Peter Unger

Hot Runner Technology

Peter Unger

Hot Runner
Technology

HANSER
Hanser Publishers, Munich • Hanser Gardner Publications, Cincinnati
The Author:
Dr. Peter Unger, Rosengasse 1, 69469 Weinheim, Germany

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Unger, P. (Peter).
[Heisskanal Technik. English]
Hot runner technology I Peter Unger. -- 1st ed.
p.cm.
ISBN-13: 978-1-56990-395-7 (hardcover)
ISBN-lO: 1-56990-395-6 (hardcover)
1. Injection molding of plastics. 2. Thermoplastics. I. Title.
TP1l50.U6813 2006
668.4' 12--dc22
2006010624

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ISBN-lO: 3-446-40584-4
ISBN-13: 978-446-40584-4

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 Contents V

Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 General Aspects of Hot Runner Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Design of Hot Runner Systems and Nomenclature
of Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Design of Single Components Used for Hot Runner Systems . . 7

2 Basic Aspects of Heat Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.1 Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1.1 Heat Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1.2 Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.1.3 Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 Amount of Heat, Heating Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3 Heat Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3 Introduction of Hot Runner Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.1 Hot Runner Manifold Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.1.1 Externally Heated Hot Runner Manifold Blocks . . . . . . . 41
3.1.2 Internally Heated Hot Runner Manifold Blocks . . . . . . . 46
3.1.3 Insulated Runner System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.1.4 Rheological Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.1.4.1 Natural Balancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.1.4.2 Numerical Balancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.2 Reflector- and Thermal Insulating Sheets, Surface Coating . . . . 56
3.3 Melt Chamber Bushing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.4 Distributor Bushing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.5 Spacer Disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.6 Anti-Twist Device for Hot Runner Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.7 Turn Plugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.8 Hot Runner Nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.8.1 General Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.8.2 Open Hot Runner Nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.8.3 Open Multiple Gate Nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.8.3.1 “Vertical” of Nozzle Tip Design . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
VI Contents

3.8.3.2 “Slanted” Design of Nozzle Tips . . . . . . . . . . . 99

3.8.3.3 “Horizontal” Tip Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.8.3.4 “Edge” Gating without Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.8.4 Shut-Off Nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.8.4.1 Needle Shut-Off Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.8.4.2 Thermal Shut-Off-Nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

4 Heating of Hot Runner Manifold Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

4.1 Cylindrical Cartridge Heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.2 Tapered Cartridge Heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
4.3 Threaded Cartridge Heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.4 Tubular Heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.5 Heater Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
4.6 “Thick-Film”- Heating Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.7 Indirect Heating Using a Liquid Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
4.8 Heat Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
4.9 Determination of Heating Capacity of an Externally
Heated Hot Runner Manifold Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.9.1 Estimate of Required Heating Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.9.2 Numerical Determination of Heating Capacity to be
Installed for the Heat-up Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

5 Heating of Hot Runner Nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

5.1 Cylindrical Cartridge Heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.2 Coiled Heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.3 Resistor Heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.4 Heat Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.5 Indirect Heating Using a Liquid Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
5.6 General Remarks Regarding Internal Heating
(“Conductive Heating”) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
5.7 Indirect Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
5.7.1 Thermally Conductive Torpedoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
5.7.2 Thermally Conductive Nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

6 Measurement and Control of Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

7 Material Behavior under Mechanical Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

7.1 Notch Effect under Static Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
7.2 Notch Effect under Dynamic Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
 Contents VII

8 Corrosion and Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

9 Screw Connections and Material Selection for Elevated

Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

10 Basic Aspects of Plastics Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

10.1 Flow Characteristics, Viscosity, Pressure Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
10.2 Thermal Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
10.3 Decrease of Molecular Weight (Exemplified by PBT) . . . . . . . . 217
10.3.1 Thermal Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
10.3.2 Mechanical Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
10.3.3 Oxidative Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
10.3.4 Hydrolytic Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

