9. (D) : Basicity of amines is due to availability of an + +
H2O --H
R C N R R C NR R C NR
unshared pair of electrons is available for the formation OH2 OH
of a new bond with a proton of Lewis acid.
Pyridine is less basic than triethylamine because lone R C NHR
pair of nitrogen in pyridine is delocalised. O
Zn -- Hg 17. (C) : Secondary amines form nitrosoamines which are

10. (D) : C6H5CONHCH3 C6H5CH2NHCH3 yellow oily liquids insoluble in water.
HCl
This reaction is known as Clemmenson reduction. R2NH + HONO o R2NNO + H2O
11. (D) When reduced with a neutral reducing agent like Dialkyl nitrosoamine
zinc dust and aqueous ammonium chloride, nitrobenzene
gives phenyl hydroxyl amine.
38
18. (B) : NO2 NHOH
CH3 CH3 CH3
NO2
HNO 3 Zn/NH4Cl
H2SO4
+ 24. (B) : + 4 [H]
NO2 Nitrobenzene Phenyl hydroxylamine
Sn/HCl In neutral medium, nitrobenzene reduces to phenyl
CH3 CH3 hydroxylamine.
NH2
aq. NaCN
+ 25. (A) : PhCH2Cl PhCH2CN
H2, Pd
Cat. hydrogenation
PhCH2CH2 NH2
NH2
(u)
NaNO2/HCl
26. (B) : NaNO2 + HCl o NaCl + HNO2
CH3 CH3 NH2 N2+ Cl
+
N NCl
0 -- 5°C
+ + NaNO2 + 2HCl + 2H2O + 2NaCl
+
N NCl H2O, H+
CuBr OH
CH3 CH3
Br
+ Phenol
Br 27. (A) : Only primary amines will give carbylamine test.

CH3NH2 + CHCl3 + 3KOH o CH3N C
19. (B) : Trinitrotoluene (TNT) with ammonium nitrate is (offensive smell)
extensively employed as blasting explosive. + 3KCl + 3H2O
20. (C) : Cyanides, on hydrolysis, give acids 28. (A) : Tertiary amines are not oxidised by KMnO4.
RCN + 2H2O o RCOOH + NH3
H
while all other reactions give amines. 29. (B) : C2H5Br + KCN(alco.)
Ethyl bromide C2H5CN + KBr
21. (C) : Secondary (2°) amines (aliphatic as well as aromatic) Propanenitrile
react with nitrous acid (HNO2) to form N-nitrosoamines. (Major product)
(C2H5)2NH + HONO o (C2H5)2N–N O + H2O 30. (C) : In carbylamine reaction, aliphatic and aromatic
(2° amine) (nitrous acid) (N-nitrosodiethylamine) primary amines on heating with chloroform and ethanolic
KOH, form isocyanides or carbylamines which are foul
22. (C) smelling substances.
R – NH2 + CHCl3 + 3KOH(alc.) '
o
23. (B) : The ring attached to the nitrogen atom in benzanilide
is strongly activated towards electrophilic substitution R – NC + 3KCl + 3H2O
reaction. 31. (C) : With LiAlH4 nitroarenes give aze compounds.
? Nitration occurs at p-position to the ring attached 2C 6 H 5 NO 2
LiAlH 4
o C6H5 N N C6H5
to ‘N’ atom.
32. (B) : Only aliphatic and aromatic 1° amines (i.e.
COH -- NH
Me NH2 in the present case) give positive
HNO3
H 2SO 4 carbylamine test.
CO--NH NO2 O CH3NH2

NCH3 LiAlH4
33. (B) :
H2O
NHCH3
39
34. (D) : CH3 - CH = CH - CH = N - CH3

LiAlH 4
o 39. (B) : The lone pair electrons on N atom in AgNO2 attacks
C2H5Br to form nitroethane as the major product.
CH3 - CH = CH - CH2 - NH - CH3
LiAlH4 reduces imine into Amine but does not reduces 40. (A) : CH3CONH2 + Br2 + 4NaOH o CH3NH2 + Na2CO3
C=C double bond + 2NaBr + 2H2O
The reaction occurs through intermediate formation of
35. (D) : The nitro group strongly deactivates the benzene alkyl isocyanate which on hydrolysis gives methylamine
ring towards electrophilic substitution. Nitrobenzene and sodium carbonate.
does not undergo Friedel-Craft acylation reaction.
36. (A) : In an isocyanide, first an electrophile and then a 41. (A)

nucleophile add at the carbon to form a species which
usually undergoes further transformations. 42. (A) It is fact that aniline is better nucleophile than anilium
ion. Anilium ion contain +ve charge, which reduces the
R N { C + E o R N { CE
Nu
o RN { C(Nu)E tendency to donate loan pair of electron C6H5NH3+
Anilium ion
R N { C + H 2 O o RN CHOH o RNHCHO
alkylformamide

37. (C) : C 6 H 5 N H 3 o C6 H 5 NH 2 H
anilinium ion aniline
stronger acid weaker conjugated base
Aniline is weaker base than ammonium chloride. In NH4Cl
or aliphatic amines, the non-bonding electron pair of N
is localized and is fully available for coordination with a
proton. On the other hand, in aniline or other aromatic
amines, the non-bonding electron pair is delocalised into
benzene ring by resonance.
NH2 NH2 NH2 NH2 NH2
But anilinium ion is less resonance stabilised than aniline.
+ +
NH3 NH3
no other resonating
structure possible
38. (B) : This is the substitution or replacement reaction of

benzene diazonium salt, where nitrogen is lost as N2 and
different groups are introduced in its place.
+ + +
N N O H2 O H2
H2O H 2O
+ N2 + H 3O
+
Phenol
40
BIOMOLECULES &
CHAPTER
14
POLYMERS
The beauty of Chemistry is that I can design my own molecular world.
''BEN L. FERINGA''
INTRODUCTION
C
omplex organic compound which governs the comman activities of the living organism
are called biomolecules.Living systems are made up of various complex biomolecules
like carbohydrates, proteins, nuclic acids, lipids e.t.c. In addition, some simple
molecules like vitamins and mineral salts also play an important role in the functions
of organism.
Among biomolecule, nucleic acids, namely DNA and RNA have the unique function
of storing of proteins, which are of critical importance to life on earth.Carbohydrate,
which are made up of primarily of molecules containing atoms of carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen are essential energy source and structural components of all life and
they are among the most abundant biomolecule on earth.
Polymer is defined as a high molecular weight compound formed by the combination
of large number of one or more types of small molecules(Monomers)
41
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates received their name because of their general formula Cx(H2O)y, according to which they appear to
be hydrates of carbon.
Sunlight, chlorophyll
xCO2 + yH2O Cx(H2O)y + xO2
Carbohydrate
A polyhydroxy compound that has an aldehyde or a ketone functional group present, either free or as hemiacetal or
acetal are called carbohydrate.
Carbohydrates are substances with the general formula Cx(H2O)y, and were therefore called carbohydrates (hydrates
of carbon) because they contained hydrogen and oxygen in the same proportion as in water.
However, a number of compounds have been discovered which are carbohydrates by chemical behaviour, but do
not conform to the formula Cx(H2O)y, e.g., 2-deoxyribose, C5H10O4.
T S KEY POINTS
It is also important to note that all compounds conforming to the formula Cx(H2O)y are not necessarily carbohydrates,
e.g., formaldehyde, CH2O ; acetic acid, C2H4O2 ; etc.
Carbohydrates are often referred to as Saccharides (Latin, Saccharum = sugar) because of the sweet taste of the
simpler members of the class, the sugars.
Classification of Carbohydrate :
The carbohydrates are divided into three major classes depending on the number of simple sugar units present in
their molecule.
(i) Monosaccharide : A carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolyzed to simpler compounds is called monosaccharide.
Monosaccharide which have six carbon are either aldohexoses or ketohexoses. Ex. glucose, fructose, ribose.
(ii) Oligosaccharides : Carbohydrates that yield two to ten monosaccharide units, on hydrolysis, are called
oligosaccharides. They are further classified as disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides, etc., depending
upon the number of monosaccharides, they provide on hydrolysis. Amongst these the most common are
disaccharides. The two monosaccharides units obtained on hydrolysis on a disaccharide may be same or
different. For example, sucrose on hydrolysis gives one molecule each of glucose and fructose whereas
maltose gives two molecules of glucose only.
(iii) Polysaccharide : A carbohydrate that can be hydrolyzed to many monosaccharide molecules is called a
polysaccharide. Example : Starch, Cellulose, etc.
The carbohydrates may also be classified as either reducing or non-reducing sugars. All those carbohydrates
which reduce Fehling’s solution and Tollen’s reagent are referred to as reducing sugars. All monosaccharides
whether aldose or ketose are reducing sugars.
The carbohydrates may be classified as either reducing or non-reducing sugars.All those carbohydrates which
reduce Fehling’s solution and Tollen’s reagent are referred to as reducing sugars. All monosaccharides whether
aldose or ketose are reducing sugars.
In disaccharides, if the reducing groups of monosaccharides i.e., aldehydric or ketonic groups are bonded,
these are non-reducing sugars e.g. sucrose. On the other hand, sugars in which these functional groups are
free, are called reducing sugars, for example, maltose and lactose.
42
BIOMOLECULES & POLYMER
(I) Monosaccharides :
The important characteristics of monosaccharides as follows:
(i) All monosaccharides are water soluble due to the presence of hydrogen bonding between the different OH
groups and surrounding water molecules.
(ii) Monosaccharides have sweet taste and upon heating they get charred and give the smell of burning sugar.
(iii) Monosaccharides are optically active in nature due to the presence of chiral carbon atoms.
(iv) The chemical characteristics of monosaccharides are due to OH groups and carbonyl group which may be
either aldehydic or ketonic group.
Glyceraldehyde contains one asymmetric carbon atom (marked by an asterisk) and can thus exist in two
optically active forms, called the D-form and the L-form. Clearly, the two forms are mirror images that cannot be
superimposed, that is they are enantiomers.
CHO CHO
H C OH OH C H
H2C OH H2C OH
D-Glyceraldehyde L-Glyceraldehyde
D Means on
HC1 O the right HC1 O
H C OH OH C H L Means on
2 2
the left
H2C OH H2C OH
3 3
D-Glyceraldehyde L-Glyceraldehyde
GLUCOSE (ALDOHEXOSE) :
Glucose is the most common monosaccharide. It is known as Dextrose because it occurs in nature principally as the
optically active dextrorotatory isomers. It is act as a reducing agent (reduces both Fehling’s solution and ammonical
silver nitrate solution). When heated with sodium hydroxide, an aqueous solution of glucose turns brown. It is
known as dextrose and found as grapes, honey, cane sugar, starch and cellulose.
Configuration of Glucose:
Since the above structure possesses four asymmetric carbon atoms (shown by asterisks), it an exist in 2 4 = 16
optically active forms, i.e., eight pairs of enantiomers. All these are known and correspond to the D- and L-forms of
glucose, mannose, galactose, allose, glucose, idose and talose.
The naturally occurring dextrorotatory glucose (+)-glucose is only one of the 16-stereoisomers.
CHO
1
|
H— C — OH
2
|
HO—3C — H CHO
| |
H— 4 C — OH H— C — OH
| |
H— 5 C — OH H2C — OH
6|
H2C — OH
D(+)Glucose (+)-Glyceraldehyde
43
Notations D- and L- for denoting configuration were given by Rosanoff; according to this convention any compound
whose bottom asymmetric carbon atoms has the configuration similar to the configuration of dextrorotatory
glyceraldehyde (drawn above, i.e. the bottom carbon atom has –OH to the left and H to the right is given L-
configuration. Remember that the symbols D-and L- have no relation with the specific rotation value, i.e., with (+)
or (–) value. For example, the natural (–) fructose belongs to D-series, i.e., it is D(–)-fructose)
Preparation of Glucose :
(a) From sucrose (Cane sugar) : If sucrose is boiled with dilute HCl or H2SO4 in alcoholic solution, glucose and
fructose are obtained in equal amounts.

C12 H 22 O11 H 2 O o
H
C6 H12 O 6 C6 H12 O 6
Sucrose Glu cos e Fructose
(b) From starch : Commercially glucose is obtained by hydrolysis of starch by boiling it with dilute H2SO4 at 393
K under pressure.
H+
(C 6H10O5)n + nH2O 393K : 2–3 atm
nC6 H12O6
Starch or cellulose Glucose
Chemical reactions of Glucose :

(a) Oxidation :
COOH
(i) Tollen’s reagent
(CH OH)4 + Ag (Silver mirror)
(ii) H+
CH2OH
Gluconic acid
COOH
(i) Fehling’s solution
(CH OH)4 + Cu2O (Red ppt)
(ii) H+
CHO CH2OH
(CH OH)4 Gluconic acid
CH2OH
Glucose COOH
Br 2 water
(CH OH)4 Gluconic acid
CH2OH
COOH
Conc. HNO3
(CH OH)4 Sacchric acid
COOH
(b) Reduction :
CH3
(CH2)4 n–hexane
CHO CH3
(CH OH)4
CH2 OH
CH2OH Na — Hg
(CH OH)4 Sorbitol
H2O
CH2OH
44
(c) Reaction with hydroxyl amine :
CHO CH=N—OH
H2N–OH
(CH OH)4 (CH—OH)4 Glucose Oxime
CH2OH CH2OH
(d) Reaction with hydrogen cyanide :
CN
CHO CH—OH
HCN
(CH OH)4 (CH—OH)4 Glucose
cyanohydrin
CH2OH CH2OH
(e) Acetylation :
CHO CHO O
5 CH3COCl
(CH OH)4 (CH—O—C—CH3 )4 Glucose pentaacetate
O
CH2OH
CH2—O—C—CH3
(f) Reaction with phenyl hydrazine :
CHO CH N NH Ph
3 Ph–NH–NH2
CH OH C N NH Ph Glucosazone
(CH OH)3 (CH OH)3
CH2OH CH2OH
Mechanism :
CH O CH N NH Ph CH NH NH Ph CH NH CH N NH Ph
CH OH CH OH C OH C O C N NH Ph
Ph–NH–NH2 Tautomerism 2H2N–NH–Ph
(CH OH)3 (–H2O) (CH OH)3 (CH OH)3 –Ph–NH2 (CH OH)3 –NH3 (CH OH)3
–H2O
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
(Osazone)
Cyclic structure of Glucose :

It was found that glucose forms a six-membered ring in which —OH at C-5 is involved in ring formation. This
explains the absence of —CHO group and also existence of glucose in two forms as shown below. These two cyclic
forms exist in equilibrium with open chain structure.
O
1 1
H C OH H C HO 1C H
H 2 OH H 2 OH H 2 OH
O O
HO 3 H HO 3 H HO 3 H
H 4 OH H 4 OH H 4 OH
H 5 H 5 OH H 5
6 6 6
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
45
The two cyclic hemiacetal forms of glucose differ only in the configuration of the hydroxyl group at C1, called
anomeric carbon (the aldehyde carbon before cyclisation). Such isomers, i.e., D-form E-form, are called anomers. The
six membered cyclic structure of glucose is called pyranose structure (D– or E–), in analogy with pyran. Pyran is a
cyclic organic compound with one oxygen atom and five carbon atoms in the ring. The cyclic structure of glucose
is more correctly represented by Haworth structure as given below.
6 6
CH2OH CH2OH
O 5 O 5 O
H H H H H OH
4 1 4 1
HO OH H OH HO OH H H
3 2 3 2
H OH H OH
Pyran
FRUCTOSE(KETOHEXOSE) :
Also said to be fruit sugar
(i) It occur both in combined as well as free state.
(ii) Fructose is named as fruit sugar because it is present in honey and most sweet fruit in free state.
(iii) It is sweetest monosaccharide and present in cane sugar and insulin in combined state.
(iv) It is also known as D-Laevulose i.e. natural occurring compound is laevorotatory(D- series)
Preparation :
(i) By acid hydrolysis of cane sugar :
C12H22O11 + H2O H C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

Glucose Fructose
(ii) By enzymatic action of sucrose
Sucrose (C12H22O11) Invertase Glucose + Fructose

Invert Sugar
(Disaccharide)
Note: Glucose and fructose obtained by acid hydrolysis of sucrose can be separated by treating with Ca(OH)2 which
forms calcium glucosate & calcium fructosate. Calcium fructosate being water insoluble. It is separated out easily
Properties :
(i) It is colourless crystalline solid.
(ii) It is soluble in water but insoluble in ether ketone and benzene.
(iii) It is pentahydroxy ketone and shows mutarotation like glucose.
46
Chemical Reaction :
Due to OH group at 2nd carbon :
(1) It forms fructose pentaacetate with acetyl chloride :
O
(CH3CO)2O ||
CH2OH CH2–O–C–CH3
| or CH3COCl |
C=O C=O O fructose penta acetate
| | ||
(CHOH)3 (CH–O–C–CH3)3
| |
CH2OH CH2–O–C–CH3
||
O
+
CH3OH/H
& -methyl fructoside
(2) Reaction due to keto group : It also form osazone with excess of phenyl hydrazine thus we can say that osazone
formation is characteristic of D-hydroxy carbonyl compounds.
H2N–NH–C6 H5 H2N–NH–C6 H5 H2 N–NH–C6H5

CH2OH CH2–OH CH=O CH=N–NH– C6H5
| –NH3 & –C6H5–NH2 | |
|
C=O C=N–NH–C6H5 C=N–NH–C6H5 CH=N–NH–C6H5
(CHOH)3 (CHOH)3 (CHOH)3 (CHOH)3

| | | |
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
(A) Fructose osazone
HCN
Fructose cyanohydrin
Br2/H2O
No reaction
CH2OH CH2OH
Na-Hg/H2O H OH HO H
or NaBH4
HO H + HO H
CH2OH H OH H OH
H OH H OH
C=O
CH2OH CH2OH
(CHOH)3 Sorbitol Mannitol
CH2OH HI/P
n-hexane + 2-iodohexane
(A)
COOH COOH
Strong oxidising CH2 OH
+ (CHOH)2 + (CHOH)3
agent COOH
COOH COOH
Glycollic acid
Tartaric acid Trihydroxy
glutaric acid
A mixture
Fermentation
C2H5OH
47
Structure :
CH2 – OH
|
C=O
|
HO – C – H
| +
H – C – OH
|
H – C – OH
|
CH2 – OH
Open chain structure D-D-fructose E-D-fructose

of fructose
Specific Rotation (– 92º) Specific Rotation (– 21º) Specific Rotation (– 133º)
Haworth projection : Fructofuranose
D-fructose E-fructose
Epimer : The change of configuration of one asymmetric carbon atom in a compound containing two or more
asymmetric carbon atoms is known as epimerisation and compounds are known epimer.
D-Glucose and D-mannose are empimer (Change in configuration at IInd carbon atom only).
CH2OH CH2OH
O H 5
O
H 5
H H
4 H 4 H HO
OH H 1 OH OH 1 OH
HO HO
2 3 2
3
H OH H H
D-glucose D-Mannose
Such sugars are known as epimers e.g. epimerisation of glucose into mannose.
48
CO2H
CHO
| |
H – C – OH H – C – OH
+
| Br2 | C5H5N –H
(CHOH)3 H2O (CHOH)3 +
+H
| |
CH2OH CH2OH
gluconic acid
D(+)-glucose
O
CHO C
| | O¯
HO – C – H (i) HCl
HO – C – H
| (ii) lactone reduced |
(CHOH)3 (CHOH)3
| |
CH2OH CH2OH
D(+)-mannose
mannonic
acid anion
Note : (1) Unlike other ketones, fructose can reduced Fehling sol. and Tollen’s reagents it is probably due to
formation of an equilibrium between glucose, mannose and fructose.
(2) Aldoses which produce the same osazones must have identical configuration on all their asymmetric carbon
atoms except the alpha (since only the aldehyde group and D-carbon atoms are involved in osazone formation).
Conversion of Ketose into Aldose :
Na-Hg
H2 / Ni [O] heat e ; H+
HNO3
Conversion of Aldose into Ketose :
(i) Ba(OH)2 Na/Hg

HCN heat
(ii) H2SO4 H2SO4
49
(II) Disaccharide
Sucrose :
(Sucrose, cane-sugar C12H22O11)
(i) Sucrose is a white crystalline solid, soluble in water.
(ii) When heated above its melting point, it forms a brown substance known as caramel.
(iii) Concentrated sulphuric acid chars sucrose, the product being almost pure carbon.
(iv) Sucrose is dextrorotatory, its specific rotation being + 66.5°.
(v) On hydrolysis with dilute acids sucrose yields an equimolecular mixture of D(+)-glucose and
D(–)-fructose :
C12H22O11 + H2O HCl C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

