CP4171: Chemistry I

Topic 1: Atomic Structure

1.1 Atoms First

An atom is the smallest quantity of matter that still retains the properties of matter. It is the
basic unit of an element.

Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. There are 3 states of matter, solids,
liquids and gases.

An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into two or more simpler substances
by any means. Examples: gold (Au), oxygen (O2), helium
(He)

1.1 Sub-atomic Particles

Once a single atom has been obtained, dividing it smaller produces

subatomic particles.

Protons are positively charged particles found in the nucleus.

Neutrons are electronically neutral particles found in the nucleus. Neutrons are slightly
larger than protons.

Electrons are negatively charged particles distributed around the

nucleus.

1.2 Atomic Number & Mass number

The atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus.

- Atoms are neutral, so the atomic number is also the number of electrons.
- Protons determine the identity of an element

The mass number (A) is the total number of protons and neutrons.
1.2 Isotopes

Most elements have two or more isotopes, atoms that have the same atomic number (Z)
but different mass numbers (A). AKA atoms of the same element with the same number of
protons but different number of neutrons

Isotopes of the same element typically exhibit very similar chemical properties
- same types of compounds and similar reactivities.

1.2.1 The Periodic Table

Key

12.0
relative atomic mass
atomic symbol nameC
atomic number
carbon 6

The atomic number is the proton number. It also indicates the number of electrons a
neutral atom have. The relative (average) atomic mass refers the average mass of the
naturally occurring mixture of isotopes.
1.3 Atomic Mass

Atomic mass is the mass of an atom in atomic mass units (amu).

1 amu= 1/12 the mass of a carbon-12 atom = 1.661 x 10 -24g

The average atomic mass on the periodic table represents the average mass of the naturally
occurring mixture of isotopes.

Natural
Isotope Isotopic mass (amu) abundance (%)

12 12.00000 98.93
C
13 13.003355 1.07
C

Average mass (C) = (0.9893)(12.00000 amu) + (0.0107)(13.003355 amu)

= 12.01 amu

1.3 The Periodic Table

Key
35.5
relative atomic mass
atomic symbolCl chlorine
name 17
atomic number

⸫ The relative (average) atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5 amu, because it refers the average
mass of the naturally occurring mixture of isotopes.
Natural
Isotope Isotopic mass (amu) abundance (%)

35 34.9689 75.78
Cl

37 36.9659 24.22
Cl

Average mass (Cl) = (0.7578)(34.9689 amu) + (0.2422)(36.9659 amu)

= 35.5 amu
1.3 The Periodic Table

Elements can be categorized as metals, nonmetals, or metalloids.

Metals

Nonmetals

Metalloids

Elements are arranged in periods, horizontal rows, in order of increasing atomic number.

A vertical column is known as a group or family

Group 1A elements (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr) are called alkali metals (family name)
Group 2A elements (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra) are called alkaline earth metals.
Group 7A (F, Cl, Br, I, At) are called halogens. They exist as diatomic molecules (F2, Cl2, Br2
and I2).
Group 8A elements (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn) are called the noble gases.
**Main group elements are the s and p block

Energy Levels of an atom

1.4 Energy Levels

• Electrons are quantized i.e. they can only have certain, definite amounts of energy.
• Electrons are restricted to certain energy levels.
• Each energy level represents an allowed amount of energy.
A Hydrogen in a ground state:
Electron occupies the lowest energy level available

A hydrogen atom in excited state:

Electron absorbs a discrete amount of energy and moves to a higher energy level

1.4 Energy levels are quantised

- Similarly, when an electron moves from one energy level to another attains a
discrete energy level, n.

- n is a positive whole number

- n cannot be a non-natural number (e.g. 2.13)

1.4 Energy levels (shells)

Electrons occupy shells.

Energy levels are arranged into shells; determined by principal quantum number (n). (n = 1 ,
2, etc)

n :related to distance of the electrons from the nucleus

Each shell is numbered from the nucleus outwards.

The shell closest to the nucleus is the first shell.

The next shell is the second shell and so on.

1.4 Energy Sublevels (Subshells)

Each shell is composed of one or more subshells or sublevels, specified by a secondary

quantum number, l.

s, p, d, f are used to specify the value of l.

Value of l 0 1 2 3 ----
Subshell s p d f ----
designation

The subshells within a shell differ slightly in energy:

f>d>p>s

1.4 Sublevels and Atomic Orbitals

• Each subshell is composed of one or more atomic orbitals.