11 Maintenance and Storage of Hot Runner Molds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

12 Design of Special Hot Runner Systems and Hot Runner Molds . . 223
12.1 300-Fold Hot Runner System for the Production of Transistor
Housings Made of Reinforced PBT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
12.2 Hot Runner Manifold Block for Sandwich Molding . . . . . . . . . . 226
12.3 Hot Runner System with Balanced Filling Action . . . . . . . . . . . 228
12.4 Hot Runner Nozzles for Small Center-to-Center Cavity Space . 229

Appendix 1:
Abbreviations Used in this Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

Appendix 2:
Conversion Factors for Units of Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
VIII Contents
 IX

Preface

The development of hot runner technology dates back to the early 1930s in the
US. These efforts to establish a new technology for the processing of thermo-
plastics served first of all and exclusively the following economical goals:

• For the molding process to run largely automatically,

• Avoiding post-processing operations by replacing conventional injection
molds with sprues with sprueless molding
• Making the molding process more economical and – most importantly – to
save money.

Quickly, the advantages of the hot runner technology were discovered. A rapid
development process started and has reached a high level of technical know-
how today. As with many technical inventions breaking new ground, it was a
long and thorny way. For a long time, at least some of the hot runner suppliers
expected the resin suppliers to make sure to offer the appropriate plastic grade
for their specific hot runner system. The unfortunate results were hot runner
systems causing thermal degradation of the melt and thus giving rise to major
discussions and criticism.
It therefore did not come as a surprise that the application engineers on the
resin supplier’s side began to develop their own hot runner systems, not the
least for marketing purposes. These efforts resulted in the clamping nozzle
(BASF), the insulated runner (DuPont), and the indirectly heated thermally
conductive torpedo (Hoechst), which provided important impulses to the
development and improvement of the hot runner technology.
Today it is common practice for the designer, mold maker, hot runner supplier,
molder, and the raw material producer (who knows his materials best) to join
forces and exchange their experience in order to avoid or at least to minimize
risks. It would be the wrong to place the burden of responsibility on only one
of the players. Rather, the development of new technologies and applications is
a matter of partnership and mutual exchange.
The fundamental research conducted at universities has also made essential
contributions to today’s state-of-the-art of the technology.
X Preface

This book deliberately will not focus on the “state-of-the-art” in hot runner
technology. When studying particularly older technical literature it is amazing
to realize how many of the most progressive ideas and designs were already
exploited in the past, but were forgotten or not appreciated for a long time. On
the other hand, some erroneous trends lead to failures because of lack of expe-
rience. The author discusses these topics to emphasize the old rule “Learning
by Experience”. Gathering experience means first of all analyzing failures to
draw relevant conclusions. Therefore, the reader should not be surprised to
find “old fashioned” or out-dated designs covered in this book. This is just
another way to preserve and convey experience, as much as possible. Without
hands-on experience it is hard to come up with new developments and inven-
tions.
Other topics related to hot runner technology, such as thermal aspects, plastic-
specific behavior, corrosion, notch effect, etc., are also described and critically
acknowledged. For other specific topics, such as numerical balancing of hot
runner manifold blocks, the reader is referred to special and comprehensive
literature.
The comments, reports, and theoretical considerations stated in this book may
not always be congruent with those of other experts due to the large number of
different applications. The author therefore encourages the readers to share
their experience with him to make sure that future editions of this book will
reflect the current state of knowledge.

Peter Unger
 1.1 General Aspects of Hot Runner Technology 1

1 Introduction

1.1 General Aspects of Hot Runner Technology

The hot runner system establishes the linkage between the injection molding
machine and the mold cavities and acts as melt flow system. It is integrated
into the mold and forms part of it. The thermoplastic melt “remains” inside the
system for at least one injection cycle in its molten state, other than solidifying
runners in conventional molds [1]. This is commonly called “spruless
molding” [2].
The principle of a melt flow-way system corresponds to that of communicating
tubes: independently of the cross section of the melt channel and its length, the
melt is always placed in the immediated surrounding of the gate. Therefore, the
system allows filling of all cavities at the same time. This means, for the design
and positioning of flow channels the designer has many option (e.g., posi-
tioning of channels in the hot runner manifold on different levels). In addition,
it is common practice to heat and control the entire hot runner system.
An optimal thermal insulation of the mold is necessary, because of the signifi-
cant temperature gradient between the hot runner block and the mold (e.g.,
processing temperature of POM = 200 °C, cavities = 90 °C), although that is
not always possible.
Other points of consideration are:

• Because runners do not have to be demolded (causing a longer cooling

time), a reduction of cycle time is possible.
• Costs for demolding of runners, transport, recycling, additional storage,
predrying, etc. can be saved. It also must be considered that regrind
typically causes a decrease in properties; also, the risk of contamination
should not be underestimated.
• A reduced injection volume due to saving of the runner makes the use of
smaller size molding machine possible.
2 1 Introduction

• The saving of runners also reduces the projected plane; consequently,

the clamping force as well as the platicizing capacity of the molding
machine can be reduced.
• Hot runner technology allows greatest possible freedom for the geomet-
rical design of gates.
• Other than with sprues and runners in conventional molds, cooling is not
an issue with hot runner systems, and low pressure requirement can be
achieved even at extreme low flow rates.
• Enlarging the channel cross section (while considering maximum permis-
sible dwelling time) in the hot runner system will reduce the shear stress of
the melt.
• Today, cascade molding with shut-off nozzles, sandwich molding, foam
pouring of thermoplastic resins, multi-color injection molding, stack
molds, and family molds could not be realized without hot runner tech-
nology.
• The gate area of a hot runner nozzle can be controlled by the following
measures:
– Effective design of contact surfaces in the area of thermal insulation
– Using suitable material (depending on application requirements, with
high or low thermal conductivity).
– Individual cooling of the gates.
All these measures increase holding pressure time and have a positive
influence on the quality of the molded parts; they also decrease mold
shrinkage.
• The mold cost for hot runner systems will be considerably higher, particu-
larly for needle shut-off systems.
• The costs for energy can be higher compared to conventional molds, due
to energy loss. On the other hand, if considering the amount of energy
required for the recycling of sprues and runners, the energy balance sheet
may be in favour of the hot runner system.
• The higher expenses of a hot runner system compared to a conventional
mold are generally only justified for large production runs.
 1.1 General Aspects of Hot Runner Technology 3

• In order to minimize thermal and mechanical damage of the melt, it is

necessary to provide for a high degree of thermal homogeneity. In general,
this requires close control of set temperatures. Thermocouples should not
be placed in areas of heat sinks or “wherever space is available”, see
Chapter 4, Fig. 4.25. Incorrect placement of thermocouples will most
likely lead to thermal degradation of the melt. The following basic rule
should be observed: Thermocouples should be positioned in such a way
that temperature maxima are measured. This means, measurements should
be taken in immediate vicinity to the heat source.
• Depending on shot volume, distributor volume, and cycle time, the melt
dwelling time in the hot runner system may exceed permissible values
which may cause thermal degradation of the melt.
• The type of heating (internally or externally heated) may also cause
thermal degradation of the melt.
• Handling and maintenance costs of hot runner systems are higher and
require specially trained and qualified staff.
• Trouble-free running hot runner systems require great care as well as a
high degree of precision, especially from the moldmaker.
• Hot runner molds have a distinctly higher degree of complexity compared
to conventional molds [1].
• Parts exposed to high wear as well as other hot runner components, such
as nozzle tips and thermocouples, should be accessible for inspection and
replacement “in the molding machine”. The objective must be to keep
down times as short as possible.
• For optimal thermal conductivity, copper and copper alloys are used
preferably in hot runner systems. Direct contact with these materials (e.g.,
during the processing of PP or POM-homopolymer) may lead to catalytic
degradation of the melt. The metal surfaces are susceptible to chemical
attack, which in turn may lead to breakdowns of the hot runner system. In
these cases, all metal surfaces should have a protective coating, see,
Chapter 8.
• Stagnation zones in the hot runner system (e.g., no melt exchange) make
color change more difficult and often cause thermal degradation of the
melt.
4 1 Introduction