Glucose Fructose
Since D(–)-fructose has a greater specific rotation than D(+)-glucose, the resulting mixture is laevorotatory.
Because of this, hydrolysis of cane-sugar is known as the inversion of cane-sugar this is not to be confused
with the Walden inversion, and the mixture is known as invert sugar. The inversion (i.e., hydrolysis) of cane-
sugar may also be effected by the enzyme invertase which is found in yeast.
(vi) Sucrose is not a reducizng sugar, e.g., it will not reduce Fehling’s solution ; it does not form an oxime or an
osazone, and does not undergo mutarotation. This indicates that neither the aldehyde group of glucose nor the
ketonic group of fructose is free in sucrose.
Structure of Sucrose:
6
CH2OH
5
H O H
H 1
4
OH H
2
mD-link
OH 3
O mGlycosidic
H OH linkage
(Glucose unit)
CH2OH O
mE-link
H OH
H CH2OH
OH H
(Fructose unit) Sucrose
50
Hydrolysis of sucrose :
(Invert Sugar or Invertose). Hydrolysis of sucrose with hot dilute acid yields D-glucose and D-fructose.
+
C12H22O11 + H2O H C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Sucrose D(+)-glucose D(–)-Fructose
[D]D = +66.5° [D]D = +53° [D]D = –92°
Invert Sugar
[D]D = (+53°) – (–92°) = 39°
Sucrose is dextrorotatory, its specific rotation being +66.5%, D-glucose is also dextrorotatory, [D]D = +53°, but
D-fructose has a large negative rotation, [D]D = –92°. Since D-fructose has a greater specific rotation than D-
glucose, the resulting mixture is laevorotatory. Because of this the hydrolysis of sucrose is known as the inversion
of sucrose, and the equimolecular mixture of glucose and fructose is known as invert sugar or invertose.
Maltose :
Another disaccharide, maltose is composed of two D-D-glucose units in which C1 of one glucose (I) is linked to C4
of another glucose unit (II). The free aldehyde group can be produced at C1 of second glucose in solution and it
shows reducing properties so it is a reducing sugar.
6 6
CH2OH CH2OH
5 O 5 O
H H H H
H H
4 1 4 1
HO OH H O OH H OH
3 2 3 2
H OH H OH
Maltose
Lactose :
It is more commonly known as milk sugar since this disaccharide is found in milk. It is composed of E-D-galactose
and E-D-glucose. The linkage is between C1 fo galactose and C4 of glucose. Hence it is also a reducing sugar.
6 6
CH2OH CH2OH
5 O 5 O
HO H H
H H
4 1 O 4 1
H OH H OH H OH
3 2 H 3 2
H OH H OH
Lactose
51
(III) POLYSACCHARIDES
Polysaccharides are the polymers of monosaccharides. The natural polysaccharide generally contain about 100-
3000 monosaccharide units. The three most abundant natural polysaccharides-cellulose, starch and glycogen are
derived from the same monomer, i.e., glucose.
Starch:
It is a polymer of glucose. Its molecular formula is (C6H10O5)n where the value of n(200 – 1000) varies from source to
source. It is the chief food reserve material or storage polysaccharide of plants and is found mainly in seeds, roots,
tubers, etc. Wheat, rice, potatoes, corn, bananas etc., are rich source of starch.
Starch is not a single compound but is a mixture of two components – a water soluble component called amylose
(20%) and a water insoluble component called amylopectin (80%). Both amylose and amylopectin are polymers of
D-D glucose.
Amylose is a linear polymer of D-D glucose. It contains about 200 glucose units which are linked to one another
through D-linkage involving C1 of one glucose unit with C4 of the other.
Amylopectin, on the other hand, is a highly branched polymer. It consists of a large number (several branches) of
short chains each containing 20-25 glucose units which are joined together through D-linkages involving C1 of one
glucose unit with C4 of the other. The C1 of terminal glucose unit in each chain is further linked to C6 of the other
glucose.
Unit in the next chain through C1-C6 D-linkage. This gives amylopectin a highly branched structure as shown below:
C1 – C4 -linkage
Glucose – Glucose – Glucose
Hydrolysis:
Hydrolysis of starch with hot dilute acids or by enzymes give dextrins of varying complexity, maltose and finally
D-glucose. Starch does not reduce Tollen’s reagent and Fehling’s solution.
Uses:
It is used as a food. It is encountered daily in the form of potatoes, bread, cakes, rice etc. It is used in coating and
sizing paper to improve the writing qualities. Starch is used to treat textile fibres before they are woven into cloth so
that they can be woven without breaking. It is used in manufacture of dextrins, glucose and ethyl alcohol. Starch is
also used in manufacture of starch nitrate, which is used as an explosive.
Cellulose:
Cellulose is the chief component of wood and plane fibres; cotton, for instance, is nearly pure cellulose. It is
insoluble in water and tasteless; it is a non-reducing carbohydrate. These properties, in part at least, are due to
extremely high molecular weight.
52
OH H
H H HO OH
O HO
O O O
HO O HO
O O
H OHH
H OH
HO
H
Cellulose
Cellulose has the formula (C6H10O5)n. Complete hydrolysis by acid yields D(+)-glucose as the monosaccharide.
Hydrolysis of completely methylated cellulose gives a high yield of 2, 3, 6-tri-O-methyl-D-glucose. Like starch,
therefore, cellulose is made up of chains of D-glucose units, each unit joined by a glycoside linkage of C-4 of the
next.
Cellulose differs from starch, however, in the configuration of the glycoside linkage. Upon treatment with acetic
anhydride and sulfuric acid, cellulose yields octa-O- acetyl cellobiose, there is evidence that all glycoside linkages
in cellulose, like the one in (+) cellobiose, are beta linkages.
Physical methods give molecular weights for cellulose ranging from 250000 to 1000000 or more; it seems likely that
there are at least 1500 glucose units per molecule. End group analysis by both methylation and periodic acid
oxidation gives a chain length of 1000 glucose units or more. X-ray analysis and electron microscopy indicate that
these long chains lie side by side in bundles, undoubtedly held together by hydrogen bonds between the numerous
neighbouring –OH groups. These bundles are twisted together to form.
Rope like structure which themselves are grouped to from the fibers we can see. In wood these cellulose “ropes” are
embedded in lignin to give a structure that has been likened to reinforced concrete.
Properties of Cellulose:
We have seen that the glycoside linkages of cellulose are broken by the action of acid, each cellulose molecule
yielding many molecules of D(+)-glucose. Now let us look briefly at reactions of cellulose in which the chain remains
essentially intact. Each glucose unit in cellulose contains three free – OH groups; these are the positions at which
reactions occurs.
These reactions of cellulose, carried out to modify the properties of a cheap, available ready-made polymer, are of
tremendous industrial importance.
Like any alcohol, cellulose forms esters. Treatment with a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acid converts cellulose into
cellulose nitrate. The properties and uses of the product depend upon the extent of nitration. Guncotton, which is
used in making smokeless powder, is very nearly completely nitrated cellulose, and is often called cellulose trinitrate
(three nitrate groups per glucose unit). Pyroxylin is less highly nitrated material containing between two and three
nitrate groups per glucose unit. It is used in the manufacture of plastics like celluloid and collodion, in photographic
film, and in lacquers. It has the disadvantage of being flammable, and forms highly toxic nitrogen oxides upon
burning.
Industrially, cellulose is alkylated to ethers by the action of alkyl chlorides (cheaper than sulfates) in the presence
of alkali. Considerable degradation of the long chain is unavoidable in these reactions. Methyl, ethyl, and benzyl
others of cellulose are important in the production of textiles, films, and various plastic objects.
Glycogen :
The carbohydrates are stored in animal body as glycogen. It is also known as animal starch because its structure
is similar to amylopectin and is rather more highly branched. It is present in liver, muscles and brain. When the body
needs glucose, enzymes break the glycogen down to glucose. Glycogen is also found in yeast and fungi.
53
Test of carbohydrates :
Molish test is used for detection of all types of carbohydrates, i.e., monosaccharides, disaccharides and
polysaccharides.
Molish reagent (1% alcoholic solution of D - naphthol) is added to the aqueous solution of a carbohydrate followed
by conc. H2SO4 along the sides of the test tube. A violet ring is formed at the junction of the two layers.
AMINO ACIDS
Introduction :
Amino acids are the compounds which contain both an amino group and a carboxy group in their molecules. They
constitute a particularly important class of difunctional compounds as they are the building blocks of proteins.
While several hundred different amino acids are known to occur naturally, 20 of them deserve special mention as
they are present in proteins. These amino acids are listed in Table. As given in this table, for amino acids trivial
names are common. The convention to use a three letter code, as an abbreviation, for each amino acid is also given
in the table. These abbreviations are particularly useful in designating the sequence of amino acids in peptides and
proteins which your will study.
Each living cell is made up of thousands of different proteins All proteins contain the elements like carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. Some of these also contain phosphorus, iodine and traces of metals such as, Fe, Cu,
Zn, & Mn. All proteins are polymers of D-amino acids and on partial hydrolysis give peptides of varying molecular
masses which upon complete hydrolysis give D-amino acids.
Hydrolysis Hydrolysis
Proteins Peptides D-amino acids
These organic compounds contain amino as well as carboxylic acid group. On the basis of position of amino group
in the chain, these are named as D, E, J etc. amino acid.
There are around 20 amino acids among which 10 amino acids are synthesis in our body and these are said to be non
essential amino acids (eg. Gly, Ala, Glu, Asp, Pro and Cys) and other amino acids which are necessarily be present
in our diet are called essential amino acids (eg. Val, Leu, I leu, Lys and Phe).
Type of D-amino acids :

(1) Amino acids with non polar side chain : (2) Amino acids with polar and neutral side chain :
R– – R – CH2OH – Serine
H– – Glycine CH3– CH – – Threonine

|
OH
CH3– – Alanine HS–CH2– – Cystine
(CH3)2CH– – valine
(CH3)2CH–CH2 – leucine
C6H5CH2 – phenylalanine
54
(3) Amino acids with acidic side chain : (4) Amino acid with basic side chain :
R– R–
–CH2 – COOH – Aspartic acid H2N–(CH2)4– – lysine
HOOC–CH2–CH2– – Glutamic acid – – Arginine
Note : All D-amino acids except glycine have chiral C-atom and have (L) configuration normally.
Amino Acid : Building Blocks of Proteins

Amino acids are the building blocks of the molecular structure of the important and very complex class of compounds
known as proteins. The proteins on hydrolysis yield mixture of the component amino acids.
Amino acids are bifunctional compounds containing both an amino and a carboxylic acid group. They are represented
by the general formula :
H O
| ||
H2N C C OH or H2N CH COOH

|
Amine | Carboxylic
R Acid group R
Where, R = alkyl, aryl, or any other group.
Zwitter ion (Dipolar Nature of Amino acids) :

..
In a neutral amino acid solution, the –COOH loses a proton and the – NH2 of the same molecule picks up one. The
resulting ion is dipolar, charged but overall electrically neutral. This is called Zwitterion (German, “two ions”).
Therefore amino acids are amphoteric.
H O H O
-H
+ +
H2N C C OH +
H3N C C O
+H
R Zwitter ion
H O H O
H O +
+ + H2N C C O

H3N C C OH H3N C C O
R HO
-
R
R H
+
(-H2O) High pH (Basic soln.)

Low pH(Acid soln.) Zwitterion
Cation form (II) Neutral form (I) Anionic form (III)
Isoelectric point of D-amino acids :

When an ionised amino acid is placed in an electric field, it will actually migrate towards the opposite electrode.
Depending upon the pH of the medium, three things can happen. The positive form (II) will migrate to the cathode,
the neutral form (Zwitter ion) will not migrate, while the negative form (III) will migrate to the anode. The pH at which
the amino acid shows no tendency to migrate when placed in an electric field is known as its isoelectric point. This
is characteristic of a given amino acid. Thus glycine has its isoelectric point at pH 6.1.
Isoelectric Point :
The pH at which the amino acid shows no tendency to migrate when placed in an electric field is known as its
isoelectric point.
55
Because of amphoteric nature in acidic solution it exist as the +ve ion. Hence it migrate towards cathode while in
basic solution it exist as –ve ion and migrates towards anode.
pH < 7
Cathode
pH > 7
Anode
At some intermediate pH amino acids exist as a neutral dipolar ion i.e. the concentration of the cation and anions are
equal and it does not migrate towards either electrode, this pH is called iso electric point of amino acid which is
different for different amino acids.
56
O
Nature
of OH
amino E/N.E R
Name Abbreviation
acid
N H2
O
Neutral
amino NE H2N Glycine Gly
OH
acid
H
O
Neutral OH
amino Alanine Ala
acid NE H3 C
NH2
CH3
Neutral H3C
amino E Valine Val
NH2
acid
HO
O
O
Neutral CH3 Leucine
amino HO Leu
acid E
NH2 CH3
OH
Neutral O
amino
E NH2 Isoleucine Ile
acid
CH3
CH3
O
Acidic
OH Aspartic Acid Asp
amino NE
HO
acid
NH2 O
NH2
Acidic
amino HO OH Glutamic Acid Glu
acid NE
O O
Basic H2N H2N O

amino E Lysine Lys
acid
OH
57
NH NH2
Basic
amino NE O Arginin Arg
acid NH2 NH
OH
O
Basic
amino N Histidine His
OH
acid NE
HN NH2
O
Neutral
amino S Methionine Met
E HO CH3
acid
N H2
Neutral O
amino N O Proline Pro
acid NE
OH
Neutral
O
amino E Phenylalanine Phe
acid
H 2N OH
O
Neutral
amino OH
acid
Tryptophan Trp
E
NH2
N
H
O
Neutral OH Serine Ser
amino
NE
acid H2N
OH
OH
H 3C
Neutral
amino NH 2 Threonine Thr
E
acid
HO
O
threonine
Neutral O
amino Cysteine Cys
acid OH
NE
H 2N
SH
HO NH2
Neutral
amino Tyrosine Tyr
NE
acid O OH
E = essential amino acid NE = Non essential amino acid
58
Peptides and Proteins :

Peptides are biologically important polymers in which 2-amino acids are joined by the amide linkages, formed by the
reaction of the carboxy group of one amino acid with the amino group of another amino acid. These amide linkages
are also called peptide bonds. The general structure of a peptide is shown below:
Structure of Proteins : Proteins are the polymers of D-amino acids and they are connected to each other by peptide
bond or peptide linkage. Chemically, peptide linkage is an amide formed between –COOH group and –NH2 group.
H2N CH2 COOH + H2 N CH COOH

–H2O
CH3
H2N CH2 CO NH CH COOH
Peptide linkage
CH3
Glycylalanine [Gly-Ala]
The reaction between two molecules of similar or different amino acids, proceeds through the combination of the
amino group of one molecule with the carboxyl group of the other. This results in the elimination of a water molecule
and formation of a peptide bodn –CO–NH–.
Configuration of proteins :
(a) Biological nature or function of protein was confirmed by its conformation.
(b) This conformation is of 4 types
Primary Secondary Tertiary Quatemany
Primary Structure :
y This type of structure was given by Frederick Sanger in 1953 in Insulin (of one chain)
y Primary structure is conformed by a single polypeptide chain in a linear manner.
y All amino acid are attached in a straight chain by peptide bond.
y No biological importance & soon changed to other forms.
Secondary Structure :
y In it structure of straight chain from irregular changes to form coils.
y H-bond + peptide bond present in secondary. structure.
y This H bond is present between hydrogen of Amino group and oxygen atom carboxylic acid group.
y This structure is of two types
D-helix E-pleated sheet
59
C
O N N N
C RCH RCH RCH
C
54 pm
O C C C O
HO H N O O
C H H N H N
N HCR
O C HCR HCR
N
H O C C C
C O N H O O H
H
C N N H N
O RCH RCH RCH
N O
H H C C C O
H O O
N N H N H N
HCR HCR
H HCR
N C C C
N
(i) D-helix
y Chain is spiral
y 3.7 atoms in one coiling
y Right handed circular.
Ex. o Myosin, Keratin etc.
(ii) E-pleated sheet

y Structure of protein is not arranged in a sequence.
y Polypeptide chain are parallel to each other
y H - bond form by near chains
Ex. Silk fibres.
Tertiary structure :
y In this structure of protein atoms are highly coiled and form a spherical form
Ex. Albumin
y This structure is formed by 4 regular hydrogen bonds which makes a regularity in it
(i) Hydrogen bond :

N–
C = O …….. H –
H
Hydrogen bond
y They are formed between oxygen of acidic amino acid and H of basic amino acid.
(ii) Hydrophobic bond -

y Non - polar side chains of neutral amino acid tends to be closely associated with one another in proteins.
y Present in between the amino Acid.
y These are not true bonds.
(iii) lonic bond :

–COO–.....H3+N–
Ionic bond
y These are salt bonds formed between oppositely charged groups in side chains of Amino acids
Eg. Aspartic acid, Glutamic acid
60
(iv) Disulphide bonds :
| ——— S - S —— |
y Relatively stable bond and thus is not broken readily under usual conditions of denaturation.
y Formed between the -SH group of Amino acid Ex. Cystine and Methionine .
Quaternary structure :
y When 2 or more polypeptide chains united by forces other than covalent bonds (i.e. not peptide and disulphide
bonds) are called Quaternary structure.
y It is most stable structure.
Ex. Haemoglobin
Types of proteins
Classification of protein is based upon three general properties shape, Solubility and Chemical composition.
Proteins
Simple Conjugated Derived
(I) Simple proteins

y It is formed of only Amino Acids
Types
Fibrous Globular
Fibrous :
y It is insoluble
y It is of elongated shape.
y It is highly resistant to digestion by proteolytic enzymes.
y Their main function - Protection.
Ex. Collagen, Keratin etc
Globular :
y These are spherical and oval in shape. Chains are highly coiled
y These are soluble.
Ex. Albumin
(II) Conjugated Proteins :

y These are complex proteins in which protein molecule is combined with characteristic non-amino acid substance.
y Non-amino acid or Non - Protein part is called as prosthetic group
Ex. Nucleoproteins
(Protein + Nucleic acid),
Phosphoproteins (Protein + (PO3)2–)
Ex. Casein of milk., Vitelline of egg - yolk
61
(III) Derived proteins :
These are obtained as a result of partial hydrolysis of natural proteins.
o Proteose, Metaproteins, Peptones
Eg.o
Denaturation of Proteins :
When a protein in its native form, is subjected to a physical change like change in temperature, or a chemical change
like change in pH, the native conformation of the molecule is disrupted and proteins so formed are called denaturated
proteins.
The denaturation may be reversible or irreversible. The coagulation of egg on boiling is an example of irreversible
protein denaturation.
However, it has been shown now that in some cases, the process is actually reversible. The reverse process is called
renaturation.
Test of Protein :
(a) With conc. HNO3 on heating give yellow ppt. Which on more heating give solution On adding NH4OH Red
colour appears. It is Xanthoprotic test.
(b) (NH4OH) + dil. CuSO4 protein give Blue violet colour. It is a biuret test.
(c) Millon reaction. Proteins on adding Millon’s reagent (a solution of mercuric and mercurous nitrates in nitric
acid containing a little nitrous acid) followed by heating the solution give red precipitate or colour.
(d) Ninhydrin reaction. Proteins, peptides and a-amino acids give a characteristic blue colour on treatment with
ninhydrin.
Biological Importance of protein :

(a) Component of plasma membrane.
(b) All enzymes are protein.
(c) Many hormones are protein.
(d) Antigen and antibody are protein.
(e) Actin and myosin protein are important in muscle contraction.
(f) Proteins are important in growth, regeneration and repairing.
(g) Calorific value 4.0 kcal.
NUCLEIC ACID
(a) These are special type of acids which are present in nucleus & cytoplasm.
(b) Control the metabolic activities of cell.
(c) They are also found in Mitochondria, centriole and chloroplast.
Types o These are of 2 types
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
RNA (Ribonucleic acid)
62
(d) Fischer discovered Nitrogen bases in 1888 (e) Levan found sugar
Nitrogen Base
type 2 type
Purine Pyrimidine Ribose (RNA) Decoxyribose (DNA)
(I) Deoxyribonucleic Acid (D.N.A.)

Structure of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) :
J.D. Watson and F.H.C. Crick (1953) proposed double helical structure of DNA based on the results of M.H.F.
Wilkins and co-workers. All these three persons were awarded Nobel Prize in 1962 for this work.
The following are some of the characteristic features of double helical structure of DNA.
(i) Each nucleotide consists of sugar, phosphate and a nitrogenous base. Many such nucleotides are linked by
phosphodiester bonds to form a polynucleotide chain or strand.
(ii) Phospho diester bonds are formed between 5’carbon of sugar of one nucleotide and 3' carbon of sugar of the
next nucleotide.
(iii) Nitrogenous base is attached to1’ carbon of sugar. At this place purine base is attached by its 5' position and
pyrimidine by its 3' position.
(iv) Polynucleotide strand is made of backbone of sugar and phosphate forming its long axis and bases at right
angles to it.
63
(a) It is found in Nucleus.