• Atomic Orbital:
- region of space within an electron subshell where electrons are most likely to be
found.

- probability of finding an electron within this region of space. (since electrons are
moving around rapidly)

1.4 Energy Levels (Quantum Numbers)

Quantum numbers are required to describe the distribution of electron density in an atom.

There are three quantum numbers necessary to describe an atomic orbital.

 - n is known as the principal quantum number (shell number/ energy level) --- (About
Size).

- l (angular moment quantum number) value denotes the sublevels s, p, d, f which tells
us the shape of the region of space where the electron might be found --- (About
Shape).

- ml (magnetic quantum number) is associated with the orientation of the orbital

angular momentum --- (About Orientation).

Shells and subshells summary

Shell Subshells
No. of Subshells in
n
th
n Shell
1 1
1s
2 2
2s, 2p
3 3
3s, 3p, 3d
4 4
4s, 4p, 4d, 4f

Recall that s, p, d, f are subshells and they tells us the shape of the region of space where
the electron might be found.

1.4 Atomic Orbitals (s orbitals or s subshells)

All s orbitals are spherical in shape but differ in size: 1s < 2s < 3s

Atomic Orbitals (p orbitals or p subshells)

p subshell: consists of 3 orbitals whose directions lie at 90° to one other. Orbitals are labelled
as px, py & pz.
1.4 Drawing an atomic orbital

Use a square box to represent an atomic orbital

1.4 Pauli Exclusion Principle

Each orbital can hold up to a maximum of 2 electrons, which must be of opposite spin.

Paired electrons Unpaired electrons

1.4 Maximum number of electrons in one orbital

1.4 Summary of Energy Levels & Orbitals in Atoms

Shell No. of Subshell No. of Orbitals Max. No. of

(n) Subshells in Designation th 2 th
in n Shell, n Electrons in n
th
n Shell 2
Shell, 2n

1 1 1s 1 =1 2

2 2 2s 2p 1+3 =4 8

3 3 3s 3p 3d 1+3+5 = 9 18

4 4 4s 4p 4d 4f 1+3+5+7 = 16 32

Atomic Orbital Diagrams & Electron Configurations for different elements in the periodic
table

1.5 Aufbau Principle

Electrons fill orbitals of lowest sub energy level to capacity before filling orbitals of a higher
sub energy level
1.5 Drawing orbital diagrams & Writing Electron Configurations for hydrogen atom
1.5 Drawing orbital diagrams & Writing Electron Configurations for lithium atom

1.5 Hund’s Rule

For orbitals of equal energy (degenerate), electrons will each occupy an orbital before
pairing up.

E.g.

1.5 Electron Configuration & orbital diagrams using noble gas configuration
The electron configurations of all elements except hydrogen and helium can be represented
using a noble gas configuration.

The electron configuration of potassium (Z = 19) is 1s22s22p63s23p64s1.

Because 1s22s22p63s23p6 is the electron configuration of argon, we can simplify potassium’s

to [Ar]4s1.

Ground state electron configuration of potassium (K) :

1.5 Electron Configuration & orbital diagrams using noble gas core

You can also do likewise for drawing orbital diagrams.

1.5 Deviations from Aufbau principle

There are several notable exceptions to the order of electron filling for some of the
transition metals.

Chromium (Z = 24) is [Ar]4s13d5 and NOT [Ar]4s23d4

The reason for this anomaly is the slightly greater stability of d subshells that are half-filled
(d5). The 4s and 3d subshells have almost similar energy level and the electrons occupy the
orbitals singly to ease electron-electron repulsion.
There are several notable exceptions to the order of electron filling for some of the
transition metals.

Copper (Z = 29) is [Ar]4s13d10 and NOT [Ar]4s23d9

The reason for this anomaly is the slightly greater stability of d subshells that are completely
filled (d10).

1.5 Valence electrons

The outermost electrons of an atom are called the valence electrons.

Valence electrons are involved in the formation of chemical bonds.

Similarity of valence electron configurations help predict chemical properties.

1.5 Isoelectronic species

Any group of atoms or ions with the same number of electrons are isoelectronic.

E.g. Mg2+, Al3+, F-, O2- are isoelectronic with Na+ and Ne because they have the same
electronic configuration, 1s22s22p6