• The best possible thermal insulation should be available in the gate area.
Here, two extreme cases may occur: Thermal degragation or undesirable
freezing of the melt. Therefore, the target must be to obtain a balance
between dissipation of heat and heat input. Short thermal conductivity
paths will be of advantage: the heat source should be placed in the
immediate vicinity of gate area, see Fig. 1.1.
• The increasing practice of miniaturizing hotrunner components, e.g., for
micro molding, results in high mechanical stresses on the components,
particularly on hot runner nozzles designed for high processing tempera-
tures (between 200 and 400 °C) and high internal pressures (up to approx.
2500 bar). Here, the actual pressure on the hot runner nozzle is considered
the internal system pressure, not the injection pressure acting at the screw
tip. Aggravating the situation is the fact, that the load is not static, but

Figure 1.1: Torpedo nozzle with internal heating down to the tip
(Courtesy: Mold-Masters)
 1.1 General Aspects of Hot Runner Technology 5

alternating. However, data on fatigue strength as a function of mechanical

stress and temperature of the materials used are not easily available. The
lack of available data makes the design of reliable components very
complicated. The experimental determination of bursting pressure values
(at processing temperature?) is necessary but not sufficient, because the
cyclic stress strongly reduces the dimensional strength of the components,
see Section 7.2. Data on permissible internal pressure load as a function of
temperature, particularly for hot runner nozzles, can only be found sporad-
ically in the technical literature, see Fig. 1.2.
• If only a extremely small gate vestige is allowed on the molding’s surface,
the gate cross section must be accordingly small. High shear and the asso-
ciated danger of thermal degradation can be avoided by the use of a valve
gate system. This will allow for bigger gate cross sections without gate
vestige on the molding’s surface, but also cause higher mold costs.

Figure 1.2: Max. permissible internal pressure values for a heated nozzle tip made of
Cu-Co-Be as a function of temperature (Courtesy: Hasco)
6 1 Introduction

1.2 Design of Hot Runner Systems and

Nomenclature of Components

The nomenclature for hot runner components (Fig. 1.3 and 1.4) is derived from
DIN ISO 12165, edition June 2002 [1]. All components are listed in Table 1.1.

14
8
1 23
30 12 10 9

13
15

16 20
27

Figure 1.3: Design of a hot runner system with straight flow heated nozzles
(Courtesy: Mold-Masters)

7
14
1

5
25
24
26
18 15
10
13
8 12 8

16 20

Figure 1.4: Design of hot runner system with needle valve gatings
(Courtesy: Mold-Masters)
 1.3 Design of Single Components Used for Hot Runner Systems 7

Table 1.1: Components of Hot Runner System

No. Description
1 Clamping plate
2 Cavity plate, fixed and moveable half
3 Risers
4 Disc spring
5 Distributor bushing
6 Straight flow heated nozzle
7 Needle valve, pneumatically/hydraulically operated
8 Heater
9 Distributor bushing, heated/unheated
10 Melt channel
11 Filter cartridge
12 Hot runner manifold
13 Antitwist device
14 Locking screw
15 Air insulation
16 Gate
17 O-ring
18 Spacer disk
19 Nozzle torpedo
20 Melt chamber bush
21 Thermal conductive nozzle
22 Thermal conductive torpedo
23 Cooling channel
24 Piston
25 Cylinder
26 Valve pin
27 Thermocouple
28 Thermal insulating plate
29 Reflector plate
30 Turnaround plug

1.3 Design of Single Components

Used for Hot Runner Systems

The various hot runner systems available on the market can be distinguished by
their respective design principle. Distinguishing features are the types of
heater, the centering of the hot runner nozzle, and the type of gating, see Table
1.2 [3].
8 1 Introduction

Table 1.2: Design of Single-Components Used for Hot Runner Systems

Single components Type of design

Hot runner manifold block
Heating of hot runner nozzle
Centering of hot runner nozzle
Type of gating
Externally heated
Internally heated
Insulated runner
Externally heated, indirect
Externally heated, direct
Internally heated, indirect
Internally heated, direct
Internally and externally heated, combined
Insulated runner
Indirectly via hot runner manifold block
Directly bolted to hot runner manifold
block
Open hot runner nozzle
Thermal conductive torpedo
Pin shut-off gate
Thermal shut-off gate