(b) DNA made up of 3 units-
Nitrogen base Deoxyribose Phosphric acid

Sugar (H3PO4)
Pyrimidine Purine
(i) Thymine (ii) Adenine

(iii) Cytosine (iv) Guanine
(c) Nucleoside
When nitrogen base combined with deoxyribose sugar it constitute a nucleoside.
S.No. Deoxyribonucleoside
1 Adenine + Deoxyribose o Deoxyadenosine
2 Guanine + Deoxyribose o Deoxyguanosine
3 Cytosine + Deoxyribose o Deoxycytidine
4 Thymine + Deoxyribose o Deoxythymidine
(d) Nucleotide
(i) Nitrogen base+Sugar+Phosphate o Nucleotide
(ii) Nucleotide is a unit of DNA.
(iii) All nucleotides combined and form a chain called polynucleotides by which RNA and DNA formed.
64
Function of DNA :
(i) Self - Replication or self -Duplication
DNA has the property of self - replication . It is therefore a reproducing molecule. This unique property of DNA
is at the root of all reproduction. Through its replication, DNA is acts as the key to heredity. In the replication
of DNA, the two strands of a double helix unwind and separate as a template for the formation of a new
complementary strand.
(ii) Protein Synthesis

The specific sequence of base pair in DNA represents coded information for the manufacture of specific
proteins. These code instructions first are transcribed into the matching nitrogen- base sequences within
mRNA and the instructions in such RNA subsequently are translated into particular sequence of amino acid
units within the polypeptide chains and proteins.
The major steps in the utilization of the genetic information can be represented as :
D NA Replication D N A Transcription RNA Transcription Protein
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) :

y Found in cytoplasm as well as in nucleus.
Cytoplasm o In the ribosome (higher amount)
Chemical Nature
y Ribonucleic acid is a polymer of purine and pyrimidine ribonucleotides linked by 3' o 5' phosphodiester
bridges. The number of nucleotides in RNA ranges from as few as 75 to many thousands. Although sharing
many features with DNA, RNA possesses several specific difference.
y As indicated by its name, sugar in RNA to which the phosphate and nitrogen- bases are attached is ribose
rather than the deoxyribose of DNA.
y Although RNA contains the ribonucleotides of adenine, guanine, and cytosine, it does not posses thymine.
Instead of thymine, RNA contains the ribonucleotides of uracil. Thus the pyrimidine components of RNA
differs from those of DNA.
y RNA exists basically as a single-stranded molecule rather than as a double -stranded helical molecule, as does
DNA. However the single strand of RNA is capable of folding back on itself like a hairpin and thus acquiring
double-stranded characteristics. In these regions. A pairs with U and G pairs with C.
Thus a given segment of a long RNA molecule might, for example, be represented as follows.
P–R–P–R–P–R–P–R–P–R
| | | | |
A U G G C
y where R stands for ribose ; A, U, G, and C for Adenine, Uracil, Guanine and Cytosine respectively.
Types of RNA and their Functions :

There are 3 main types of RNA molecules
(i) Messenger RNA (mRNA)
(ii) Transfer RNA (tRNA)
(iii) Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
65
(i) Messenger RNA (mRNA)
y This type of RNA consists of single strand of variable length and serves as a template for protein synthesis.
Codon in the chromosomes.
y mRNA forms complementary copy of DNA as it carries chemical messages in the form of nitrogen-base
sequence from the nucleus to the ribosomes, i.e. from DNA to cytoplasm where proteins are synthesized.
Therefore, it is called messenger RNA or mRNA
y mRNA is synthesised from DNA in the nucleus.
y It is called transcription.
(ii) Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

y A ribosome is a cytoplasmic nucleoprotein structure which serves as the organellar machinery for protein
synthesis from mRNA templates.
y On the ribosome, the mRNA and tRNA molecules interact to translate into a specific protein molecule the
information transcribed from the DNA.
y rRNA constitutes the largest part of total RNA (Highest) - 80%
(iii) Transfer RNA (tRNA) :

y These are also called Soluble RNA.
y Single stranded.
y 10-15% of the total RNA.
y Size - Smallest o 75 - 80 nucleotides only.
y Synthesis - Within nucleus from DNA.
Function- It transport amino acid from cyto plasm to the site of protein synthesis.
Differences Between DNA and RNA

DNA RNA
1. It usually occurs inside nucleus and some cell 1. Very little RNA occurs inside nucleus. most
organelles . of it is found in the cytoplasm.
2. DNA is the genetic material. 2. RNA is not the genetic material except in
certain viruses, e.g. Reovirus.
3. It is double stranded with the exception of 3. RNA is single stranded except reovirus where
itsome viruses (e.g. I× 174). is double stranded.
4. DNA contains over a million nucleotides. 4. Depending upon the type, RNA contains
70-1200 nucleotides.
5. DNA is of only two types; intra-nuclear and 5. There are at least three types of RNAs—
extra-nuclear. mRNA, rRNA and tRNA
6. It contains deoxyribose sugar. 6. It contains ribose sugar.
7. Nitrogen base thymine occurs in DNA 7. Thymine is replaced by uracil in RNA The
alongwith three others — adenine, cytosine other three are similar — adenine, cytosine
and guanine. and guanine.
8. It replicates to form new DNA molecules. 8. It cannot normally replicate itself.
9. DNA transcribes genetic infromation to RNA. 9. RNA translates the transcribed message
for forming polypeptides.
10. DNA controls metabolism and genetics 10. It only controls metabolism under
Including variations. instruction from DNA.
11. Purine and pyrimidine bases are in equal 11. There is no poroportionality between
number. number of purines and pyrmidine bases.
66
ENZYMES
Proteins which are used as a catalyst in biochemical reaction is known as biocatalysts.
Specific characteristics
Enzymes have following two specific character as :
(i) Specificity (ii) Efficiency
(i) Specificity of enzymes :

(a) Generally one enzyme can catalyze only one biochemical reaction.
(b) It can increases rate of reaction upto 1020 times.
(c) In some cases one enzyme can catalyzes more than one reaction and one reaction can be catalyzed by more
than one enzyme.
Ex. Enzyme present in Yeast (Zymase) can ferment both glucose and fructose into alcohol and also cane-sugar can
be hydrolyses by invertase and sucrase enzymes.
(ii) Efficiency of enzymes :

(a) One molecule of enzyme can convert millions of substrate molecules into product per second.
Ex. Carbonic anhydrase enzyme present in red blood cells has a highest turn over number.
(b) With having tertiary structure it can be collected as crystals.
Enzymes are denatured at higher temperature.
(c) Enzyme can be stored at low temperature as they are inactivated.
Importance of enzymes :
In the thousands of enzymes presents in body if even a single enzyme would be absent or damaged than complex
disease in results.
Ex. Scarcity of Phenylalanine hydroxylase enzyme in human body is result in Phenylketonuria disease.
Factors affecting enzyme action :

(i) Optimum temperature and pH. Enzyme catalysed reactions have maximum rate at physiological pH of around
7.4 and human body temperature of 37ºC (310 K) under one atmosphere pressure.
In fact, as the temperature or pH is increased, the rate rises to a maximum (at 37ºC or pH = 7.4) and then falls off.
(ii) Enzyme activators (co-enzymes). The activity of certain enzymes is increased in the presence of certain
substances, called co-enzymes. It has been observed that if a protein contains a small amount of vitamin as the
+
non-protein part, its activity is enhanced considerably. The activators are generally metal ions such as Na ,
2+ 2+ 2+
Mn , Cu , Co etc. These metal ions are weakly bonded to the enzyme molecules and increase their
+
catalytic activity. For example, the enzyme, amylase, in presence of NaCl, which provides Na ion, shows a very
high catalytic activity.
(iii) Enzyme inhibitors and poisons. Just as in the case of catalysts, the activity of enzyme is slowed down in the
presence of certain substance. Such substances are called inhibitors or poisons. They act by combining with
the active functional group thereby reducing or completely destroying the catalytic activity of the enzymes.
The use of many drugs is on account of their action as enzyme inhibitors in our body.
67
NUTRIENTS
Sodium, Potassium and Chlorine
+
(i) Na is the principal mineral cation in the extracellular fluid.
+
(ii) K is the principal cation inside the cell.
–
(iii) Cl is the principal mineral anion in the ECF.
+ +
(iv) Na and K are essential to the maintenance of water balance and acid-base balance.
+ +
(v) Na and K are important in nerve impulse transmission.
Calcium and Phosphorus

(i) Calcium and phosphorus are deposited in bones and teeth to give them strength and rigidity.
2+
(ii) Ca is also essential for blood coagulation, neuromuscular function, cardiac function and actions of many
enzymes and hormones.
(iii) Phosphorus enters into many compounds such as nucleic acids and phospholipids, many coenzymes and high
energy compounds like ATP.
(iv) Calcium plays an essential role in sustaining intestinal peristalsis and growth of body tissues.
Iron
(i) Iron is required for haemoglobin synthesis.
(ii) Iron is essential both for transportation of oxygen to tissues and for operation of oxidative systems within the
tissue cells.
Magnesium
(i) Magnesium is required as a catalyst for many intracellular enzymatic reactions, particularly those relating to
carbohydrate metabolism.
(ii) Mg is the central metal atom in chlorophyll
Iodine
Iodine is used in the synthesis of thyroid hormones.
Zinc
(i) Zinc is a constituent of carbonic anhydrase, present in RBCs helping in CO transport.
2
(ii) Zinc is a component to lactic dyhydrogenase, important for the interconversion between pyruvic acid and
lactic acid
(iii) Zinc is a component part of some peptidases and therefore is important for digestion of proteins in the
alimentary canal
Cobalt
(i) Cobalt helps in erythropoiesis and in the activities of some enzymes.
.
(ii) It is present in vitamin B
12
Copper
(i) Copper helps in the utilisation of iron.
(ii) Copper deficiency may produce anaemia because of failure in iron utilisation.
68
Molybdenum
(i) Molybdenum is a constituent of oxidase enzymes (xanthine oxidase)
(ii) Molybdenum plays an important role in biological nitrogen fixation
Fluorine
(i) Fluorine maintains normal dental enamel and prevents dental caries.
(ii) Excessive intake of fluorine cause fluorosis characterized by mottled teeth and enlarged bones.
VITAMINS
It has been observed that certain organic compounds are required in small amounts in our diet but their deficiency
causes specific diseases. These compounds are called vitamins.
Classification of Vitamins
Vitamins are classified into two groups depending upon their solubility in water or fat.
(i) Fat soluble vitamins :
Vitamins which are soluble in fat and oils. But insoluble in water are kept in this group. These are vitamins A, D,
E and K. They are stored in liver and adipose (fat storing) tissues.
(ii) Water soluble vitamins :

B group vitamins and vitamin C are soluble in water so they are grouped together. Water soluble vitamins must
be supplied regularly in diet because they are readily excreted in urine and can not be stored (except vitamin
B12) in our body.
Some important vitamins, their sources and diseases caused by their deficiency are listed in table.
Sr.
Name of Vitamins Source Deficiency Diseases
No.
Vitamin A Fish liver oil, carrots, Xerophthalmia
1 (Retinol) butter and milk (hardening of cornea of eye)
Night blindness
Vitamin B1 Yeast, milk, Green Beri beri (loss of appetite,
2 (Thiamine) Vegetables and cereals retarded growth)
and grams
Vitamin B2 Milk, egg white, Cheilosis (fissuring at corners of mouth
3 (Riboflavin) liver, Kidney and lips), digestive disorders and
burning sensation of the skin
Vitamin B6 Yeast, milk, egg yolk, Convulsions
4
(Pyridoxine) cereals and grams
Vitamin B12 Meat, fish, Pernicious anaemia (RBC deficient in
5
(Cyanocobal-amine) egg and curd haemoglobin)
Vitamin C Citrus fruits, amla and scurvy (bleeding gums)
6
(Ascorbic acid) green leafy vegetables
Exposure to sunlight, fish Rickets (bone deformities in children)
7 Vitamin D and egg yolk and osteo-malacia (soft bones and
(Calciferol) joint pain in adults)
Vitamin E or Jocopherolr (D, E and J) Eggs, Milk, Fish, Wheat Sterility (loss of sexual power and
8 or Antisterility factor germ oil colton seed oil reproduction)
etc.
69
9. Vitamin-H (Biotin) Yeast, liver, Kidney and Dermatitis, loss of hair and paralysis.
milk.
10. Vitamin-K or Phylloquinones or Cabbage, alfalfa, spinach Haemorrhage and lenthens time of blood clotting.
Antihaemorrhagic vitamin and carrot tops.
11. Coenzyme Q10 Chloroplasts of green Low order of immunity of body against
plants and mitochondria many diseases
of animals
POLYMERS
The term polymer is used to describe a very large molecule that is made up of many repeating small molecular units.
These small molecular units from which the polymer is formed are called monomers. The chemical reaction that joins
the monomers together is called polymerisation. Starting from n molecular of a compound M, linking in a linear
manner will form polymer x–M–(M)n–2–M–y. The nature of linkages at the terminal units i.e. M–x and M–y depends
upon the mode of reaction used in making the polymers.
Polymers are Two Types :

Homopolymers :
Polymers in which repeating structural units are derived from only one type of monomer units are called homopolymers.
Polymerization
n-CH2 = CH2 –(CH2 – CH2–)n
Ethylene Polyethylene
(Monomer) (Polymer)
Other examples of homopolymers are polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyisoprene, neoprene
(polychloroprene) polyacrylonitrile (PAN), nylon-6, polybutadiene, teflon (polytetrafluoroethylene), cellulose, starch etc.
Copolymers :
Polymers in which repeating structural units are derived from two or more types of monomer units are called
copolymers.
n H2N – (CH2)6 – NH2

Hexamethylenediamine Polymerization
(Monomer) (Nylon – 6, 6)
+
n HOOC – (CH2)4 – COOH [CO(CH2)4 CONH(CH 2)6 NH] n
Adipic acid
(Monomer)
Polymers which are formed by only one type of monomer are called Homopolymers. Some examples of homopolymers
and their monomers are given below :
Homopolymer Monomer
Starch Glucose
Cellulose Glucose
Glycogen Glucose
Dextrin Glucose
Inulin Fructose
70
Polyethylene Ethylene
Polyvinyl chloride Vinyl chloride
Teflon Tetraflouroethylene
Nylon–6 Caprolactam
Polystyrene Styrene
Orlon (Acrilan) Acrylonitrile
Plexiglas (Lucite) Methyl methacrylate
Polyvinyl acetate Vinyl acetate
Polymers, which are formed by more than one type of monomers are known as copolymers. Some examples are given
below in the table:
Copolymer Monomers
Saran Vinyl chloride and vinylidene chloride
SAN Styrene and acrylonitrile
ABS Acrylonitrile, butadiene and styrene
Butyl rubber Isobutylene and Isoprene
Buna–S, SBR Styrene and Butadiene
Buna–N, NBR Acrylonitrile and Butadiene
Nylon–66 Hexamethylen diamine and Adipic acid
Terylene Terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol
CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS
Polymers are classified in following ways:
(I) CLASSIFICATION BASED UPON SOURCE
(a) Natural polymers
Polymers which are obtained from animals and plants are known as natural polymers, Examples of natural
polymers are given below.
Natural polymer Monomers
1. Polysaccharide Monosaccharide
2. Proteins D-L-Amino acids
3. Nucleic acid Nucleotide
4. Silk Amino acids
5. Natural Rubber (cis polyisoprene) Isoprene (2-Methyl-1, 3-butadiene)
6. Gutta purcha (trans polyisoprene) Isoprene
Natural polymers which take part in metabolic processes are known as biopolymers.
Examples are polysaccharides, proteins, RNA and DNA.
(b) Semisynthetic polymers

Polymers which are prepared from natural polymers are known as semisynthetic polymers. Most of the
semisynthetic polymers are prepared from cellulose.
Examples are: cellulose acetate, cellulose nitrate, cellulose xanthate and Rayon.
71
(c) Synthetic polymers
Man-made polymers, i.e. polymers prepared in laboratory are known as synthetic polymers.
Example are : PVC, polyethylene, polystyrene, nylon-6, nylon-66, nylon-610, terylene, synthetic rubbers etc.
(II) CLASSIFICATION BASED UPON SHAPE

(a) Linear polymers
Polymer whose structure is linear is known as linear polymer. The various linear polymeric chains are
stacked over one another to give a well packed structure.
The chains are highly ordered with respect to one another. The structure is close packed in nature, due to
which they have high densities, high melting point and high tensile (pulling) strength. Linear polymers can
be converted into fibres.
Note :
(i) All fibers are linear polymers. Examples are cellulose, silk, nylon, terylene etc.
(ii) Linear polymers may be condensation as well as addition polymers. Examples are cellulose, Polypeptide,
nucleic acid, nylon, terylene etc.
(b) Branched chain polymers

Branched chain polymers are those in which the monomeric units constitute a branched chain. Due to the
presence of branches, these polymers do not pack well. As a result branched chain polymers have lower
melting points, low densities and tensile strength as compared to linear polymers.
Ex. Low density polythene
(c) Cross-linked or Three Dimensional network polymers

In these polymers the initially formed linear polymeric chains are joined together to form a three dimensional
network structure. These polymers are hard, rigid and brittle. Cross-linked polymers are always condensation
polymers. Resins are cross linked polymers.
Ex. Bakelite, Melamine
(III) CLASSIFICATION BASED UPON SYNTHESIS

(a) Condensation polymerisation
(i) They are formed due to condensation reactions.
(ii) Condensation polymerisation is also known as step growth polymerisation.
(iii) For condensation polymerisation, monomers should have at least two functional groups. Both
functional groups may be same or different.
(iv) Monomers having only two functional group always give linear polymer.
72
For example,
O O
nNH2–R–NH2 + nHOOC–R’–COOH Condensation + (n–1)H2O
Reaction –NH–R–NH–C–R’–C– n
Polyamide
O O
O O
nHO–R–OH + nHO –C–R’–C–OH Condensation + (n–1)H2O
Reaction –O–R–O–C–R’–C– n
Polyester
O
§n ·
nNH2–R–COOH Condensation + ¨ 1¸ H2O
Reaction –NH–R–C– n © 2 ¹
(v) Condensation polymers do not contain all atoms initially present in the monomers.
Some atoms are lost in the form of small molecules.
(vi) Monomer having three functional groups always gives cross-linked polymer.
Examples are : Urea-formaldehyde resin, phenol-formaldehyde resin.
(2) Addition polymerisation

(i) Polymers which are formed by addition reaction are known as addition polymers.
(ii) If monomer is ethylene or its derivative, then addition polymer is either linear polymer of branch-chain
polymer.
Examples are : polystyrene, polytetrafluoroethylene, polyacrylonitrile etc.
CH2=C–CH=CH2
(iii) If monomer is 1, 3-butadiene or 2-substituted-1, 3-butadiene , then polymer is always
G
branched chain polymer.
G G
nCH2=C–CH=CH2 –CH2–C=CH–CH–2
(Monomer) (Polymer) n
(Monomer) (Polymer)
(i) G = H: 1, 3-Butadiene (i) Polybutadiene
(ii) G = CH3; 2-Methyl-1, 3-butadiene or isoprene (ii) Polyisoprene
(iii) G = Cl; 2-Chloro-1, 3-butadiene or chloroprene (iii) Polychloroprene (Neoprene)
(iv) Addition polymers retain all the atoms of the monomer units in the polymer.
(v) Addition polymerisation takes place in three steps:
Initiation, chain propagation and chain termination.
(vi) Addition polymers are called as chain growth polymers.
Ex. Monopolymer, Copolymer
73
(IV) CLASSIFICATION BASED ON INTERMOLECULAR FORCES (SECONDARY FORCES)
(a) Elastomers :
The polymer chains are held together by the weakest intermolecular forces.
These weak binding forces permit the polymer to be stretched.
Ex. Buna–S, Buna–N, neoprene
(b) Fibres :
Fibres are the thread forming solids which process high tensil strength and strong intermolecular forces.
Ex. Nylon 66, polyesters (terylene)
(c) Thermoplastic :
These are the linear or slightly branched long chain molecules capable of repeatedly softening on heating and
hardening on cooling.
Ex. Polythene, Polystyrene; polyvinyls.
(d) Thermosetting plastic :

These polymers are cross linked or heavily branched molecules.
these cannot be reused
Exa. Bakelite, urea - formaldehyde.
Note : Correct order for Intermolecular forces in various classes of polymers.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THERMOPLASTIC AND THERMOSETTING POLYMERS
S.No. Thermoplastic polymers Thermosetting polymers

1. Soften and melt on heating and become Become hard on heating and process is
hard on cooling i.e. process is reversible irreversible.
2. Can be moulded and remoulded and They can be moulded once and cannot
reshaped. be remoulded or reshaped.
3. They are addition polymers They are condensation polymers.
4. Structure is generally linear Structure is cross - linked.
RUBBER
(I) Natural Rubber
Linear polymer of cis-isoprene (2-methyl-1,3-butadiene) and is also called as cis-1,4-polyisoprene.
+ + + +.....
Polymerisation(1,4 addition reaction)
74
CH 3 H3 C CH2
Polymerisation
C=C
nCH2=C–CH=CH2 1, 4 addtion reaction
H2C H n
Isoprene Natural rubber
(II) Synthetic rubber (Neoprene)

Polymers of 1, 3 - butadienes are called synthetic rubbers because they have some of the properties of natural
rubbers including the fact that they are water proof and elastic.
Synthetic rubbers have some improved properties. They are more flexible, tougher and more durable than natural
rubber.
HOMOPOLYMERS
Monomer of this class is 2-substituted-1, 3-butadienes.
G
CH2=C–CH=CH2 where G=H, CH3 or Cl.
polymerisation is always carried out in the presence of Zieglar-natta [(C2H5)3Al and TiCl4] catalyst which gives
stereo regular polymers.
+ +
Zieglar - Natta catalyst
n
cis poly (1,3 butadiene)
Neoprene was the first synthetic rubber manufactured on large scale. It is also called dieprene. Its monomer,
chloroprene (2-chlorobutadiene) is prepared from acetylene.
C
Cu2Cl2 HCL
2HC{CH NH 4Cl CH2=CH–C { CH CH2 =CH–C=CH2
Acetylene Vinyl acetylene Chloroprene
Chloroprene undergoes free radical polymerisation to form neoprene (polychloroprene).
Cl Cl CH2
nCH2 =C–CH=CH2 Zieglar-Natta C=C
Catalyst
CH2 CH3
2-chloro-1,3 butadiene
or (Trans polymer
chloroprene Trans polychloroprene
or neoprene)
75
Many of the properties of neoprene are similar to natural rubber but neoprene is more resistant to action of oils,
gasoline and other hydrocarbons. It is also resistant to sunlight, oxygen, ozone and heat. It is non-inflammable.
It is used for making automobile and refrigerator parts, hoses for petrol and oil containers, insulation of electric wires
and conveyor belts.
COPOLYMERS
The following synthetic rubbers are example of copolymers.
Synthetic rubber Monomers
1. Buna-S, SBR (styrene-Butadiene rubber) C6H5–CH=CH2 + CH2=CH–CH=CH2
(25%) (75%)
Styrene
2. Buna-N, NBR (Nitrile-Butadiene rubber) CH2=CH–CN + CH2=CH–CH=CH2
(25%) (75%)
Acrylonitrile
3. Butyl rubber CH3–C=CH2 + Butadiene

CH3 2%
98%
4. ABS; Acrylonitrile, Butadiene, Styrene CH2=CH–CN + CH2=CH–CH=CH2
+C6H5CH= CH2
(a) Thiokol : Thiokol is made by polymerising ethylene chloride and sodium polysulphide.
Cl–CH–CH–Cl
2 2 + Na –S–S–Na + Cl–CH–CH–Cl
2 2
Polymerisation
–CH–CH–S–S
2 2 –CH2–CH2–S–S–CH2–CH2–
Thiokol rubber
The repeating unit is –CH2–S–S–CH2–
Thiokol is chemically resistant polymer. It is used in the manufacture of hoses and tank linings, engine gaskets and
rocket fuel when mixed with oxidising agents.
(b) Buna–S (SBR : Styrene-butadiene rubber) : Buna-S rubber is a copolymer of three moles of butadiene and one
mole of styrene. In buna-S, ‘Bu’ stands for butadiene, ‘na’ for symbol of sodium (Na) which is a polymerizing
agent and ‘S’ stands for styrene. It is an elastomer (General purpose styrene Rubber or GRS).
Buna-S is generally compounded with carbon black and vulcanised with sulphur. It is extremely resistant to
wear and tear therefore used in the manufacture of tyres and other mechanical rubber goods. It is obtained as
a result of free radical copolymerisation of its monomers.
(c) Buna-N : It is obtained by copolymerisation of butadiene and acrylonitrile (General purpose Rubber acrylonitrile or GRA).
It is very rigid and is very resistant to action of petrol, lubricating oil and many organic solvents. It is mainly
used for making fuel tanks.
(d) Cold Rubber : Cold rubber is obtained by polymerization of butadiene and styrene at –18o to 5oC temperature
in the presence of redox system. Cold rubber has a greater tensile strength and greater resistance to abrasion
than SBR.
76
NYLON
Nylon is used as a general name for all synthetic fibres forming polyamides, i.e., having a protein like structure. A
number is usually suffixed with the name ‘nylon’ which refers to the number of carbon atoms present in the
monomers.
(i) NYLON -66 (Nylon six, six)
It is obtained by the condensation polymerization of hexamethylenediamine (a diamine with six carbon atoms)
and adipic acid (a dibasic acid having 6 carbon atoms).
280ºC
nHOOC(CH2 )4 COOH + nH2 N(CH2 )6 NH2 —OC(CH2 )4 CONH(CH2)6 NH—
High pressure
Adipic acid Hexamethylene –(n–1)HO n
diamine
2
Nylon-66
(ii) NYON-6, 10 (Nylon six, ten)

It is obtained by condensation polymerisation of hexamethylenediamine (six carbon atoms) and sebacic acid (a
dibasic acid with 10 carbon atoms).
Nylon fibres are stronger than natural fibres and so are used in making cords and ropes. The fibres are elastic,
light, very strong and flexible. They have drip dry property and retain creases. It is inert towards chemicals and
biological agents. It can be blended with wool. Nylon fibres are used in making garments, carpets, fabrics, tyre
cords, ropes etc.
(iii) NYLON-6 (Perlon L)

A polyamide closely related to nylon is known as perlon L (Germany) or Nylon-6 (USA). It is prepared by
prolonged heating of caprolactamat 260o-270oC. It is formed by self condensation of a large number of molecules
of amino caproic acid. Since, caprolactam is more easily available, it is used for polymerization, with is carried
out in the presence of H2O that first hydrolyses the lactam to amino acid. Subsequently, the amino acid can
react with the lactam and the process goes on and into form the polyamide polymer.
Carpolactam is obtained by Backmann rearrangement of cyclohexanone oxime.
OH O NOH
[O] [O] NH2OH
Cyclohexane Cyclohexanol Cyclohexanone Cyclohexanone

Oxime
NOH
H2SO4 O
Backmann O 260–270ºC
–C–(CH2)5 –NH–
rearrangement H2 O
NH
(six carbon atoms in the
repeating units)
Nylon-6
(iv) NYLON-2 – NYLON-6

It is in alternating polyamide copolymer of glycine and amino caproic acid and is biodegradable.
77
POLYETHYLENE
Polyethylene is of two types:
(a) Low Density Poly Ethylene (LDPE) : It is manufactured by heating ethylene at 200oC under a pressure of 1500
atmospheres and in the presence of traces of oxygen. This polymerisation is a free radical polymerisation.
200°C
nCH2=CH2 1500 atm —CH2–CH2—
n
The polyethylene produced has a molecular mass of about 20,000 and has a branched structure. Due to this,
polyethylene has a low density (0.92) and low melting point (110oC). That is why polyethylene prepared by free
radical polymerisation is called low density polyethylene. It is a transparent polymer of moderate tensile
strength and high toughness. It is widely used as a packing material and as insulation for electrical wires and
cables.
(b) High Density Poly Ethylene (HDPE) : It is prepared by the use of Zieglar - Natta catalyst at 160ºC under
pressure of 6 to 7 atmosphere.
The polymer is linear chain, hence it has high density (0.97) and has high melting point (130oC). That is why it
is called high density polyethylene. It is a translucent polymer. It has greater toughness, hardness and tensile
strength than low density polyethylene. It is used in the manufacture of containers (buckets, tubes), house
wares, bottles and toys.
MELAMINE - FORMALDEHYDE RESIN

This resin is formed by condensation polymerisation of melamine and formaldehyde.
H2N N NH2 H2N N NHCH2OH —H2N N NH–CH2—

•
+ HCHO
Polymerisation
N N N N N N
NH2 NH2 NH2 n

(Intermediate) Melamine-formaldehyde polymer
It is a quite hard polymer and is used widely for making plastic crockery under the name melamine. The articles made
from this polymer do not break even when dropped from considerable height.
BAKELITE
Phenol-formaldehyde resins are obtained by the reaction of phenol and formaldehyde in the presence of either an
acid or a basic catalyst. The reaction starts with the initial formation of ortho and para-hydroxymethyl phenol
derivatives, which further react with phenol to form compounds where rings are joined to each other with –CH 2
groups. The reaction involves the formation of methylene bridges in ortho, para or both ortho and para positions.
Linear or cross - linded materials are obtained depending on the conditions of the reaction.
78
OH OH OH
CH 2OH
H+or OH –
+ HCHO +
(Intermediate) CH2OH
o-and p-hydroxymethyl phenol
OH
OH OH
CH2OH
Polymerisation CH2
n
n
Linear polymer
Novolac
OH OH
OH OH OH
CH2OH
Polymerisation
n + n CH 2 CH2 CH2 CH2
CH2OH
CH2 CH2
CH 2 CH2 CH2 CH2
OH OH OH
Cross-linked polymer (Bakelite)
POLYESTERS
Dacron is a common polyester, prepared using ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid. The reaction is carried out at
140o to 180o C in the presence of zinc acetate and Sb2O3 as catalyst.
nHOCH2CH2OH + nHO2C CO2H OCH2CH2–C C

n
O O
Dacron
The terylene fibre (Dacron) is crease resistant and has low moisture absorption. It has high tensile strength. It is
mainly used in making wash and wear garments, in blending with wood to provide better crease and wrinkle
resistance.
79
BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS
By far the largest use of synthetic polymers is as plastic. A major portion of it is used as throwaway containers and
packing materials. Since plastics do not disintegrate by themselves, they are not biodegradable over a period of
time. Non-biodegradability is due the carbon-carbon bonds of addition polymers which are inert to enzyme catalysed
reaction. These polymers create pollution problem.
Biodegradable polymers are the polymers that can be broken into small segments by enzyme catalysed reactions
using enzymes produced by microorganisms. In biodegradable polymers, bonds that can be broken by the enzymes
are inserted into the polymers. Therefore, when they are buried as waste, enzymes present in the ground can
degrade the polymer.
One method involves inserting hydrolysable ester group into the polymer. For example, when acetal (I) is added
during the polymerization of alkene, ester group is inserted into the polymeric chains.
O
O–CH2–CH2 Peroxide
nR–CH=CH2 + nCH2=C —CH2–CH–CH2–C–O–CH2 –CH2 –CH2–CH2 —
O–CH2–CH2
n
R
Ester linkage attacked by enzyme
Aliphatic polyesters are important class of biodegradable polymers. Some examples are described below:
E-Hydroxyvalerate (PHBV)
(a) Poly - Hydroxybutyrate-CO-E
It is a copolymer of 3-hydroxybutanoic acid and 3 hydroxypentanoic acid, in which the monomer units are
connected by ester linkages.
(
CH3–CH(OH)–CH2–COOH + CH3–CH2–CH(OH)–CH2–COOH o —O–CH–CH )n where R = CH3,C2H5
2 –C–O—
R O
The properties of PHBV very according to the ratio of both the acids. 3-Hydroxybutanoic acid provides
stiffness and 3-hydroxypentanoic acid imparts flexibility to the co-polymer. It is used in specialty packaging,
orthopaedic devices and even in controlled drug relase. When a drug is put in a capsule of PHBV. It is released
only after the polymer is degraded. PHBV also undergoes bacterial degradation in the environment.
(b) Poly (Glycolic Acid) and Poly (Lactic Acid)

They constitute commercially successful biodegradable polymers such as sutures. Dextron was the first
bioadsorbable suture made for biodegradable polyesters for post - operative stitches.
80
COMMON POLYMERS
Monomer Repeating unit Polymer
1. CH2=CH2 –CH2–CH2– Polyethylene

Ethylene
CH3
2. CH3–CH=CH2 –CH2–C H2– Polypropene
Propene
3. C6H5 –CH=CH2 –CH2–CH– Polystyrene

Styrene
C6H5
4. CF2=CF2 –CF2–CF2– Polytetrafluoro

Tetrafluoroethylene ethylene (PTFE), Teflon
Cl
5. CH2=CH–Cl –CH2–CH– Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
Vinyl chloride
CN
6. CH2=CH–CN –CH2–CH– Polyvinyl cyanide,
Vinyl cyanide or poly acrylonitrile, Acrylonitrile Orlon.
H3C O COOCH3
7. CH2=C–C–O–CH3 –CH2–C– Polymethyl metha acrylate,

Methyl methacrylate
CH3
Plexiglas, Lucite
O OCOCH3
8. CH 2=CH–O–C–CH3 –CH2–CH– Polyvinyl Acetate
Vinyl acetate
9. CH2 =CH–CH=CH2 –CH2–CH–CH–CH2– Polybutadiene,
1, 3-butadiene Buna rubber
81
Cl
10. CH2=CH–Cl (vinyl chloride) –CH2–CH–CCl2–CH2– Saran

+
CH2=CCl2 (Vinylidene chloride)
C6H5 CN
11. C6H5–CH=CH2 (Styrene) –CH2–CH—CH–CH2– SAN

+
CH2=CH–CN (acrylonitrile)
12. CH2=CH–CN + CH2=CH–CH=CH2 – ABS

+
C6H5–CH=CH2
CH3
13. CH2=C–CH 2+CH2=C–CH=CH2 – Butyl rubber
CH3
14. C6H5–CH=CH2+CH2=CH–CH=CH2 – Buna-S, SBR
15. CH2=CH–CN + C6H5–CH=CH2 – Buna-N, NBR

Cl Cl
16. CH2=C–CH=CH 2 –CH2–C=CH–CH2– Neoprene

Cloroprene
COOH
O O
17. + HO–CH2–CH 2–OH –C– –C–O–CH2–CH2–O– Poly(ethylene
COOH
terephthalate,Terylene, Dacron or Mylar)
COOH OH
O O
18. + –C– –C–O– –O– Kodel Polyster
COOH OH
82
O
C–OH
19. O +HO–CH2–CH2–OH –C C–O–CH2–CH2–O– Polyethylene
C–OH O O
phthatate alkyd resin

(Glyptal)
O O
20. (CH2)5 C —NH(CH2)5–C– Nylon-6
NH
Caprolactam
O O
21. NH2(CH2)6–NH2 —NH–(CH2)6–NH–C–(CH2)4–C– Nylon-66
Hexamethylenediamine
+
O O
HO–C–(CH2)4–C–OH
Adipic Acid
O O
22. NH2— —NH2 —NH— —NH–C— —C— Kelvar
1, 4-Diaminobenzene
+
O O
Cl–C— —C—Cl
Terephthaloyl chloride
83
OH
23. + HCHO – Bakelite or resol
24. NH2–C–NH2 + HCHO – Urea-formaldehyde resin
NH2
N N
25. + HCHO – Melamine-
H2N N NH2
Malamine formaldehyde resin
84
PRACTICAL ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
(A) FUNCTIONALGROUPANALYSIS
1. Unsaturation : Alkenes & alkynes :

(a) Bayers test : Cold dil alk. KMnO4 decolourisation test
Purple colour Colourless + MnO2 (Brown ppt)
(b) Br2 water decolourisation test
Violet colourless of Br2 o Colourless
2. Terminal alkynes :
Confirmed by ppt of Acetylide ion with NaNH2 or AgNO2 or Cu2Cl2NH4OH
3. Alkyl halides :
(a) If they are capable of carbocation formation then they will give ppt with AgNO3.
(b) Beilstein’s test : A green colour is imported to the flame if small amount of organic compound is taken on copper
wire.
4. Alcohol :
(a) Cerric ammonium nitrate o Give red colour
(b) Boil with acetic acid & conc. H2 SO4 o fruity smell
4
(c) 2-alkanol & ethanol also give Iodoform test o Yellow ppt. of CH3I on reaction with I2 + O H
5. Aldehyde & ketones :

2,4-Dinitrophenyl hydrazize (or) Braddy’s reagent give yellow, orange or red colour with ald. & Ketones (2, 4-DNP)
6. Aldehydes :
(a) Tollen’s test o Silver mirror
(b) Fehling’s test {except benzaldehyde} o Red colour
(c) Benedicts test o Red colour
(d) Schiff’s dye colour regeneration test o Pink colour
(e) Gly ppt. with HgCl2.
7. Ketones :
(a) methyl ketones give haloform test
(b) D-hydroxy Ketones give Tollen’s & Fehling test’s too.
8. Carboxylic acids :
(a) Brisk effervescence with aq. NaHCO3 solution.
(b) HCOOH alone gives silver mirror test with Tollen’s reagent.
(c) Blue litmus o red
(d) give fruity smell of reaction with alcohols.
85
9. Phenols :
(a) Violet colouration with neural Fecl3
(b) Liebermann test
(c) White ppt. with Br2 water
(d) Brisk effervescence with aq. NaHCO3 is observed in case of Nitrophenols.
10. Primary amines :

(a) Carbylamine reaction o Isonitriles have very distinctive foul odors
(b) Hoffmann mustard oil reaction o Oily liquid with mustard like smell.
11. Aromatic 1º amine o diazo test
12. Amide boil with NaOH o NH3
13. Nitrobenzene o Mullikqn Baker test o Treat it with ZnNH4Cl then boil with Tollen’s reagent o Silver mirror will
appear
14. Proteins :
(a) Biuret test : Also used for urea o Alkaline solution of protein treated with a drop of aq CuSO4 when bluish violet
colour is obtained
(b) Ninhydrin test: Protein treated with a puridine solution of ninhydrin give colour ranging from deep blue to violet
pink.
DIFFERENTATION TEST
D1. 1º, 2º & 3º alcohols :
(a) Luca’s test : Lucas reagent is conc. HCl + ZnCl2
(b) Victor Meyer’s test (RBC test)
(i) 1º Alcohol o Blood red colour
(ii) 2º Alcohol o Blue
(iii) 3º Alcohol o Colourless
D2. 1º, 2º & 3º amines :

(a) Hinsberg’s reagent
(i) 1º Amine yield a clear solution from which upon acidification an insoluble material separated.
(ii) 2º Amine yield an insoluble compound which is unaffected by acid
(iii) 3º Amine yield insoluble compound
(b) Reaction with HNO2.
86
(A) ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS
Lassaigne Method (Detection of Elements)
Element Sodium Extract (S.E.) Confirmed Test Reactions
S.E. + FeSO4 + NaOH, FeSO4 + 2NaOH Fe(OH)2 + Na2SO4
Nitrogen Na + C + N NaCN(S.E.) boil and cool, Fe(OH)2 + 6NaOH Na4[Fe(CN)6]+ 2NaOH

+ FeCl3 + conc. HCl Na4[Fe(CN)6] + FeCl3 Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3 + 3NaCl
Blue or green colour Prussian blue
(i) S.E. + sodium nitro
prusside (A) (i) Na2S + Na2[Fe(CN)5NO] Na4[Fe(CN)5NOS]
A deep violet colour (A) deep violet
Sulphur 2Na + S Na2S(S.E.) (ii) S.E. + CH3COOH (ii) Na2S +(CH3COO)2Pb PbS + 2CH3COONa
black ppt.
87
+ (CH3COO)2 Pb
h A black ppt.
S.E. + HNO3 + AgNO3
(i) White ppt. soluble
in aq. NH3 confirms Cl NaX + AgNO3 AgX
(ii) Yellow ppt. ppt.
Halogen Na + Cl NaCl(S.E.) partially soluble in

aq. NH3 confirm Br
(iii) Yellow ppt. AgCl + 2NH3(aq) [Ag(NH3)2]Cl
in soluble in aq. NH3 white ppt. soluble
confirms I
As in test for nitrogen;
instead of green or blue
Nitrogen colour, blood red NaCNS + FeCl3 [Fe(CNS)]Cl2 +NaCl
and Sulphur Na+C+N+S NaCNS(S.E.) colouration confirms blood red colour

together presence of N and S
both
SOLVED EXAMPLE
Ex. 1 Sucrose on hydrolysis yields a mixture which is
(A) Optically inactive (B) Dextrorotatory (C) Laevorotatory (D) Racemic
Sol. (C) Sucrose on hydrolysis yields equimolar mixture of D-(—)-fructose and D-(+)glycose. Since specific rotation of
(—)-fructose is greater than (+)-glucose D the mixture is laevorotatory.
Ex. 2 A high molecular weight molecule which does not contain repeating structural units is called a
(A) Polymer (B) Macromolecule (C) Both (A) and (B) (D) None of these
Sol. (B) A polymer has always repeating structural units derived from monomer. For example proteins and nucleic acid
are regarded as macromolecules, but not polymers because their molecules do not contain repeating structural
units. All polymers are macromolecules, but all macromolecules are not polymers.
Ex. 3 The force of attraction between the neighbouring peptide chains is

(A) van der Waal’s force (B) Covalent bond (C) Hydrogen bond (D) Peptide linkage
Sol. (C) Neighbouring peptide chains are held by hydrogen bonds between —CO— and — NH—.
Ex. 4 Peptides on hydrolysis give

(A) Ammonia (B) Amines (C) Amino acids (D) Hydroxy acids
Sol. (C) Peptides are formed by condensation of D-amino acids. Therefore, on hydrolysis they yield D-amino acids.
Ex. 5 An example of a condensation polymer is

(A) PVC (B) terylene (C) polypropylene (D) polystyrene
Sol. (B) In condensation polymerization, a series of condensation reactions between the (generally two) monomers
containing atleast two functional groups each occur with the loss of a small molecule such as H2O, CH3OH or HX
(X = halogen). Terylene is a condensation polymer of ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid.
Ex. 6 Although both polymers are prepared by free radical processes, poly (vinyl chloride) is amorphous and poly
(vinylidene chloride) (saran) is highly crystalline. How do you account for the different ? (vinylidene chloride is 1,1-
dichloroethene).
Sol. As poly (vinyl chloride) is able to show stereoisomerism and further it is formed by a free radical process, it is atactic
(chlorine atoms (distributed randomly), the molecules fit together poorly.
Poly (vinylidene chloride) has two identical substituents on each carbon and the chains fit together well.
Ex. 7 Compound A C5H10O4, is oxidized by Br2 – H2O to the acid, C5H10O5. (A) Forms a triacetate (Ac2O) and is reduced by
HI to n-pentane. Oxidation of (A) with HIO4 gives, among other product, 1 molecule of CH2O and 1 molecule of
HCO2H. What are the possible structures of (A) and how could you distinguish between them ?
Sol. (A) is an aldehyde, contains three hydroxyl groups and the carbon skeleton consists of five carbon atoms in a
straight chain. Also, the formula C5H10O4 therefore suggests that (A) is a deoxy-sugar. If we now try to work out the
possibilities based directly on the periodic oxidation of (A), we shall find it.
Ex. 8 Convert
O=C
O
H3C – OH HC – OH
C=O HC – OH
HC
(CHOH)3
HC – OH
H2C – OH
H2C – OH
88
Sol.
O = C – OH
HC – OH O=C
H3C – OH
H2C – OH
C=O HC – OH HC – OH O
Ni/H2 HNO2 ',–H2O
(CHOH)4
(CHOH)3 HC – OH HC – OH
H2C – OH
H2C – OH HC – OH HC
H2C – OH HC – OH
H2C – OH
Ex. 9 (i) Sulphanilic acid although has acidic as well as basic group, it is soluble in alkali but insoluble in mineral acid.
(ii) Sulphanilic acid is not solube in organic solvents.
Sol. (i) Sulphanic acid exist as Zwitterion
HO3S NH2 O 3S NH3
The weakly acidic –NH3+ transfers H+ to OH– to form a soluble salt, P–NH2–C6H4–SO3–Na+ on the other hand –SO3–
is too weakly basic to accept H+ from strong acids.
(iii) Due to its ionic character it is insoluble in organic solvents.
Ex. 10 Compound (A) C5H10O5, give a tetra-acetate with Ac2O and oxidation of (A) with Br2 – H2O gives an acid, C5H10O6.
Reduction of (A) with HI and red phosphorous gives 3-methylbutane. What is structure of (A) ?
Sol. The formation of tetracetate indicates of 4OH group and oxidation with bromine water indicates presence of CHO
group. Reduction with red phosphorous and HI indicates presence of one carbon in the side chain. Thus, the
structure of (A) would be
CHO
HC – OH
HO – CH2 – C – OH
H2C – OH
Ex. 11 What is the structure of nylon-6, made by alkaline polymerisation of caprolactum ?
O
N
H
Sol. The configuration of these carbons which are unchanged in the reactions, must be identical in order to get the same
osazone.
(a) Nylon-6: Another polymer of this class is nylon-6. It is a monomer of caprolactam which is obtained from
cyclohexane.
O N OH H
N O
oxidation NH2OH H2SO4
–H2O Beckmann rearrangement
eyclohexane cyclohexanone oxime caprolactum
H2 O/'
CH2 CH2 CH2 O

'
–H2O H2N CH2 CH2 C
OH
amino caproic acid
89
It used for making tyre cords, fabrics and ropes.
(b) Nylon-6, 10: A polymer of hexamethylene diamine (six carbon atoms) and sebacic acid (ten carbon atoms).
nNH2– (CH2)6–NH2 + nCOOH – (CH2)8 – COOH o
–2n H O 2
hexamethylene diamine sebacic acid
(–CO – (CH2)8 – Co – NH – (CH2)6 – NH – CO – (CH2)8 – CO –)n