References for Chapter 1

[1] DIN/ISO 12 165, Version 6.2002

[2] Moslo, E.P.: Runnerless Molding, Plastic Application Series, Cleveland/Ohio, 1960
[3] Wippenbeck, P.: 48. Tagung für die schweizerische Kunststoff-Industrie (VKI), 1989
 9

2 Basic Aspects of Heat Technology

Heat sources must be installed in the hot runner system in order to melt the
thermoplastic resin during setup of the mold and to keep it molten during
production. The heat source has to compensate for thermal energy lost by
dissipation. It should be aimed for a balanced temperature level without
temperature peaks within the hot runner system. However, unavoidable heat
dissipation makes this a difficult task. Since the amount of heat dissipation can
be influenced, within a relatively wide range, by design as well as by appro-
priate material selection, technically quite simple solutions can be imple-
mented as long as the basic aspects of heat transfer are considered.
Insulating runners capitalize on the low thermal conductivity of thermoplastic
resins to sustain a liquid center in the melt channel for the plastic to flow
through during the injection phase. The melt also serves as a heat source.
Often, insulated runners are heated to achieve a higher degree of processing
safety, see Section 3.1.3.
There are three principal methods of heat transfer:

• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation

In a hot runner system, conduction is responsible for most of the heat trans-
ferred. The dimensional stability of moldings is influenced by heat: increasing
temperature leads to changes in volume and length. If thermal expansion is not
accommodated, deformation or material failure may occur in extreme cases.
The basic aspects of heat technology, as explained in the following sections,
will provide a better understanding of hot runner-specific characteristic
features.
10 2 Basic Aspects of Heat Technology

2.1 Heat Transfer

Heat can be transferred by two different physical principles:

• Heat conduction and convection are carried out with the help of a
medium. During conduction, energy is transferred between atoms and
molecules. Convection occurs through macroscopic particle movement,
which is only possible in fluid agents, such as air, water, or oil. (Remark:
For example, heat in a combustion engine is transferred via the cooling
ribs (conduction) and together with air delivered to the environment
(convection)).
• Heat radiation is performed with the help of electromagnetic oscillations,
which are sent by solid or gaseous bodies. On the other hand, absorbed
radiation can be converted into heat. Heat transfer by means of radiation
does not require solid or fluid media (Remark: The earth receives energy
in form of heat by means of radiation from the sun, even though the
surrounding space is free from solid or gaseous substances).

2.1.1 Heat Conduction

According to Fourier, a certain amount of heat QC streams through a single-

layer, flat wall, if there is a temperature gradient '- = -1 – -2.

O
QC ˜ $˜  -1 - 2  (2.1)
G
b

δ
h where QC Heat flow [W]
Temperature

QC

ϑ1
O Thermal conductivity [W/mK]
ϑ2 A Wall area = b · h [m2]
G Wall thickness [m]

Distance
-1 – -2 Temperature gradient [K]
 2.1 Heat Transfer 11

We define stationary heat transfer, when the temperature gradient between - 1

and - 2 remains unchanged in the wall over time. This condition is reached in a
mold, when the temperatures in the hot runner system and in the cavity wall
have reached constant values. Heat transfer will change to a non-stationary
state, if the driving potential changes as a function of time. This process, which
will not be described in more detail, occurs particularly during the heating and
cooling phases in the mold.
The amount of heat transferred through a multi-layer, flat wall is calculated
according to Eq. 2.2:

1
QC ˜ $ ˜  -1 - i1 
G1 G 2 G 3
Temperature

  (2.2)
QC
1
O2 O2 O3
2

λ1 3 where i is the number of walls.