Nylon – 6, 10
These polymers are formed by the condensation of two or more monomers with the elimination of simple molecules
like H2O, NH3, ROH etc.
Ex. 12 Supply structures for H through K. Given :
An Aldohexose NH2OH/base Ac O/NaOAc –HOAC NaOMe/ MeOH
H 2
I J K.
(B) Explain the last step (C). What is net structural change (D) Name this overall method. (C) Discuss the possibility
of epimer formation.
Sol. (A) H is an oxime HOCH2 (CHOH)4CH = NOH; 1 s the completely acetylated oxime, AcOCH2(CHOH)4CH = NoAc that
loses 1 mole of HOAc to form J, AcOCH2(CHOAc)4 C – N; K is an aldopentose, HOCH2(CHOH)3CHO.
(B) The acetates undergo transesterification to give methyl acetate freeing all the sugar OH’s. This is followed by
reversal of HCN addition.
(C) There is loss of one C from the carbon chain.
(D) Wohl Degradation
(E) The a-CHOH becomes the –CH = O without any configurational changes of the other chiral carbons. Thus no
epimers are formed.
Ex. 13 Glycine exists as (H3N + CH2COO–) while anthranilic acid (P – NH2 – C6H4 – COOH) does not exist as dipolar ion.
Sol. –COOH is too weakly acidic to transfer H+ to the weakly basic –NH2 attached to the electron withdrawing benzene
ring. When attached to an aliphatic carbon, the –NH2 is sufficiently basic to accept H+ from –COOH group.
Ex. 14 Why should isoelectric joint for Aspartic acid (2.98) be so much lower than that of leucine ?
Sol. This may be explained by considering following ion equilibrium
H+
OOCCHCN2 COOH HOOCCH – CH2 COO– –H + HOOC – CH – CH2 COOH
+ +
NH3 +
NH3 NH3
(A) (B) (C)
+
+ –H
H
–
OOC–CH–CH2 COO–
NH3
+
(D)
It is apparent that ions (A) and (B) are neutral, while (C) is a cation and (D) is dianion. In species (D), the anion is
derived from the second –COOH group present in aspartic acid and is not possible in leucine. At neutral pH a
significant concentration of (D), will be present in aqueous solution. It will therefore, be necessary to decrease the pH
of such a solution if the formation of (D) is to be suppressed to a stage where anions and cations are present in equal
concentration (the isoelectric point).
90
1. Acrilan is a hard, horny and a high melting material. (B) amounts of all bases are equal
Which of the following represents its structure ? (C) amount of adenine (A) is equal to that of
[CBSE AIPMT 2003] thymine (T) and the amount of guanine (G) is
equal to that of cytosine (C)
– CH2 – CH – (D) amount of adenine (A) is equal to that of
(A) – CH2 – CH – (B)
COOC2H5 n Cl n guanine (G) and the amount of thymine (T) is
equal to that of cytosine (C)
CH3
CH2 – CH – 7. Which one of the following structures represents
(C) (D) – CH2 – C –
CN n the peptide chain ? [CBSE AIPMT 2004]
COOCH3 n
H O
l ll
2. Which one of the following monomers gives the (A) –N – C – N – C – NH – C – NH –
ll l
polymer neoprene on polymerisation ? O H
[CBSE AIPMT 2003]
H H
Cl l l l l l l l l
(A) CH2 = C CH = CH2 (B) CF2 = CF2 (B) – N – C –C–C–C–N–C–C–C–
ll l l l l l l
O
(C) CH2 = CHCl (D) CCl2 = CCl2
H H H H
l l l l l l l l
3. Vitamin-B12 contains
(C) – N – Cl – C
ll
–N–C–C–N–C–C–N–C–
l ll l ll l
[CBSE AIPMT 2003] O O O
(A) Zn (II) (B) Ca (II)
H O H
(C) Fe (II) (D) Co (III) l l l l ll l l l l l
–
(D) lC – N – C – C – C – N – C – C – N –C–C–C–
l l l l l ll l l
H O
4. Phospholipids are esters of glycerol with
[CBSE AIPMT 2003] 8. A sequence of how many nucleotides in messenger
(A) One carboxylic acid residue and two phosphate RNA makes a codon for an amino acid ?
groups [CBSE AIPMT 2004]
(B) three phoshate groups (A) Three (B) Four
(C) three carboxylic acid residues (C) One (D) Two
(D) two carboxylic acid residues and one
phosphate group 9. The hormone that helps in the conversion of
glucose to glycogen is [CBSE AIPMT 2004]
5. Glycolysis is [CBSE AIPMT 2003] (A) Cortisone (B) bile acids
(A) oxidation of glucose to pyruvate (C) adrenaline (D) insulin
(B) conversion of glucose to haem
(C) oxidation of glucose to glutamate 10. The correct statement in respect of protein
haemoglobin is that it [CBSE AIPMT 2004]
(D) conversion of pyruvate to citrate
(A) functions as a catalyst for biological reactions
6. Chargaff’s rule states that in an organism (B) maintains blood sugar level
[CBSE AIPMT 2003] (C) act as an oxygen carrier in the blood
(A) amount of adenine (A) is equal to that of (D) forms antibodies and offers resistance to
cytosine (C) and the amount of thymine (T) is diseases
equal to that of guanine (G)
91
11. Number of chiral carbon atoms in E-D-(+)-glucose 18. The human bond does not produce
is [CBSE AIPMT 2004] [CBSE AIPMT 2006]
(A) five (B) six (A) DNA (B) vitamins
(C) three (D) four (C) hormones (D) enzymes
12. the helical structure of protein is stablised by 19. Which one of the following is a peptide hormone ?
(A) dipeptide bonds (B) hydrogen bonds (A) Glucagon (B) Testosterone
(C) ether bonds (D) peptide bonds (C) Thyroxin (D) Adrenaline
13. Which one of the following is a chain growth 20. –[NH(CH2)6 NHCO(CH2)4CO]–n is a
polymer ? [CBSE AIPMT 2004]
[CBSE AIPMT 2006]
(A) Starch (B) Nucleic acid
(A) copolymer
(C) Polystyrene (D) Protein
(B) addition polymer
14. The monomer of the polymer (C) thermo-setting polymer
(D) homopolymer
CH3 CH3
+
– CH2 – C – CH2 – C is 21. Which one of the following vitamins is water-
CH3 CH3
soluble ?
(A) Vitamin-B (B) Vitamin-E
CH 3
(A) H 2C = C (B) (CH3)2 C = C(CH3)2 (C) Vitamin-K (D) Vitamin-A
CH 3
22. RNA and DNA are chiral molecules, their chirality
(C) CH3CH = CH.CH3 (D) CH3CH = CH2
is due to [CBSE AIPMT 2007]
15. the cell membranes are mainly composed of (A) L-sugar component
[CBSE AIPMT 2005] (B) Chiral bases
(A) carbohydrates (B) proteins (C) Chiral phosphate ester units
(C) phospholipids (D) fats (D) D-sugar component
16. Which functional group participates in disulphide 23. Which one of the following is an amine hormone ?
bond formation in proteins ? [CBSE AIPMT 2008]
[CBSE AIPMT 2005] (A) Thyroxin (B) Oxypurin
(A) Thiolactone (B) Thiol (C) Insulin (D) Progesterone
(C) Thioether (D) Thioester
24. Which one of the following statement is not true ?
17. During the process of digestion, the proteins
present in food materials are hydrolysed to amino [CBSE AIPMT 2008]
acids. The two enzymes involved in the process (A) In vulcanisation, the formation of sulphur
bridges between different chains make rubber
Enzyme (A)
Proteins Polypeptides harder and stronger
Enzyme (B)
Amino acids, (B) Natural rubber has the trans-configuration at
every double bond
are respectively [CBSE AIPMT 2006]
(C) Buna-S is a copolymer of butadiene and styrene
(A) amylase and maltase (B) diastase and lipase
(D) Natural rubber is a 1, 4-polymer of isoprene
(C) pepsin and trypsin (D) invertase and zymase
92
25. The segment of DNA which acts as the instrumental (C) (+) lactose, C12H22O11 contains 80 – H groups
manual for the synthesis of the protein is
(D) On hydrolysis (+) lactose gives equal amount
[CBSE AIPMT 2009] of D-(+)- glucose and D-(+)- galactose
(A) nucleotide (B) ribose
(C) gene (D) nucleoside 31. Of the following which one is classified as polyester
polymer ? [CBSE AIPMT 2011]
26. Which of the following hormones contains iodine ?
(A) Bakelite (B) Melamine
[CBSE AIPMT 2009]
(C) Nylon-66 (D) Terylene
(A) Insulin (B) Testosterone
(C) Adrenaline (D) Thyroxine 32. Which of the following statements is false ?
[CBSE AIPMT 2012]
27. Structures of some common polymers are given.
Which one is not correctly presented ? (A) Artificial silk is derived from cellulose
[CBSE AIPMT 2009] (B) Nylon-66 is an example of elastomer

(A) Teflon –(CF2 – CF2 –)n (C) The repeat unit in natural rubber is isoprene
(D) Both starch and cellulose are polymers of
(B) Neoprene –CH2 – C = CH – CH2 – CH2 – glucose
Cl n
33. Which one of the following is not a condensation

(C) Terylene ( OC COOCH2 – CH2 – O –)n polymer ? [CBSE AIPMT 2012]
(D) Nylon 66 [ NH(CH2)6NHCO(CH 2)4–CO–]n (A) Melamine (B) Glyptal
(C) Dacron (D) Neoprene
28. Which of the following structures represents
neoprene polymer ? [CBSE AIPMT 2010]
34. Which one of the following sets of monosacchrides
(A) ( CH2 – C = CH – CH2 )n forms sucrose ? [CBSE AIPMT 2012]
Cl (A) D-D-galactopyranose and D-D-glucopyranose
CN (B) D-D-glucopyranose and E-D-fructofuranose
(B) ( CH2 – CH )n (C) D-D-glucopyranose and D-D-fructofuranose
Cl (D) D-D-glucopyranose and E-D-fructopyranose
(C) ( CH2 – CH )n
35. Nylon is an example of [NEET 2013]
(D) ( CH2 – CH2 )n (A) polyester (B) polysaccharide
C6H5 (C) polyamide (D) polythene
29. Which of the following does not exhibit the

36. Which is the monomer of neoprene in the following
henomena of mutarotation ?[CBSE AIPMT 2010]
? [NEET 2013]
(A) (+) Sucrose (B) (+) Lactose
(A) CH2 = CH – C { CH
(C) (+) Maltose (D) (–) Fructose
(B) CH2 = C – CH = CH 2
30. Which one of the following statements is not true CH 3
regarding (+) lactose ? [CBSE AIPMT 2011]
(A) (+) lactose is a E-glycoside formed by the union (C) CH2 = C – CH = CH 2
of a molecule of D-(+)- glucose and a molecule Cl
of D-(+) - galactose
(D) CH2 = CH – C { CH2
(B) (+) lactose is a reducing sugar and does not
exhibit mutarotation
93
37. Which one of the following is an example of a
thermosetting polymer ? [CBSE AIPMT 2014] CH = NOH CH = NOH
HO – C – H H – C – OH
(A) (CH 2 – C = CH – CH 2)n
H – C – OH HO – C – H
Cl
(C) HO – C – H (D) H – C – OH
(B) (CH2 – CH) n H – C – OH H – C – OH
Cl CH2OH CH2OH
H H O O
(C) (N – (CH2)6 – N – C – (CH2 )4 – C)n
42. Caprolactum is used for the manufacture of
OH OH [CBSE AIPMT 2015]
CH2 (A) nylon-6 (B) teflon
(D) CH2
(C) terylene (D) nylon-6, 6
n
43. Biodegradable polymer which can be produced from
38. Which of the following organic compound glycine and aminocapric acid is
polymerises to form the polyester dacron ? [CBSE AIPMT 2015]
[CBSE AIPMT 2014] (A) nylon 2-nylon 6 (B) PHBV
(A) Propylene and para – HO – (C6H4) – OH (C) buna-N (D) nylon-6, 6
(B) Benzoic acid and ethanol
44. Which one of the following structures represents
(C) terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol nylon 6, 6 polymer ? [NEET 2016, Phase II]
(D) Benzoic acid and para – HO – (C6H4) – OH
H2 H H2 H
C C C C C
39. Which of the following hormones is produced (A)
under the condition of stress which stimulates NH2 CH3 66
glycogenolysis in the liver of human beings ?
[CBSE AIPMT 2014] H2 H H2 H
C C C C C
(A) Thyroxin (B) Insulin (B)
(C) Adrenaline (D) Estradiol NH2 NH3 66
40. Artificial sweetener which is stable under cold

condition only is [CBSE AIPMT 2014] H2 H H2 H
H2 H H2 H C C C C C
(A) saccharine (B) sucralose
C C C C C
(C) 6
CH2 COOH
(C) aspartame (D) alitame NH2 Cl 6
41. D-(+)-glucose reacts with hydroxyl amine and yields O H

an oxime. The structure of the oxime would be H2 N – (CH2)6 – NH
C C C C C
[CBSE AIPMT 2014] (D) 2
H2 n
O
CH = NOH
CH = NOH HO – C – H 45. Natural rubber has [NEET 2016, Phase I]
H – C – OH HO – C – H (A) All trans-configuration
HO – C – OH (B) Alternate cis - and trans-configuration
(A) (B) H – C – OH
HO – C – OH H – C – OH (C) Random cis - and trans-configuration
H – C – OH CH2OH (D) All cis-configuration
CH2OH
94
46. The correct corresponding order of names of four 51. Which of the following statements is not correct ?
aldoses with configuration gives below [NEET 2016, Phase I]
(A) Insulin maintains sugar level in the blood of a
CHO CHO human body
H OH HO H (B) Ovalbumin is a simple food reserve in egg white
H OH H OH
(C) Blood proteins thrombin and fibrinogen are
CH2OH CH2OH involved in blood clotting
CHO CHO (D) Denaturation makes the proteins more active
HO H H OH
HO H HO H
52. Which of the following compounds can form a
CH2OH CH2OH zwitterion ? [NEET 2018]
(A) Benzoic acid (B) Acetanilide
respectively, is [NEET 2016, Phase II] (C) Aniline (D) Glycine
(A) L-erythrose, L-threose, L-erythrose, D-threose
(B) D-threose, D-erythrose, L-threose, L-erythrose 53. Regarding cross-linked or network polymers,
which of the following statements is incorrect?
(C) L-erythrose, L-threose, D-erythrose, D-threose
[NEET 2018]
(D) D-erythrose, D-threose, L-erythrose, L-threose
(A) Examples are bakelite and melamine
47. The central dogma of molecular genetics states that (B) They are formed from bi-and tri-functional
the genetic information flows from monomers
[NEET 2016, Phase II] (C) They contain covalent bonds between various
(A) amino acids oproteins oDNA linear polymer chains
(B) DNA ocarbohydrates oproteins (D) They contain strong covalent bonds in their
(C) DNA oRNA oproteins polymer chains
(D) DNA oRNA ocarbohydrates 54. The difference between amylose and amylopectin
is [NEET 2018]
48. Which one given below is a non-reducing sugar ? (A) Amylopectin have 1 o 4 D- linkage and 1 o
[NEET 2016, Phase I] 6 E- linkage
(A) lactose (B) Glucose (B) Amylose have 1 o 4 D- linkage and 1 o 6 E-
(C) Sucrose (D) maltose linkage
(C) Amylopectin have 1 o 4 D- linkage and 1o 6
49. The correct statement regarding RNA and DNA, D- linkage
respectively is [NEET 2016, Phase I] (D) Amylose is made up of glucose and galactose
(A) The sugar component in RNA is ribose and
the sugar component in DNA is 2’-deoxyribose
(B) The sugar component in RNA is arabinose and
the sugar component in DNA is ribose
(C) The sugar component in RNA is 2’-
deoxyribose and the sugar component in DNA
is arabinose
(D) The sugar component in RNA is arabinose and
the sugar component in DNA is 2’-deoxyribose
50. In a protein molecule various amino acids are linked

together by [NEET 2016, Phase I]
(A) E-glycosidic bond (B) peptide bond
(C) dative bond (D) D-glycosidic bond
95
1. Subunits present in haemoglobin are NH2

(A) 2 (B) 3
(C) 4 (D) 5 [2003]
(C) H CO2H
2. The nucleic acid base having two possible binding
sites is CH2OH
(A) thymine (B) cytosine
(C) guanine (D) adenine. CH2OH
[2004]
3. Which of the following is a biodegradable polymer (D) H2N H [2006]
?
(A) Cellulose (B) Polythene CO2H
(C) Polyvinyl chloride (D) Nylon-6
[2004] 8. Thymine is
(A) 5-methyluracil (B) 4-methyluracil
4. Which one of the following biomolecules is (C) 3-methyluracil (D) 1-methyluracil.
insoluble in water ?
[2006, 2015]
(A) D-Keratin (B) Haemoglobin
(C) Ribonuclease (D) Adenine 9. Lysine is least soluble in water in the pH range
[2005] (A) 3 to 4 (B) 5 to 6
(C) 3 to 7 (D) 8 to 9
5. Which one of the following statements is true for
[2006, 2015]
protein synthesis (translation) ?
(A) Amino acids are directly recognized by m-RNA 10. Methyl-D-D-glucoside and methyl-E-D-glucoside
(B) The third base of the codon is less specific are
(C) Only one codon codes for an amino acid (A) epimers
(D) Ever t-RNA molecule has more than one amino (B) anomers
acid attachment. [2005] (C) enantiomers
(D) conformational diastereomers [2006]
6. The pair in which both species have iron is
(A) nitrogenase, cytochromes 11. The chemical name for melamine is
(B) carboxypeptidase, haemoglobin (A) 1,3,5-Triamino-2,4,6-triazine
(C) haemocyanin, nitrogenase (B) 2,4,6-Triamino-1,3,5-triazine
(D) haemoglobin, cytochromes [2006] (C) 2-Amino-1,3,5-triazine
7. Among the following L-serine is (D) 2,4-Diamino-1,3,5-triazine. [2010]
12. Isoprene is
CO2H
(A) 3-methyl-1,2-butadiene
(B) 2-methyl-1,3-butadiene
(A) H2N CH2OH (C) 3-chloro-1,2-butadiene
(D) 2-chloro-1,3-butadiene [2011]
H 13. Find the hydrolysis product when a phosphodiester
bond of nucleotide breaks.
CO2H
(A) 3-OH-deoxyribose-5-PO 34
(B) 5-OH-deoxyribose-3-PO 34
(B) HOH2C H
(C) 2-OH-deoxyribose-2-PO 34
NH2 (D) 4-OH-deoxyribose-2PO 34 [2011]
96
14. Find the hydrolysis product of maltose. 23. Among the following, the achiral amino acid is
(A) D-D-glucose + D-D-glucose (A) 2-ethylalanine
(B) D-D-glucose + D-D-fructose (B) 2-methylglycine
(C) D-D-glucose + D-D-galactose (C) 2-hydroxymethylserine
(D) D-D-fructose + D-D-galactose [2011] (D) tryptophan [2016]
15. Which of the following is correct examples of 24. Which is not classified as thermoplastics ?
condensation polymers ? (A) Polyethylene (B) Polystyrene
(A) Nylon, buna-S (B) Teflon, buna–N (C) Bakelite (D) Neoprene
(C) Nylon 6,6 dacron (D) Neoprene, buna–S [2016]
[2012]
25. D- D - (+)-glucose and D-D-(+)-glucose are [2017]
16. Non-stick cookwares generally have a coating of a (A) conformers (B) epimers
polymer, whose monomer is (C) anomers (D) enatiomers
(A) CH2 == CH2 (B) CH2 == CHCN
(C) CH2 == CHCl (D) CF2 == CF2 == CF2 26. Which one of the following is not a condensation
polymer ? [2017]
[2013]
(A) Melamine (B) Glyptal
17. Which of the following is a non-reducing sugar ? (C) Dacron (D) Neoprene
(A) Sucrose (B) Maltose
(C) Lactose (D) Mannose 27. Teflon and neoprene are [2017]
[2013] (A) copolymers
(B) condensation polymers
18. Maltose is made of the units (C) homopolymers
(A) D-D glucose and E-D glucose (D) monomers
(B) D-D glucose and E-D fructose 28. Which is incorrect statement (Exact) [2018]
(C) D-D glucose and D-D glucose (A) Amylopectin is insoluble in water
(D) D-D glucose and E-D galactose. [2014] (B) Fructose is reducing sugar
(C) Cellulose is the polymer E-D-glucose
19. Monomers of nylon-2-nylon-6 are
(D) D-ribose sugar present in DNA
(A) glycine and amino caproic acid
(B) glycine and caproic acid
29. Match the following [2018]
(C) hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid (i) Biodegaradble (p) 3-Hydroxybutanoic acid
(D) alanine and amino caproci acid. [2014] polymer
20. The polymer obtained by the interaction of ethylene (ii) Bakelite (q) phenol
glycol and terephthalic acid is (iii) Neoprene (r) 2-chlorobuta-1,3-diene
(A) nylon (B) dacron (iv) Glyptal (s) phthalic acid
(C) teflon (D) bakelite (A) i – p; ii –q ; iii–r; iv–s
[2015] (B) i – q; ii –p ; iii–r; iv–s
21. ‘Tocopherol’ is the chemical name of (C) i – p; ii –q ; iii–s; iv–r
(A) vitamin K (B) vitamin E (D) i – s; ii –r ; iii–p; iv–q
(C) vitamin H (D) vitamin D
[2015]
22. Glucose HCN

o
Hydrolysis
o
HI, Heat
oA
A is
(A) heptanoic acid (B) 2-iodohexane
(C) heptane (D) heptanol
[2016]
97
ASSERTION AND REASON 40. Assertion : Millon’s test is a test for identification
In each of the following questions, two statement of proteins.
are given one is assertion and the other is reason. Reason : Millon’s reagent is a solution of mercurous
Examine the statement carefully and mark the correct nitrate and mercuric nitrate in nitric acid containing
answer according to the instruction given below little nitrous acid. [2009]
(A) If both the assertion and reason are true and
reason explains the assertion 41. Assertion : E-pleated sheet structure of protein
(B) If both the assertion and reason are true but shows maximum extension.
reason does not explain the assertion Reason : Intermolecular hydrogen bonding is
(C) If assertion is true but reason is false present in them. [2011]
(D) If assertion is false but reason in true
(E) Both assertion and reason are false 42. Assertion : Fructose is a reducing sugar.
30. Assertion : Haemoglobin is an oxygen carrier. Reason : It has a ketonic group. [2012]
Reason : Oxygen binds as O2– to Fe of haemoglobin. 43. Assertion : All enzymes are made up of proteins
[2003] and all proteins have three dimensional structures.
Reason : Secondary structures of protein are
31. Assertion : Glycosides are hydrolysed in acidic sequence of amino acids. [2013]
conditions.
Reason : glycosides are acetals. [2003] 44. Assertion : Insulin is water soluble.
Reason : Insulin is a globular protein. [2014]
32. Assertion : Carboxypeptidase is an exopeptidase.
Reason : It cleaves the N-terminal bondl. [2004] 45. Assertion : Natural rubber is a polymer of isoprene.
33. Assertion : Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar. Reason : Isoprene is another name of pentene.
Reason : It has glycosidic linkage. [2004] [2014]
34. Assertion : Maltose is a reducing sugar which gives 46. Assertion : Solubility of porteins is minimum at the
two moles of D-glucose on hydrolysis. isoelectric point.
Reason : Maltose has a 1,4-E-glycosidic linkage. Reason : At isoelectric point, protein molecule
[2005] behaves as a zwitter ion. [2015]
35. Assertion : In the iodometric titration, starch is used 47. Assertion : Orlon is used as a synthetic fibre.
as an indicator. Reason : The monomer of orlon is vinyl chloride.
Reason : Starch is a polysaccharide. [2006] [2015]
36. Assertion : 1,3-butadiene is the monomer for natural 48. Assertion : Teflon is chemically inert substance.
rubber. Reason : Chloroform when treated with antimony
Reason : Natural rubber is formed through anionic trifluoride give teflon. [2015]
addition polymerization. [2006, 2016] 49. Assertion : A solution of sucrose in water is dextro-
rotatory. But on hydrolysis in the presence of a little
37. Assertion : Alpha ($ $)-amino acids exist as internal
hydrochloric acid, it becomes laevorotatory.
salt in solution as they have amino and carboxylic
Reason : Sucrose on hydrolysis gives unequal
acid groups in near vicinity.
amounts of glucose and fructose. As a result of
Reason : H+ ion given by carboxylic group (–COOH) this, change in sign of rotation is observed.
is captured by amino group (–NH2) having lone pair [2016]
of electrons. [2007] 50. Assertion : In vulcanisation of rubber, sulphur cross
38. Assertion : Teflon has high thermal stability and links are introduced.
chemical inertness. Reason : Vulcanisation is a free radical initiated chain
reaction. [2017]
Reason : Teflon is a thermoplastic. [2008]
51. Assertion : Tyrosine behave as a acidic at pH = 7
39. Assertion : Ebonite is highly vulcanised rubber. Reason : pKa of phenol is mole than 7. [2018]
Reason : perlon is used in the manufacture of fibres.
52. Assertion : Anti histamine does not effect secreation
[2009] of acid in stomach : [2018]
Reason : Anti Histamine and antacids work on
different receptors.
98
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE : PART # I
1. C 2. A 3. D 4. D 5. A 6. C 7. C 8. A 9. D 10. C 11. A 12. B 13. C
14. A 15. C 16. B 17. C 18. B 19. A 20. A 21. A 22. D 23. A 24. B 25. C 26. D
27. B 28. A 29. A 30. B 31. D 32. B 33. D 34. B 35. C 36. C 37. D 38. C 39. C
40. C 41. D 42. A 43. A 44. D 45. D 46. D 47. C 48. C 49. A 50. B 51. D 52. D
53. D 54. C
PART # II
1. C 2. C 3. A 4. A 5. B 6. D 7. C 8. A 9. D 10. B 11. B 12. B 13. A
14. A 15. C 16. D 17. A 18. C 19. A 20. B 21. B 22. A 23. C 24. C 25. C 26. D
27. C 28. D 29. A 30. C 31. D 32. C 33. A 34. C 35. B 36. D 37. A 38. B 39. B
40. B 41. B 42. B 43. D 44. B 45. C 46. A 47. C 48. C 49. C 50. B 51. A 52. A
99
CHEMISTRY FOR NEET & AIIMS 40-65*0/4
EXERCISE 8. (A) A sequence of three nucleotides in messenger RNA

P-1 (NEET/AIPMT) makes a codon for an amino acid because four bases in
messenger RNA adenine, cytosine, guanine and uracil
1. (C) Acrian (or acrylonitrile) ie monomer unit of
have been shown to act in the form of triplet.
polyacrylonitrile (PAN). Its structure is
– CH2 – CH – 9. (D) Insulin hormone helps in the conversion of glucose

CN into glycogen by the liver and skeletal muscle. Insulin
n is secreted by pancreas that lower blood glucose level.
2. (A) Neoprene is an addition polymer of chloroprene or 10. (C) haemoglobin acts as oxygen carrier in the blood
chloro-1, 3-butadiene (monomer).
because four Fe2+ ions of each haemoglobin can bind
Cl with four molecules of O2 and form oxyhaemoglobin
Polymerisation
nCH2 = CH – C = CH2
Chloroprene 4Hb 4O 2
o Hb 4 O8
Cl Oxy haemoglobin
– CH2 – CH = C – CH2 –
n 11. (A) The number of chiral carbon atoms in E-D-(+) glucose
are five
3. (D) The molecular formula of vitamin - B12 is C63H88
N14O14 PCo and the chemical name is cyanocobalamine.
So, cobalt is present in vitamin-B12. HO H
*
4. (D) Phosphotipids are esters of giycerol with two C
*
carboxylic acid residue and one phosphate group. H – C – OH
C o Chiral (Asymmetric)
*
Hence, phospholipids may be regarded as derivative of *

HO – C – H O carbon atom
glycerol in which two hydroxyl groups are esterified *
H – C – OH
with fatty acid, while third is esterified with phosphoric *
acid. H–C
CH2OH
5. (A) dGlycolysis is the first stage in the oxidation of
glucose. It is an anaerobic process and involves the
degradation of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate
with the generation of two molecules of ATP. 12. (B) The helical structure of protein is stabilised by
hydrogen bonds between amide group of the same
6. (C) Chargaff’s rule states that amount of adenine (A) is peptide chain. These bonds are formed by – NH – group
equal to that of the amount of thymine (T) and the amount of one unit and oxygen of carbonyl group of the other
of guanine (G) is equal to that of the amount of cytosine
unit. It takes 3.6 amino acid to complete one tum of the
(C).
helix to enable. Such H-bonding and a 13 memberring is
7. (C) The peptide linkage (–NH – CO –) is formed by the formed by H-bonding. this H-bonding is responsible
condensation of amino acids molecules for holding helix in a position.
HNHC H – COH + H NHC H – C OH o 13. (C) Chain growth polymerisation requires an initiator
R O R O (such as organic peroxides) to produce a free radical to
which the monomers are added in a chain fashion.
–HNC H – C NHC H – C –
Initiators are added in a very small quantities and are
R O R O
decomposed by heat, light or oxidation-reduction
Hence, following structure represents the peptide chain reaction to produce reactive species, e.g. free radical.
H H H O Polystyrene is an example of chain growth polymer
–N–C–C–N–C–C–N–C–C– because in it styrene molecules are associated in the
O O form of monomer.
100
n H2N(CH2)6 NH2 + nHOOC(CH2)4 COOH
CH2CH3 Polymerisation
– nH 2O
– NH(CH2)6 NHCO(CH2)4 CO –n
CH2 = CH2 Fe2O3/ Cr2 O3
AlCl3 650° C 21. (A) Vitamins are classified as
(i) Fat soluble vitamin - A, D, E, K
CH=CH2 CH – CH2 – (ii) Water soluble vitamin - B complex, H and C
(C6H5CO)2 O2 So, vitamin-B is water soluble.
n 22. (D) RNA and DNA molecules have ribose and

Polystyrene
deoxyribose sugar respectively. Both are chiral, their
chirality is due to D-ribose or deoxyribose sugar
components.
14. (A) The monomer of polymer
23. (A) Thyroxin is an amine hormone which is secreted by
CH3 CH3
+ thyroid gland.
– CH2 – C – CH2 – C
CH3 CH3
24. (B) Natural rubber is cis-1, 4-polyisoprene and has all
cis configurations about the double bond as shown
CH 3
is CH2 = C because 2-methylpropene shows below. It is prepared from latex which is obtained in cis
CH 3 form called Havia Rubber latex is obtained from rubber
cationic polymerisation. tree (Havea brasiliensis).
H3C H
H3C H C=C
15. (C) The cell membranes are mainly composed of C=C CH2
C=C
CH2
CH2 CH2
H3C CH2
phospholipids. H3C H
16. (B) Disulphide bond may be reduced to thiol by means 25. (C) The segment of DNA which acts as the instrumental
of regents, i.e. NaBH4 which shows the presence of manual for the synthesis of the protein is gene. Every
thiol group in disulphide bond formation. protein in a cell has a corresponding gene.
17. (C) In the process of digestion the proteins present in 26. (D) Thyroxine is 3, 5, 3’, 5’-tetra iodothyronine. It is
proteins which maintain are hydrolysed to amino acid. secreted by follicular cells of thyroid glands. Its structure
In this process two enzymes pepsin and trypsin are is given as
involved as follows :
Pepsin
I H
Proteins (Enzyme A)
Polypeptide
HO I C – COOH
Trypsin
Amino acid (Enzyme B)
NH2
I O
18. (B) The organic compounds other than carbohydrates,
proteins which maintain normal growth and nutrition in Thyroxine stimulates the consumption of oxygen and
the human body (but not produced in human body) are thus, the metabolism of all cells or tissues in the body.
called vitamins.
27. (B) Neoprene is a polymer of chloroprene (2-chloro -1,
19. (A) Glucagon is a peptide hormone because in it peptide 3-butadiene) and also called homopolymer (addition
linkage is present. polyemer).
20. (A) –[NH(CH2)6NHCO(CH2)4CO]–n is a copolymer.. nCH2 = CCH = CH2 Polymerisation

– CH2 C = CHCH2 –
Polymers whose repeating structural units are derived Cl Cl n
form two or more types of monomer units are called Chloroprene Neoprene
(synthetic rubber)
copolymer
101
28. (A) Neoprene (synthetic rubber) is a polymer of
chloroprene, i.e. 2-chloro-1, 3-butadiene. 34. (B) Sucrose is composed of D-D-glucopyranose and a
E-D-fructofuranose units which are joined by D E-
nH2C = C – C = CH2 Polymerisation glycosidic linkage between C-1 of the glucose unit and
Cl H C-2 of the fructose unit
2-chloro-1, 3-butadiene
(chloroprene)
CH2OH 1
– CH2 – C = C – CH2 – O HOH2C O H
H H
Cl H n 2
OH H O H OH
HO Glycosidic 3 CH2OH
29. (A) Key Idea Reducing sugars that exist in hemiacetal linkage
and hemiketal forms, exhibit the phenomenon of H HO OH H
structure of sucros
mutarotation in aqueous solution. During mutarotation,
the ring open upto give the open chain form which then
reclose either in the inverted position or in the original 35. (C) The general structure of any nylon polymer is
position giving anamount of open chain form. Thus, all
reducing monosaccharides and disaccharides undergo O
mutarotation in aqueous solution. – R – C – N – R –n
Among the given carbohydrates, only sucrose is a non- H
Amide linkage
reducing sugar as in it the hemiacetal and hemiketal
groups of glucose and fructose are linked together Because of the presence of amide linkage, nylon belongs
through O-atom and thus, not free. due to the absence to polymides.
of free hemiacetal or hemiketal group. sucrose does not
exhibit mutarotation.
36. (C) Neoprene is synthetic rubber and is a polymer of
chloroprene which is chemically 2-chlorobuta-1, 3-diene.
CH2OH Glycosidic linkage H OH
O nCH2 = C – CH = CH2 o –CH2 – C = CH – CH2 –n
HO H O OH Cl Cl
OH H Chloroprene Neoprene
30. (B) OH H H
H H H H
O
H OH OH OH
CH2OH
Lactose 37. (D) CH2 CH2
Lactose is a reducing sugar and all reducing sugars n
show mutarotation.
Novolac, a condensation polymer of phenol and
31. (D) Terylene (or dacron) is a polyester because it formaldehyde is a thermosetting polymer. neoprene
contains ester groups and formed by the monomer units rubber
terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol
(A) [ CH2 – C = CH – CH2 ]n and PVC
CH2 – OH
Cl
CH2 – OH
(B) [ CH2 – CH ]n are thermoplastic polymers while
32. (B) Nylon-66 is a fibre not a elastomer. As in it the forces Cl
of attraction are H-bonding. nylon - 66
33. (D) Condensation polymers are obtained by bifunctional O O

molecules (monomers) with the elimination of smaller (C) [ NH – (CH 2)6 – NH – C – (CH2 )4 – C ]n is a
molecules whereas addition polymers are obtained from Cl
multiple bond contining monomers. Neoprene is a
polyamide which is commonly known as fibre.
polymer of chloroprene (CH2 = C(Cl) – CH = CH2) so it is
an addition polymer, not a condensationpolymer.
102
38. (C) Dacron, commonly known as terylene, is obtained
by heating a mixture of terephthalic acid and ethylene 44. (D) Nylon-6, 6 polymer is formed as
glycol at 420-460 K in the presence of zinc acetate and
antiomony trioxide as a catalyst.
HOOC – (CH2)4 – COOH + H2N – (CH2)6 – NH2
Adipic acid Hexamethylene
nHOOC COOH + nHOCH2CH2OH ' diamine
– HCl
Polymerisation
Terephtalic acid Ethylene glycol
O O
[ O – CH2 – CH2 – O – CO CO ] n
Polyesteric bond Dacron
– C – (CH2)4 – C – NH – (CH2)6 – NH –n
Nylon - 6, 6
39. (C) Adrenaline hormones increases pulse rate and

controls blood pressure. It releases glucose from liver Thus, option (D) is correct.
glycogen and fatty acids from fats in emergency.
45. (D) The repeating unit in natural rubbber has the cis-
40. (C) Aspartame is the only artificial sweetener which is
configurations with chain extensions on the same side
stable at lower temperature and decomposes at higher
temperature. It is also called Nutra sweet. It’s relative of the ethylene double bond, which is essential for
sweetness value is 180. elasticity. If the configuration is trans, the polymer is
either a hard plastic or a substance like gutta-percha.
41. (D) D-(+)- glucose containsaldehydic group which reacts
with hydroxyl amine (NH2OH) to yield an oxime. The H3 C H
CH3 H C=C
C=C CH2 CH2 CH2
CH2
complete reaction is H2C CH2
H3 C
C=C
H
CH = NOH CH = NOH Natural rubber

H – C – OH H – C – OH All cis-configuration.
HO – C – H HO – C – H
+ NH2OH o
–H O
H – C – OH H – C – OH 2
H – C – OH H – C – OH
CH2OH CH2OH
D-(+)-glucose Glucoxime
46. (D) CHO CHO
H OH HO H
H OH H OH
O
O H CH2OH CH2OH
NH N D-erythrose D-threose
533 K
42. (A) N2
Nylon-6 CHO CHO
HO H H OH
43. (A) Nylon-2-nylon-6 HO H HO H
It is an alternating polyamide of glycine (containing two CH2OH CH2OH
carbon atoms) and amino caproic acid or 6- L-erythrose L-threose
aminohexanoic acid (containing six carbon atoms).
nH2N – CH2 – COOH + nH2N – (CH2)5 – COOH o

Glycine Amino caproic acid
Thus, the correct option is (d).
– NH – CH2 – C – NH – (CH2)5 – C –
O O n 47. (C) the central dogma of molecular genetics states that
Nylon - 2- nylon - 6
DNA
Transcription
o RNA
Translation
o Pr otein
It is a biodegradable step-growth copolymer.
Thus, option (c) is correct.
103
48. (C) Sucrose is non reducing sugar because reduving are disturbed. As a result, globules unfolds and helix
O get uncoiled and protein losses its biological activity.
part of glucose (– C – H ) and fructose (> C = O) are hence, the denaturation of protein makes the protein
inactive.
involved in glycosidic linkage.
52. (D)
CH2OH
O O O
H H
H –
CH2 C OH CH2 C O
OH H
HO O Glycosidic
linkage NH2 glycine NH3 (zwitter ion)
H HO
O 53. (D)
HOH2C
OH CH2OH 54. (C)
H H
H
OH
While, lactose, glucose and maltose are reducing sugars.
49. (A) In DNA, two helically twisted strands connected

together by steps. Each strand consists of alternating
molecules of deoxyribose at 2’-position and phosphate
groups.
On the other hand, in RNA, the pentose sugar has an
identical structure with deoxyribose sugar except that
there is an –OH group instead of –H on carbon atom 2’.
Hence, it is only called ribose.
50. (B) Two amino acids in a protein are linked by a peptide
bond.
e.g. glycylalanine is formed when carboxyl group of
glycine combines with the amino group of alanine.
H2N – CH2 – CO OH + H2 N – CH COOH

–H2O CH3
Alanine
H2N – CH2 – CO – NH – CH – COOH

Peptide linkage
Glycylalanine (Gly-Ala)
51. (D) Deprotonation of protein occur when it is subjected

to physical change like change in temperature or
chemical change like change in pH, the hydrogen bonds
104
EXERCISE A rule of thumb for determining D/L isomeric form of an
P-2 (AIIMS) amino acid is the corn rule.
The groups: COOH, R, NH2 and H (where r is an unnamed
1. (C) : One molecule of haemoglobin has 4 haeme groups, carbon chain) are arranged around the chiral center carbon
and each of them is capable of taking up one molecule of atom. sighting from the hydrogen atom, if these groups
O2. Therefore, oxyhaemoglobin may be depicted as are arranged counter-clockwise around the carbon atom,
Hb(O2)4. then it is the D-form, If clockwise, it is the L-form.
2. (C) According to priority order : –NH2, – COOH, – CH2OH, –
H
3. (A) : The substance which can be degraded by biological
processes, as by bacterial or other enzymatic action is 8. (A) : Thymine, also known as 5-methyluracil, is a
known as biodegradable substance. pyrimidine nucleobase. As the name inplies, thymine may
be derived by methylation of uracil at the 5th carbon.
4. (A) : D-Keratin is a water insoluble fibrous protein which
serves as the major constituent of hair, nails and skin. O
H3C
5. (B) : Genetic code shows degeneracy i.e, occurrence of
NH
more than 1 codon per amino acid. All the amino acid
except methionine and tryptohan are coded by more than
N
1 codon. for example, valine is specified by GUU, GUC, H O
GUA, GUG.
This shows that first two bases are common in all the 9. (D) : Any amino acid has its lowest solubility on its
four codons coding for valine. But the third base can be isoelectric point and the isoelectric point is the pH at
changed. which the amino acid carries no charge.
6. (D) : Cytochromes are conjugated proteins cosisting of 10. (B) : Methyl-D-D-glucoside and and methyl-E-D
an apoprotein and a prosthetic group (haeme). The haeme glucoside differs at C-1, hence are called anomers.
consists of a porphyrin with a central iron atom.
The name haemoglobin is the concatenation of haeme H OCH3 CH3O H
and globin, reflecting the fact that each subunit of C C
haemoglobin is a globular protein with an embedded
heme (or haem) group; each heme group contains an (CHOH)3 (CHOH)3
iron atoms, and this is responsible for the binding of
oxygen. The most common types of haemoglobin CH O CH O
contains four such subunits, each with one heme group.
CH2
CH2OH CH2OH
CH3
H
C
H3C CH2
N
N NH2
Fe CH
HC N N
N N 11. (B) : H N
H3C CH3 2 N NH2
C 2,4,6-triamino-1,3,5-triazine
H
12. (B) : Isoprene is a monomer of natural rubber.
HOOC COOH
H2C == C -- CH == CH2
NH2
CH3
7. (C) : H CO2H 2-Methyl-1,3-butadiene
CH2OH
L-serine 13. (A)
The laevorotatory isomer of
2- amino-3-hydroxypropanoic acid
105
14. (A) : C12 H22 O11 + H2 O H+

or C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Maltose Maltase Glucose Glucose 6 6
CH2OH CH2OH
15. (C) : Nylon 6, 6 and dacron are the examples of H H H H
condensation polymers. O O
5 5
Condensation polymers are formed by condensation of H H
4 1 + 4 1
two ro more bifunctional monomers with the elimination OH H OH H
of simple molecules like H2O, NH3, alcohol, etc.
Dacron is formed from ethylene glycol and terephthalic OH 3 2 OH HO 3 2 OH
acid with the removal of H2O. H OH H OH
Nylon 6, 6 is formed from hexamethylenediamine and
adipic acid with the removal of H2O. -- H2O
6 6
CH2OH CH2OH
[n HOCH2CH2OH] + n [HOOC COOH]
H O H H O H
Ethylene glycol Terephthalic acid 5 5
O H H
4 1 4 1
[ OCH2CH2 -- O -- C C ]n + n H2O OH H OH H
O
O OH 3 2 3 2 OH
Dacron
n H2N -- (CH2)6 -- NH2+ H OH Glycosidic H OH
Hexamethylenediamine linkage
O O
n HO -- C -- (CH2)4 -- C -- OH
Adipic acid
19. (A) : Nylon-2-nylon-6 is an alternating polyamide

H H O copolymer of glycine (H2N – CH2 – COOH) and amino
caproic acid [H2N(CH2)5COOH].
[ N -- (CH2)6 -- N -- C -- (CH2)4 -- C ]n
Nylon -- 6, 6 O 20. (B) : n[HO -- CH2 -- CH2 -- OH]
Ethylene glycol
16. (D) : nCF2 == CF2 o –[ CF2 – CF2 ]– n O O