λ2
4
λ3
δ1 δ2 δ3

Distance

For a single-layer cylindrical wall, we have:

O ˜ 2S˜ A
QC
§ ra ·

˜ - i - a 
ln ¨ ¸ (2.3)
¨ ri ¸
© ¹
l
Temperature

where A length of cylindrical wall [m]

ϑi QC

ri ln natural logarithm
ϑa
ro
ro outer radius [m]
ri internal radius [m]
Distance
12 2 Basic Aspects of Heat Technology

For a multi-layered cylindrical wall, we have:

2 ˜ S˜ A
QC ˜  - i  -a 
l § ra1 · § ra 2 ·
ln ¨ ¸ ln ¨ ¸ (2.4)
Temperature

© ri1 ¹  © ri2 ¹
2 λ2 O1 O2
λ1 QC
ri1 ϑi
r a1 where ri2 = ra1
1
ra2
ϑa

Distance

The thermal conductivity is a material-specific value, see Table 2.1. The

thermal conductivity of solids is higher than the one for liquids or for gasses:
OS > OL > OG

where OS thermal conductivity of solid substances

OL thermal conductivity of liquids
OG thermal conductivity of gases
Note: In general, thermal conductivity is temperature-dependent, see Table 2.2.

Table 2.1: Thermal Conductivity of Solids and Gaseous Substances

Solid and gaseous substances Thermal conductivity O

[W/mK]
Silver 410
Electrolyte copper 395
2.0060
Elmedur X, Cu-Cr-Zr [2] 2.1293 320
Aluminum 229
Cu-Co-Be 2.1285 197
Dur-aluminum 165
TZM [3] 115
CuBe2 (copper beryllium) 113
 2.1 Heat Transfer 13

Solid and gaseous substances Thermal conductivity O

[W/mK]
Cast iron 58
Steel, depending on chemical analysis approx. 14–40
Steel, grade1 “Invar” 17
Thermally conductive cement2 [5] | 10
Titanium alloy TiAl 6 V 4 6.5
Ceramic |3
Plastics3 0.2–1.2
Heat insulator 0.04–0.14
20 °C 0.026
Air 200 °C 0.039
300 °C 0.046

1 “Invar” steel composition: 63% Fe, 32% Ni, 5% Co, 0.3% Mn (approx.)
2 “Prematherm”, thermally conductive cement
3 The higher values are generally for reinforced plastics

For prismatic parts composed of different materials, (e.g., distance disk for hot
runner manifolds, see Section 3.5), the coefficients of thermal conductivity
are:

Serial connection OS
l
l1 l2 1
OS
M1 M 2 (2.5)
QC
λ1 λ2 
O1 O 2

Parallel connection OP
l O p M 1 ˜ OM V 2
1  M 2 ˜i O
λ2 i ;
QC V (2.6)
Vi
λ1
Mi ; M 1 M 2 1
V
with Mi Volume percent
Vi Single volumes
V Total volume.
14 2 Basic Aspects of Heat Technology

For the serial connection of a multi-layer cylindrical wall, ORR

λ1

λ2

r3
ln
r1
O RR
r2 r (2.7)
ln ln 3
r1 r2

2r1 O1 O2
2r2

2r3

Parallel connection will result in the highest possible coefficient of thermal

conductivity, while series connection will result in the smallest possible coeffi-
cient of thermal conductivity (application: distance disk, see Fig. 2.1).

λp, λS

λ1
λp λ2

λS

ϕ1

Figure 2.1: Equivalent coefficients of thermal conductivity Op and Os as a function of

volume percent M1 of component 1;
O
assumption: O = 10, which corresponds approximately to the ratio of Ocopper /
1

Osteel
2
 2.1 Heat Transfer 15

Table 2.2: Thermal Conductivity of E-Cu as a Function of Temperature [6]

Temperature Thermal conductivity

[°C] [W/mK]
20 395
100 385
200 381
300 377

Figure 2.2 shows heat transfer (arrow direction) within a hot runner system as a
result of conduction.
We distinguish between:

• Heat source (supplied energy): heating capacity of hot runner manifold

block, heated nozzles, if necessary distributor bushing
• Heat sink (transferred energy, dissipated energy): distance disks, centering
elements (air gap)

Note: Heat sinks always lead to a non-uniform temperature distribution (so-

called thermal non-homogeneity).

Figure 2.2: Heat transfer as result of conduction within a hot runner system
(arrow direction)