Teflon +n[HO C C OH]
Teflon is used for non-stick cookwares. Terephthalic acid
-(2n - 1)H2O
17. (A) : All the monosaccharides (aldoses and ketoses) and O O

disaccharides except sucrose reduce Fahling’s solution
[ O -- CH2 -- CH2 -- O -- C C ]n
or Tollens’ reagent and hence are reducing sugar.
Dacron
18. (C) : The disaccharide maltose (malt sugar) is formed by

the condensation of two molecules of a-D- 21. (B)
glycopyranose in which C 1 of one glucose unit is
connected to C4 or the other glucose unit.
106
27. (C)
CN
CHO CH
OH
HCN Hydrolysis 28. (D) : D-oxyribose sugar present in DNA is correct sugar.
22. (A) : (CHOH)4 (CHOH)4
29. (A) :
CH2OH CH2OH
Glucose Glucose cyanohydrin (i) Biodegaradble polymer o PHBV (3-Hydroxybutanoic
acid + 4-Hydroxypentanoic acid)
COOH (ii) Bakalite o Phenol + Formaldehyde
CH
OH (iii) Neoprene o 2-chlorobuta-1,3-diene
HI/heat
CH3(CH2 )5COOH (CHOH)4 (iv) Glyptal o Phthalic acid + Ethylene glycol
Heptanoic acid
CH2OH
30. (C) : Haemoglobin is the oxygen carrier in the human
blood. It consists of four subunits and one molecule of
NH2 haemoglobin can carry 4 molecules of O2. O2 binds to Fe
of heme part.
23. (C) : 2-Ethylalanine; H5C2 C COOH
CH3 31. (D) : Glycosides are formed by treating flucose with
(Chiral) CH3OH in the presence of dry HCl gas and can be
hydrolysed by strong reagents like HCN, NH2OH and
NH2
C6H5NHNH2. Also, glycosides are known as hemi-acetals.
2-Methylglycine; CH3 C COOH
CHO
H
H OH H OH HO H
(Chiral)
HO H H OH O H OH O
NH2 H OH HO H + HO H
H OH H OH H OH
2-Hydroxymethylserine; HOCH2 C COOH H
CH2OH
H
CH2OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
(Achiral) (hemi-acetal)
NH2
CH2 C COOH 32. (C) : Carboxypeptidase is an exopeptidase because it
Tryptophan; breaks the peptide chain at terminal ends.
H
N (Chiral) Carboxypeptidase cleaves carboxy-terminal amino acids
H
that have aromatic or branched aliphatic side chains.
24. (C)
25. (C) : Anomers are those diastereomers that differ in 33. (A) : Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar as it does not
configuration at C – 1 atom. reduce Tollens’ or Fehling’s reagent, due to absence of
Since D – D – (+) – glucose and E – D – (+) – glucose free aldehyde or ketone group. It contains stable acetal
differ in configuration at C – 1 atom so they are anomers. or ketal structure which cannot be opened into a free
26. (D) : Neoprene is an addition polymer of isoprene. carboxyl group. Sugar is composed of D-D-
Cl glucopyranose unit and E-D-fructofuranose unit. These
units are joined by D, E-glycosidic linkage between C-l
nCH 2 CH C CH2
O 2 or peroxides
o of the glucose unit and C-2 of the fructose unit.
Chloroprene
34. (C) : On hydrolysis one mole of maltose yields two moles

Cl of D-glucose. It is a reducing sugar. The two glucose
CH2 C CH CH2 units are linked through a-glycosidic linkage between C-
1 of one unit and the C-4 of another.
Neoprene
107
35. (B) : Starch (C6H10O5)n is a polysaccharide. It consists of 44. (B) : Insulin is a globular protein. This protein has three-
two fractions - one is known as D-amylose and the other dimensional folded structure. These are stablilised by
is E-amylose or amylopectin. internal hydrogen bonding, hence, they are water soluble.
In iodimetric and iodometric titrations, starch solution is
45. (C) : Isoprene is 2-methyl-1, 3-butadiene.
used as an indicator. It gives blue or violet colour with
free iodine. At the end point, the blue or violet colour 46. (A) : At isoelectric point, protein molecules behave as
disappears when iodine is completely changed to iodide. zwitter ions and hence, do not move toward any electrode
or act as neutral molecules. This reduces their solubility
36. (D) : Isoprene (2-methyl-1,3-butadiene) is the monomer
to minimum and thus, helps in their separation and
for natural rubber.
purification.
Natural rubber is formed through cationic addition
polymerization. Cationic addition polymerization is 47. (C) : The monomer of orlon is acrylonitrile.
catalysed by acids and Lewis acid. Alkenes containing
electron-donating group usually undergo cationic 48. (C) : When chloroform is treated with antimony trifluoride
addition polymerization. and hydrofluoric acid, tetrafluoroethylen is formed. On
polymerisation. tetrafluoroethylene forms teflon.
CH3
49. (C) : The hydrolysis of sucrose by boiling with a mineral
polymerization
n CH2 C CH CH2 acid (HCl), produces a mixture of equal molecules of D-
glucose and D-fructose. Sucrose solution is
CH3 dextrorotatory having specific rotation = + 66.5°. But on
hydrolysis, it becomes laevorotatory. The specific
CH2 C CH CH2 rotation of D-glucose is + 52° and of D-fructose is –92°.
Therefore, the net specific rotation of an equimolar
mixture of both is :
37. (A) : NH2–CH2–COOH is a typical D-amino acid. In
solution it exists as, internal salt or Zwitter ion. 52q 92q
20q (laevorotatory)
(NH3–CH2–COO–) 2
because the proton (H+) of COOH group is captured by
–NH2 group as NH2 has a lone pair of electrons on N 50. (B) : Vulcanisation is a process of treating natural rubber
atom. with sulphur or some compounds of sulphur under heat
38. (B) : Due to presence of strong C-F bonds teflon has so as to modifying its properties. This cross – linking
high thermal stability and chemical intertness. As, it gave mechanical strength to the rubber.
softens on heating and can be remoulded so, it is a
thermoplastic. 51. (A)
39. (B) : ebonite is a very hard rubber which contains 30-

52. (A)
40% sulphur.
40. (B) : Millon’s test is used for proteins. When Millon’s
reagent is added to the aqueous solution of a protein, a
white precipitate is formed.
41. (B) : In E-pleated sheet structure, the polypeptide chains

are held together by intermolecular H-bonds. extension
and contraction of E-pleated sheet structure of protein
depends on the size of R.
42. (B)
43. (D) : All enzymes are made up of proteins and all proteins
do not have 3-dimensional structures. Structures of
proteins are classified as primary, secondary, tertiary and
quaternary and only tertiary structure is 3-dimensional.
The sequence in which the amino acids are arranged in a
protein is called primary structure of protein.
108
CHEMISTRY IN
CHAPTER
15
EVERYDAY LIFE
Science and everyday life cannot and should not be saperated.
''ROSALIND FRANKLIN''
INTRODUCTION
C
hemistry in Everyday life helps us to have a look that where chemistry is used in our
day to day life’s routine. Medicines, Drugs, Chemical messangers in our body (hor-
mones & neurotransmitters), Rocket propellants, chemicals in food, cleansing agents
such as soaps & detergents, petrol the most important thing in the world in the
present scenario, all types of cosmetics can be explained with the help of chemistry.
Thus advancement in chemistry helps us to synthesize & manufacture all these

products economically and improve our standard of living. With the further en-
hancement of chemistry scientist are trying to delve into other fields as well so that
further improvisation can be done.
109
Medicine or Drugs
Drugs : Drugs are the chemicals of low molecular masses which interact with macromolecular target and produce
a biological response.
Medicines : Medicines are the drug which are therapeutic and used for diagnosis, prevention and treatment
of diseases.
Classes of Drugs
(A) Antiseptics :
Which prevent or destroy the growth of the harmful micro organism, common antiseptics are-
Dettol, Savlon, Cetavelon, acriflavin, lodine, methylene blue, mercurochrome & KMnO4 .
Dettol is a mixture of chloroxylenol and terpineol. Its dilute solution is used to clean wounds.
Bithional -It is added to soap to impart antiseptic properties
Iodoform is also used as an antiseptic for wounds.
Boric acid in dilute aqueous solution is weak antiseptic for eyes.
(B) Disinfectants :
The chemical compounds capable of completely destroying the micro organism are termed as disinfectants.
These are toxic to living tissues.
These are utilized for sterilization of floor, toilets instruments & cloths.
eg. 1% solution of phenol in disinfectant while 0.2% solution of phenol is antiseptic.
*One substance can act as an antiseptic and also act as disinfectant for example
(a) 0.2 percent solution of phenol is an antiseptic while its 1% solution is disinfectant.
(b) Chlorine in 0.2 to 0.4 ppm in aqueous solution is used to disinfect drinking water.
(c) Hexachlorophene :- It is mainly used in soaps creams and emulsions.
(d) Thymol : It is a natural derivative of phenol and is a powerfull disinfectant
(e) Amyl meta cresol (5-methyl-2-pentyl phenol) it is used as antiseptic in mouth wash or gargles.
(f) Gentian violet and methylene blue are organic dyes but used as effective antiseptic.
(C) Analgesics :
The substance which are used to get relief from pain. These are of two types -
(a) Narcotics or habit forming drugs
(b) Non-narcotics
(a) Narcotics : These are alkaloids and mostly opium products, causes sleep and unconsciousness when
taken in higher doses.
e.g. Morphine, codeine, heroine
(b) Non-narcotics : Analgesics belonging to this category are effective antipyretics also.
e.g. Aspirin & novalgin, Ibuprofen, Naproxen
110
CHEMISTRY IN EVERYDAY LIFE
(D) Antipyretics :
To bring down the body temp. in high fever are called antipyretics.
e.g - (a) Aspirin, (b) Analgin (Novalgin), (c) Paracetamol, (d) Phenacetin
C C CH3 OH OC2H5
O
COOH
p– Ethoxy acetanilide
Aspirin (Phenacetin)
NH C CH3 NHCOCH3
O
(E) Antimalarials :
To bring down the body temperature during malarial fever.
e.g. Quinine, Chloroquine, Paraquine and Primaquine etc.
(F) Tranquilizers :
The chemical substances which acts on the central nervous system and has a calming effect.
Since these are used for mental diseases so are known as psychotherapeutic drugs.
O O CH2–CH2–NH2
|| Ph || |
N–H Et N–H
O N
||
N
||
O
||
O N
||
| | O
|
H H H
Barbituric acid Luminal Serotonin
Reserpine, an alkanoid, is a powerful tranquilizer. It is obtained from a plant, Rauwolfia serpentina (common name -
Sarpagandha) which grows in India.
They are of two types - (a) Sedative or hypnotics (b) Mood elevators
(a) Sedative : Reduce nervous tension and promote relaxation. e.g. Reserpine, barbituric acid and its
derivatives as luminal & seconal.
(b) Mood elevators or Antidepressants : A drug used for treatment of highly depressed patient, who has
lost his confidence.
Example : Benzedrine (amphetamine)
(G) Anaesthetics :
These are chemical substances helping for producing general or local insensibility to pain and other sensation.
These are of two types (a) General (b) Local
(a) General :- Produce unconsciousness and are given at the time of major surgical operations.
Example : Gaseous form o Nitrous oxide, ethylene, cyclopropane etc.
Liquid form o Chloroform, divinyl ether and sodium pentothal etc.
111
(b) Local anaesthetics: Produce loss of sensation on a small portion of the body. It is used for minor operations.
Example : Jelly form o Oxylocain
Spray form o Ethyl chloride
Injection form o Procain
(H) Antibiotics : The chemical substances produced from some micro organism (fungi bacteria or mold) and are
used to inhibits the growth of other micro organism.
These are effective in the treatment of infections diseases.
Example : Penicillin - It is highly effective drug for pneumonia, Bronchitis, abscesses, sore throat etc.
For other naturally occurring penicillin -
O H H
S CH3
R C N C C C
CH3
C N C COOH
O
H
Penicillin
R - May be -
R CH2 (Penicillin G)
R CH3—CH2—CH CH—CH2— (Penicillin-F)

R CH3—(CH2)6— (Penicillin-K)
NH2 (Ampicillin)
R
CH
Bactericidal Bacteriostatic
Penicillin Erythromycin
Aminoglycosides Tetracycline
ofloxacin Chloramphenicol
Synthetic antibiotics are Streptomycin - (Tuberculosis),

Chloromycetin - (Typhoid, Meningitis, Pneumonia, diarrhoea, dysentery etc.)
Tetracycline - (Acute fever, trachoma, dysentery & urinary tract infection)
(I) Sulpha drugs : Having great antibacterial powers. These are a group of drugs which are derivatives of
sulphanilamide.
Sulphadiazine Sulphapyridine
112
Other sulpha drugs are - (a) Sulphathiazole -Mainly used in severe infections.
(b) Sulpha guanidine - Used in bacillary dysentery
(c) Sulpha pyridine - Used in pneumonia
(d) Sulpha diazine - Used in dysentery, urinary infection and respiratory infection.
Drugs According to Their Action :

Antacids
z The chemicals which are used to reduce the acidity of the stomach are called antacids. Acidity is one of the
common ailments associated with digestion.
z Antacids are nature is basic. Their PH value is in the range of 7.0 to 8.0.
z Omeprazole and lansoprazole are also marketed as antacid. They prevent the formation of acid in the stomach.
Their structures are as follows :-
H
|
N N O
O
||
C–S
||
S N
CH3 N N
N |
H3C OCH3 H
Lansoprazole H3C
OCH2CF3
Omeprazole
Antihistamines or Antiallergic Drugs :

z Antigens from environment and food create allergic reactions in our body. In this situation Histamine a chemical
released from certain cells in our body during allergic reaction, are produced.
z Antihistamines are the drugs which diminish or abolish the effects of histamine.
z Synthetic drugs Brompheniramine (Dimetapp), Chlorpheniramine and terphenadine (selane) act as antihistamine.
z The antihistamine do not effect the secretion of acid in stomach because antiallergic and antacid drugs work on
different receptors.
HN CH3 CH(NO2)
HN N–CN ||
|| S
S C Me2N C
N NH2 , NHMe
N N NHCH3 , O N
Histamine H H
Cimetidine Ranitidine
Chemicals In Food
Chemicals are added to food for their preservation, enhancing their appeal and adding nutritive values in them Main
categories of food additives are as follows
(i) Food colours.
(ii) Flavours and sweeteners.
(iii) Fat emulsifiers and stabilising agents.
(iv) Flour improvers antistaling agent and bleaches.
(v) Antioxidants
(vi) Preservatives
(vii) Nutritional supplements such as minerals, vitamins and amino acids except category
None of the above have nutritive values.
113
Artificial sweetening agents :
z Natural sweeteners e.g. sucrose added to calorie intake and therefore many people prefer to use artificial
sweeteners for example like Saccharine (It is ortho-sulphobenzimide which is insoluble in water but its sodium
or potassium salts are soluble in water It is the first popular artificial sweetening agent used since 1879. It is
about 550 times more sweet as cane sugar.
z It’s use is of great value to diabetic persons and people who need to control intake calories.
z It is used in pan masala cheap Ice cream, cheap drinks, mouthwash, cheap toffies, toothpaste).
Artifical sweeteners Structural formula Sweetness value in

comparison to cane sugar
(1) Saccharine (o-sulpha) 550

(insoluble in water benzimide)
(2) Sodium salt of saccharine

(Soluble in water)
(3) Aspartame
100
part
(4) Sucralose OH
600
(5) Alitame
2000
z There are some other sweetening agents which has higher sweetening values than sugar e.g.
(1) Cyclamate - (Cyclohexyl sulphamate) its sweetness value is 7100.
(2) Nectarin - (2- Amino-4-nitro propoxy benzene) its sweetness value is 50,000. Both of these are not used as
sweetening agent because they causes throat cancer and have bitter taste.
114
z At present sucralose which is trichloroderivative of sucrose is sold as an useful artificials sweetener. It is stable
at cooking temperature and does not provide calories.
z Its appearance and taste are like sugars.
z ASPARTAME is also the most successful and widely used artificial sweetener. It is roughly 100 times as sweet
as cane sugar It is methyl ester of dipeptide formed from aspartic acid and phenylalanine. Use of aspartame to
cold foods and soft drinks is limited because it is unstable at cooking temperature.
z Again aspartame on metabolic decomposition give phenylpyruvic acid which is harmful to the people suffering
from disease, especially to infants it causes brain damage and mental retardation.
Food Preservatives :
z The chemical which are used to stop undesirable change in food caused by microorganism and save them from
spoiling are called preservatives. It reduces (stop the growth) and rate reactions occurring due to bacteria in
food).
z The following properties must be present in a preservative :
(i) It should not react with food material. (ii) It’s effect should be for longer period.
(iii) It should not decrease the quality of food. (iv) It should not have harmful effect on the body.
Important preservatives are as follows :

(1) Sodium benzoate : It’s 0.06% to 0.1% concentration is used for preservation of fruit juice , jam, jelly, pickles etc.
(2) Parabens : These are alkyl p-hydroxy benzoate and used for preservation of tomato sauce etc.
(3) Sorbates : These are salt of sorbic acid and used for preservation of milk cheese preparation certain meats and fish
products. It inhibit the growth of yeast
(4) Propionates : These are ethyl and phenyl ester of propionic acid and used for the preservation of biscuits and baked
product, etc. from mould fungi etc.
(5) Sodium or potassium metabisulphite (Na2S2O5 or K2S2O5) : It is used as a preservative for food products such as
jams, squashes, pickles etc. It’s preservative action is due to SO2 which dissolves in water to give sulphurous acid.
Na2S2O5 o Na2SO3 + SO2 ; SO2 + H2O o H2SO3

Sulphurous acid inhibits the growth of yeasts, mould and bacteria
(6) Epoxides : Epoxides are gases and preserves low moisture foods like nuts, dried fruits. The food must be exposed to
these chemicals in closed chamber for sufficient time. Epoxides destroy all type of microorganism including spores
and viruses.
(7) p-Hydroxy benzoate ester : The methyl, ethyl propyl and heptyl esters of p-hydroxybenzoic acid are used as
preservatives in baked foods, soft drinks, beer and syrups. They have no perceptible effect on flavour and are
effective in inhibiting the growth of mould and yeast but are less effective on bacteria.
Antioxidants :
z The chemical substance which reduce the rate of reaction with oxygen in food, thus help in their preservation are
called antioxidants.
z These are most important and necessary food chemicals added in the food they are more reactive towards oxygen
than the food.
z They reduce the rate of formation of free radicals responsible for ageing process 2,6 ditertiary butylhydroxy toluene
(p-crysol, BHT) and 2-tertiary butyl hydroxy anisole (BHA) are two most familiar antioxidants used. Butter can be
preserved for many year by adding BHA. Their structures are as follows.
115
CH3
(BHT) (BHA)
Cleansing Agents :
Soaps and Detergents :
Soaps and detergents are used since long
SOAPS
z Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty acids e.g steric, oleic and palmitic acids. soap containing
sodium salts are formed by heating fat (i.e. glyceryl ester of fatty acid) with aqueous sodium hydroxide
solution.
This reaction is known as SAPONIFICATION.
O
||
CH2–O–C–C17H35
O + 3NaOH 3C17H35COONa + CH2–OH
|
CH –O–C–C17H35 CH–OH
O |
CH2–OH
Glyceryl ester of sodium Sodium stearate Glycerol
stearic acid (Fat) hydroxide (soap) (or glycerine)
O
||
O
+ 3NaOH 3C15H35COONa + CH2–OH
CH –O–C–C15H35 |
O CH–OH
CH2–O–C–C15H35 |
sodium palmitate CH2–OH
Glyceryl palmitat (soap)
O
||
O + 3NaOH 3C17H32COONa + CH2–OH
|
CH –O–C–C17H32 Sodium oleate (Soap) CH–OH
O |
CH2–OH
Glyceryl oleate
z Generally potassium soaps are soft to the skin. These can be prepared by using potassium hydroxide solution
in place of sodium hydroxide.
116
Types of Soaps
There are so many types of soaps due to the using different raw materials
(i) Toilet soaps are prepared by using better grades of fats and oils and care is taken to remove excess alkali. colour
and perfumes are added to make them more attractive.
(ii) Water floating soaps : are made by beating tiny air bubbles before their hardening
(iii) Transparent soaps : are made by dissolving the soap in ethanol and then evaporating the excess solvent.
(iv) Medicated soap: Substances of medical values are added. In some soaps deodorants are added.
(v) Shaving soaps : They contain glycerol to prevent rapid drying. A gum called rosin is added while making them.
It forms sodium rosinate which lathers well
(vi) Loundry soaps contains fillers like sodium rosinate, sodium silicate borax and sodium carbonates.
(vii) Soaps chips: These are made by running a thin sheet of melted soap into a cool cylinder and scraping of the
soap in small chips.
(viii) Soap granules : These are dried miniature soap bubbles.
(ix) Soap powders and scouring soaps contain some soap. A scouring agent (abrasive) such as powdered pumice
or finely divided sand and builders like sodium carbonate and trisodium phosphate. Builders make the soap act
more rapidly.
Soaps do not work in hard water :

Hard water contains calcium and magnesium ions. The ions form insoluble calcium and magnesium soaps when
sodium soap or potassium soaps are dissolved in hard water
2C17H35COONa + CaCl2 o 2NaCl + (C17H35COO)2Ca
insoluble calcium stearate
These insoluble soaps separate as scum in water and are useless as cleaning agent in fact these are hinderance to
good washing. Hair washed with hard water become dull because of sticky precipitate. The precipitate adheres on
to the fibre of cloth or hairs as gummy mass.
Detergents
The synthetic products , which like soaps remove dust and grease from a surface are called detergents, since they
are not soap but work like a soap so they are also called as soapless soap.
Detergents are mainly sodium salts of either sulphuric or sulphonic acids with long chain hydrocarbons. Their
general formula is as follows :
–
O
CH3–(CH2)x –OSO3Na
or
sodium alkyl sulphate onate
These can be used both in soft and hard water, as they give foam even in hard water
Synthetic detergents are mainly classified into three categories :
(i) Anionic detergents (ii) Cationic detergents (iii) Non-ionic detergents
117
(i) Anionic Detergents
These are sodium salt of sulphonated long chain alcohols or hydrocarbons. Alkyl hydrogen sulphate formed
by treating long chain alcohols with concentrated sulphuric acid are neutralised with alkali to form anionic
detergents. Similarly alkyl benzene sulphonates are obtained by neutralising alkyl benzene sulphonic acid with
alkali.
CH3–(CH2)10–CH2OH H2SO4 CH3–(CH2)10 –CH2–OSO3H NaOH CH3–(CH2)10–CH2–

Lauryl alcohol Lauryl hydrogen sulphate Sodium lauryl sulphate
H2SO4 NaOH
Dodecyl benzene Dodecyl benzene Sodium dodecyl benzene

sulphonic acid sulphonate.
In anionic detergents, the anionic part of the molecule is involved in the cleansing action. These are smoothly used
for household work and are also used in toothpastes.
(ii) Cationic detergents

These are quaternary ammonium salts of amines with acetates, chlorides or bromides as anion. Cationic part
possess a long hydrocarbon chain and a positive charge on nitrogen atom Hence these are called cationic
detergents. Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide is a popular cationic detergent. Their hydrophilic end is a cation.
So they are also known as invert soap . They have germicidal properties and are expensive, therefore these are
of limited use. These detergents are used in hair conditioners.

CH3
|
CH3–(CH2)15 –N–CH3 – –
Br (or Cl )
|
CH3
Cetyltrimethyl ammonium
bromide (or chloride)
(iii) Non ionic detergents : These are mostly esters of poly hydroxy alcohols. They are in liquid form, and do not
contain any ion in their constitution. One such detergent is formed when stearic acid reacts with polyethylene
glycol.
– H 2O
CH3–(CH2)16COOH + HO (CH2+ CH2O)n CH2–CH2–OH o CH3(–CH2)16COO(CH2–CH2O)nCH2–CH2–OH
Stearic acid Poly ethylene glycol
Another such non ionic detergent is pentaerythrityl monostearate it is as follows :-
O CH2OH
|| |
CH3–(CH2)16–C–O–CH2–C–CH2 –OH
|
CH2OH
Pentaerythritol mono stearate
118
Liquid dish washing detergents are non ionic type. Main problem that appears in the use of this type of detergents.
is that if their hydrocarbon chain is highly branched then bacteria cannot degrade this easily, they pollute rivers and
other water sources. If hydrocarbon chain is unbranched then they are decomposed by microorganism and thus no
pollution occur from them.
Difference between soap and detergents

Although the action of soap and detergents is similar but there are following differences between them :
(1) Soaps are salts of weak acid and strong base whereas detergents are salts of strong acid and strong base.
(2) Aqueous solution of soap is basic where as aqueous solution of detergents is neutral.
R–COONa + H2O o R–COOH + NaOH

Soap Weak acid strong base
ArSO3Na + H2O o ArSO3H + NaOH

Detergent Strong acid strong base
(3) Woolen and silk cloths in which soft fibres are present cannot be washed with soap whereas all type of fabrics
can be washed with detergents
(4) Soap cannot work in hard water because soaps are precipitated as insoluble salt by reaction with Ca 2+ and Mg2+
ions. Thus more soap is used for removing dust and grease from the clothes where as detergents are not
precipitated by Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions. Thus detergents can be used in hard water also.
KEY POINTS
(i) Aspirin is used to prevent heart attacks besides being antipyretic and analgesic agents.
(ii) Soaps, detergents and phospholipids are called surfactants since they lower the surface tension of water.
(iii) Sodium soaps are hard while potassium soaps are soft. Therefore, whashing soaps are mostly sodium soaps
while liquid soaps having creams and toilet soaps are potassium salts.
(iv) Unlike soaps, detergents can be used in hard water. The reson being that magnesium and calcium salts of
detergents are soluble in water while those of soaps are insoluble in water.
(v) Aspirin is a non-narcotic analgesic but is toxic to liver. It also undergoes hydrolysis in the stomach producing
salicyclic acid which causes bleeding from the stomach wall. Therefore, other non-narcotic analagesics such as
naproxen, ibuprofen and diclofenac sodium or potassium are preferred to aspirin.
(vi) Sulpha drugs areeffective against bacterial infections.
(vii) Artificial sweetners have no caloric value and hence are useful for diabetic persons.
119
1. Drugs : Drugs are the chemicals of low molecular masses which interact with macromolecular target and
produce a biological response.
Medicines : Medicines are the drug which are therapeutic and used for diagnosis, prevention and treatment
of diseases.
2. DETERGENTS
Anionic Detergents Cationic Detergents Non-ionic Detergents
The anionic part of There hydrophilic end is They are in liquid form,
the molecule is involved a cation, so they are also and do not contain any
in the cleansing action. known as invert soap. ion in their constitutions.
These are smoothly used These detergents are used They are generally used
for household work and in hair conditioners. in sanitary cleaning.
in toothpaste.
120
SOLVED EXAMPLE
Ex. 1 Which of the following statements is not correct ? Ex. 3 Compound which is added to soap to impart
(A) Some antiseptics can be added to soaps antiseptic properties is .........
(B) Dilute solutions of some disinfectants can be (A) Soldium laurylsulphate
used as antiseptic (B) Sodium dodecylbenzenesulphonate
(C) Disinfectants are antimicrobial drugs
(C) Rosin
(D) Antiseptic medicines can be ingested
Sol. (D) An antiseptic is an antimicrobal drug. It tends (D) Bithional
to destroy/ prevent development or inhibit the Sol. (D) Basically, all soaps are made by boiling fats or
pathogenic action of microbes. Antiseptics are oils with suitable hydroxide. Variations are made by
applied to the living tissues such as wounds, cuts, adding different raw materials. Sodium laurylsulphate
ulcers and diseased skin surfaces e.g., soframicine. and sodium dodecylbenzenesulphonate are anionic
Bithinol the compound is also called bithional is detergents
added to soaps to impart antiseptic properties
A gum rosin added to soap to make it lather well.
Dilute solutions of some disinfectants can be used
as antiseptic e.g., 0.2 percent solution of pehnol is Bithional is added to soaps to impart antiseptic
an antiseptic while its one percent solution is properties to soap.
disinfectant. But, antiseptic medicines can not be
ingested like antibiotics. Ex. 4 Glycerol is added to soap. It functions ........
(A) As a filler
Ex. 2 The most useful classification of drugs for medicinal (B) To increases leathering
chemists is ...........
(A) On the basis of chemical structure (C) To prevent rapid drying
(B) On the basis of drug action (D) To make soap granules
(C) ON the basis of molecular targets Sol. (C) Glycerol is added to shaving soap to prevent
(D) On the basis of pharmacological effect rapid drying while to enhance the leathering
Sol. (C) Drugs can be classified in the following ways property of soap, a gum called rosin is added to
(A) on the basis of chemical structure : Drugs have them. It forms sodium rosinate which lathers well.
been classified on the basis of their chemical Soap granules are dried miniature soap bubbles
structures have similar pharmacological activity. Builders/ fillers make the soap act more rapidly.
e.g., all sulphonamides having the common
Builder or filter (e.g. sodium tripolyphosphate) is
structural feature as given below are mostly
antibacterial. added to detergent powder. Its main function is to
act as water softener by removing Mg2+ and Ca2+
O ion from hard water by forming stable souble
H2N S – NHR complexes.
O
Ex. 5 Photochemical smog occurs in warm, dry and sunny
Structural feature of sulphonamide climate. One of the following is not amongst the
(B) On the basis of drug action : This classification components of photochemical smog, identify it
is based on the action of a drug on a particular
(A) NO2
biochemical process.
(C) On the basis of molecular target : Drugs usually (B) O3
interact with the biomolecules or biological (C) SO2
macromolecules such as proteins, nucleic acids and (D) Unsaturated hydrocarbon
lipids. These are called drug targets. Sol. (C) The smog which is formed in presence of sunligh
Drugs possessing some common structural features is called photochemical smog. This occurs in the
may have the same mechanism of action on a specific
drug target. This classificationis most useful for moths of summer when NO2 and hydrocarbons are
the medicinal chemists presents in large amounts in atmosphere.
(D) On the basis of pharmacological effect : This Concentration of O3, PAN, aldehydes and ketones
classification is based upon the pharmacological builds up in the atmosphere.
effects of the drugs. It is more useful for the doctors SO2 is not responsible for photochemical smog.
because it provides them the whole range of drugs
available for the treatment of a particular disease,
e.g., analgesics reduce or kill pain while antiseptic
either kill or arrest the growth of microorganisms.
121
1. Green chemistry means such reactions which 8. Bithional is generally added to the soaps as an
[CBSE AIPMT 2008] additive to function as a/an [CBSE AIPMT 2015]
(A) produce colour during reactions (A) softener (B) dryer
(B) reduce the use and production of hazardous (C) buffering agent (D) antiseptic
chemicals
(C) are related to the depletion of ozone layer 9. Which of the following is an analgesic ?
(D) study the reactions in plants [NEET 2016, Phase I]
(A) Penicillin (B) Streptomycin
2. Which one of the following is employed as a
(C) Chloromycetin (D) Novalgin
tranquiliser ? [CBSE AIPMT 2009]
(A) Equanil (B) Naproxen 10. Mixture of chloroxylenol and terpineol acts as
(C) tetracycline (D) Chloropheninamine [NEET 2017]
3. Whhich one of the following is employed as a (A) analgesic (B) antiseptic
tranquiliser drug ? [CBSE AIPMT 2010] (C) antipyretic (D) antibiotic
(A) Promethazine (B) Valium
(C) Naproxen (D) Mitepristone 11. Which of the following is a sink for CO ?
[NEET 2017]
4. Which one of the following is employed as (A) Haemoglobin
antihistamine ? [CBSE AIPMT 2011]
(B) Microorganisms present in the soil
(A) Diphenyl hydramine (B) Norethindrone
(C) Omeprazole (D) Chloroamphenicol (C) Oceans
(D) Plants
5. Which one of the following statements regarding
photochemical smog is not correct ?
[CBSE AIPMT 2012]
(A) Carbon monoxide does not play any role in
photochemical smog formation
(B) Photochemical smog is an oxidising agent in
character
(C) Photochemical smog is formed through
photochemical reaction involving solar energy
(D) PHotochemical smog does not cause irritation
in eyes and throat
6. Antiseptics and disinfectant either kill or prevent
growth of microoranisms. Identify which of the
following is not true. [NEET 2013]
(A) A 0.2% solution of phenol is an antiseptic while
1% solution acts as a disinfectant
(B) Chlorine and iodine are used as strong
disinfectants
(C) Dilute solutions of boric acid and hydrogen,
peroxide are strong antiseptics
(D) Disinfectants harm the living tissues
7. Which one of the following is not a common
component of photochemical smog ?
[CBSE AIPMT 2014]
(A) Ozone
(B) Acrolein
(C) Peroxyacetyl nitrate
(D) Chlorofluorocarbons
122
1. The ligands in anti-cancer drug cis-platin are ASSERTION AND REASON

(A) NH3, Cl (B) NH3, H2O In each of the following questions, two statement
(C) Cl, H2O (D) NO, Cl are given one is assertion and the other is reason.
[2005] Examine the statement carefully and mark the correct
2. Chain transfer reagent is answer according to the instruction given below
(A) CCl4 (B) CH4 (A) If both the assertion and reason are true and
(C) O2 (D) H2 [2007] reason explains the assertion
(B) If both the assertion and reason are true but
3. Which is a bactericidal antibiotic ?
reason does not explain the assertion
(A) Penicillin (B) erythromycin
(C) If assertion is true but reason is false
(C) Tetracycline (D) Chloramphenicol
(D) If assertion is false but reason in true
[2014]
4. Which one of the following is not employed as an- 8. Assertion : The micelle formed by sodium stearate
tihistamine ? in water has – COO groups at the surface.
(A) Dimetane (B) Chloramphenicol Reason : Surface tension of water is reduced by the
(C) Seldane (D) Both (A) and (B) addition of stearate. [2016]
[2014]
5. Tincture of iodine is 9. Assertion : Sedatives are given to patients who are
(A) aqueous solution of I2 mentally agitated and violent. [2017]
(B) solution of I2 in aqueous KI Reason : Sedatives are used to suppress the activi-
(C) alcohol-water solution of I2 ties of central nervous system.
(D) aqueous solution of KI [2015]
6. Arsenic drugs are mainly used in the treatment of
(A) Jaundice (B) Typhoid
(C) Syphilis (D) Cholera
[2016]
7. Which of the following compounds is not an ant-

acid ? [2017]
(A) Phenelzine (B) Ranitidine
(C) Aluminium hydroxide (D) Cimetidine
123
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE : PART # I
1. B 2. A 3. B 4. A 5. D 6. C 7. D 8. D 9. D 10. B 11. B
PART # II
1. A 2. A 3. A 4. B 5. C 6. C 7. A 8. B 9. A
124
EXERCISE 8. (D) Bithional is added to soap to impart antiseptic
P-1 (NEET/AIPMT) properties. It reduces odours produced by bacterial
decomposition of organic matter on the skin
1. (B) Green chemistry means, the productionof chemicals
OH OH
of our daily needs by using such reactions and chemical
Cl S Cl
processes which neither use toxic chemicals, nor emit
such chemicals into atmosphere. Thus, green chemistry
is an alternative tool for reducing pollution.
2. (A) The drugs which are used to reduce anxiety and for Cl Cl
the treatment of mental diseases, are called tranquilisers. IUPAC Name 2, 2 sulfanediylbis
these drugs are also known as pyschotherapeutic drugs. (4, 6-dichlorophenol)
Luminal, seconal and equanil are some commonly used
and are the example of tranquiliser. 9. (D) Novalgin (Dipyrone) is a non-narcotic analgesic used
as pain reliever.
3. (B) Tranquiliser are the chemicals that reduce anxiety Penicillin is an antibiotic used for curing rheumatic fever.
and mental tensional. tranquiliser is the strain reliever
Streptomycin is an antibiotic drug.
also used for mild and essential component of sleeping
Chloromycetin is an antibiotic drug.
pills. Thus, they are somtimes called psychotherapeutic
drugs. Equanil, valium and serotonin and barbiturates 10. (B) (A) The medicines which are used to reduce pain are
(hypnotic) are some commonly used tranquilisers. known as analgesics. For example paracetamol,
ibuprofen, morphine, etc.
4. (A) Diphenylhydramine (benadryl) is used as an
antihistamine. (B) The chemicals which either prevent the growth of
microorganisms or kill them but are not harmful to the
5. (D) Photochemical smog is formed in warm and sunny living tissues are known as antiseptics e.g. savlon, dettol.
climate during day time by the actionof sunlight on Dettol is one of the most commonly used antiseptics. It
primary pollutants. It contains nitrogen oxides, ozone, is a mixture of chloroxylenol and D-terpineol.
PAN, etc., which are oxidising in nature. So, (C) The chemical substance which are used to bring
photochemical smog is an oxidising agent in character. down body termperature during fever are called
It causes irritation in eyes and throat. antipyretics, e.g. aspirirn, novalgin, etc.
6. (C) Antiseptics and disinfectants both either kill or (D) The chemicals which are obtained from
prevent the growth of microorganisms. the main point microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, etc., or by
of difference between these two is that the former synthetic methods and used to inhibit the growth or
(antispetics) are used for living beings whereas even kill the microorganisms are called antibiotics. e.g.
disinfectants are not safe for living tissues. These are penicillin, chloramphenicol, etc.
actually used for inanimate objects like floors, tiles, etc. 11. (B) Microorganisms present in the soil act as biggest
A substance like phenol in its lower concentration (0.2%) source and sink. A sink is a natural or artificial reservoir
behaves as antiseptic, whereas in higher concentration that accumulates and stores some chemical compound
(1%) as disinfectant. Chlorine and iodine are strong for an indefinite period. Thus (b) is correct option.
disinfectants whereas dilute solutions of boric acid and
hydrogen peroxide are mild antiseptics.
7. (D) Among the given chlorofluorocarbons are the

compounds that are responsible for the ozone depletion
which degrade ozone into moleculer oxygen. It is not a
component of photochemical smog while other are
component of smog.
125
EXERCISE
P-2 (AIIMS)
1. (A) : Cis-diamminedichloroplatinum(II) (cis-platin) is a
widely used anti-cancer drug. Ligand in cis-Platin are
NH3 and Cl.
Cl Cl
Pt
H3N NH3
2. (A) : A substance that is able to cause a chain transfer in

a chain polymerisation is called a chain transfer in a chain
polymerisation is called a chain transfer agent. it gives
an atom to the radical at the growing end of a polymer
chain and in doing so it results into a radical which can
start the growth of a new chain. CCl4 is a chain transfer
reagent.
3. (A) : Penicillin is a bactericidal whereas erythromycin,
tetracycline and chloramphenicol are bacteriostatic anti-
biotics.
4. (B) : Chloramphenicol is a bacteriostatic antibiotic drug.
5. (C) : Tincture of iodine is an alcohol-water solution
containig 2-3% iodine.
6. (C) : Arsenic drugs such as salvarsan is used for treat-
ment of syphillis.
7. (A) : Phenelzine is an antidepressant, while others are

antacids.
8. (B) : Micelle is formed if molecules with polar and non-
polar ends assemble in bulk to give non-polar interior
and polar exterior.
9. (A) : A small quantity of sedative produces a feeling of

relaxation, calmness and drowsiness.
126
3PVHI8PSL
3PVHI8PSL
127

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Module 5 - XII NEET - Chemistry

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COMPREHENSIVE

SELF – STUDY MATERIAL

NEET & AIIMS

(1) Nitrogen and Its Derivatives ................................................................................. 3

n Nitrogen and Its Derivatives

1° amine 2° amine 3° amine

(b) Ammonolysis of alcohols :

(d) With RNO2 : RNO2 + 6H Sn/HCl RNH2 + 2H2O

(IV) FROM GRIGNARD REAGENT :

(V) GABRIEL PHTHALIMIDE SYNTHESIS :

(VI) BY HOFMANN'S BROMAMIDE REACTION (HOFMANN'S HYPOBROMITE REACTION) :

Step 2 CH3 C N —Br + H2O + K

Step 3 (Methyl isocyanate)

Step 4 CH3 N C O + 2KOH o CH3 NH2 + KCO

(VII) CURTIUS REACTION :

RCOCl + NaN3 o RCON3 + NaCl

(VIII) SCHMIDT REACTION :

(IX) LOSSEN REARRANGEMENT REACTION :

In 3º amine (due to absence of H–atom) H – bonding is not possible.

Order of B.P. : 1º amine > 2º amine > 3º amine

(1º amine) (2º amine) (3º amine)

Order of solubility o p – amine > s – amine > t – amine

(1) SPECIAL POINT :

(ii) Decrease in hydration :

(2) REACTIONS SHOWING BASIC NATURE :

(chloro platinic acid) Alkyl ammonium chloroplatinate

[Chloroauric acid] Alkyl ammonium chloroaurate

(3) REACTION WITH ALKYLHALIDES :

ETOOS KEY POINT

(5) BENZOYLATION (SCHOTTEN BAUMANN REACTION) :

Benzoylchloride N–alkyl benzamide

(6) ACIDIC NATURE :

(7) REACTION WITH TILDEN REAGENT :

(8) REACTION WITH PHOSGENE :

(9) REACTION WITH HALOGEN :

(10) REACTION WITHALDEHYDES :

With H2SO5 (Caro's acid) Or H2O2 /Fe+2 (Fenton reagent) :

(13) CARBYLAMINE REACTION (ISO CYANIDE TEST) :

(14) HOFMANN'S MUSTARD OIL TEST :

(15) REACTION WITH HNO2 (NaNO2 + HCl or H2SO4) :

CH3 NH2 + HNO2 o CH3—O—CH3

(i) Nitrosoamines are carcinogens (Cancer causing agents)

General Methods of Preparation :

(2) Industrial method : Aniline is obtained by reduction of nitrobenzene in presence of Fe/HCl.

(7) From Grignard reagent :

C6H5MgBr + ClNH2 o C6H5NH2 + Mg Br

(10) From phenyl isocyanate:-

Similarities and Differences between Aromatic and Aliphatic amines :

(v) Reaction with Hinsberg’s reagent :

(II) REACTIONS DUE TO BENZENE RING :

Note : (i) This process is called baking.

(iv) Catalytic hydrogenation :

General Methods of preparation :

1° amine 2° amine 3° amine

Genral method of prepratiomn :

6. C6H5CONH2 + Br2 + 4KOH o C6H5NH2 + K2CO3 + 2KBr + 2H2O

3. R—NH2 + HONO o R—OH + N2 n + H2O

2-phenyl propanamide 2-phenyl propanamine

Which product is a Schiff’s base :-

Ex. 12 Aniline in a set of reactions yielded end product D

The structure of the product D would be

NH2 N 2Cl CN CH2 – NH2

Ex. 13 In the reaction sequence identify the functional group present in A, B, C :-

NO2 NH2 N2Cl

Step 4 CH3 N C O + 2KOH o CH3 NH2 + KCO

RCOCl + NaN3 o RCON3 + NaCl

CH3 NH2 + HNO2 o CH3—O—CH3

C6H5MgBr + ClNH2 o C6H5NH2 + Mg Br

6. C6H5CONH2 + Br2 + 4KOH o C6H5NH2 + K2CO3 + 2KBr + 2H2O

3. R—NH2 + HONO o R—OH + N2 n + H2O

(B) R – CH = NOH + [H]

(C) CH3 CH3

34. (D) : CH3 - CH = CH - CH = N - CH3

C12H22O11 + H2O H C6H12O6 + C6H12O6