The International Journal of Human Resource

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ISSN: 0958-5192 (Print) 1466-4399 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rijh20

A comparative study of the effects of ‘best

practice’ HRM on worker outcomes in Malaysia
and England local government

J. Gould-Williams & R.B. Mohamed

To cite this article: J. Gould-Williams & R.B. Mohamed (2010) A comparative study of the
effects of ‘best practice’ HRM on worker outcomes in Malaysia and England local government,
The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 21:5, 653-675

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09585191003658821

Published online: 20 Apr 2010.

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 The International Journal of Human Resource Management,
Vol. 21, No. 5, April 2010, 653–675

A comparative study of the effects of ‘best practice’ HRM on worker

outcomes in Malaysia and England local government
J. Gould-Williamsa* and R.B. Mohamedb
a
Cardiff University, Business School, Cardiff, UK; bFaculty of Business and Management, Open
University Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
This paper presents the findings of a cross-cultural comparison of the effects of ‘best
practice’ HRM using employees from a matched sample of local government service
departments in England and Malaysia (England n ¼ 569, Malaysian n ¼ 453). The
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paper tests the universal ‘best practice’ thesis, and also assesses the perceived level
of up-take of HR practices in the two samples. The research also considers the effects
of the psychological climate and employees’ perceptions of trust on five work-related
outcomes, namely job satisfaction, motivation, organizational citizenship behaviour,
stress and quit intentions. The findings reveal that the Malaysian workers perceived
the up-take of HR practices to be higher in comparison to their counterparts in
England. A less consistent pattern emerged with regards to perceptions of climate.
OLS regression revealed that consistent with the universal thesis, a bundle of
HR practices significantly predicted employee outcomes in the hypothesized
directions in both samples. Therefore, these findings provide strong support for the
universal thesis.
Keywords: best practice HRM; employee outcomes; international comparative study;
Malaysia and England local government; universal thesis

Introduction
Attempts to understand the links between ‘best practice’ HRM and performance continue
to dominate the HRM literature. Early work in this area reported evidence of a positive
association between HRM and firm productivity, profitability and sales. A corollary of
these findings is the assertion that ‘the effects of high performance management practices
are real, economically significant and general – and thus should be adopted by [all]
organizations’ (Pfeffer 1998, p. 34). In other words it is claimed that the performance
effects of best practice HRM are universal (Pfeffer 1994; Huselid 1995; Delery and Doty
1996). However, it should be noted that much of this work is based on empirical evidence
emerging from the US (Arthur 1994; Huselid 1995; MacDuffie 1995) and UK (Patterson,
West, Lawthom and Nickell 1997; Guest, Michie, Sheehan and Conway 2000; Guest,
Michie, Conway and Sheehan 2003; West et al. 2002).
Although early research in this area focused on organization-specific performance
outcomes, there is now growing awareness of the need to investigate the processes through
which HRM affects organizational performance, often referred to as the ‘black box’. For
instance, Boselie, Dietz and Boon (2005, p. 77) note:

*Corresponding author. Email: gouldwilliams@cf.ac.uk

ISSN 0958-5192 print/ISSN 1466-4399 online

q 2010 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/09585191003658821
http://www.informaworld.com
 654 J. Gould-Williams and R.B. Mohamed

‘black box’ studies conceptualise employees’ perceptions and experience as the primary
mediating variable, and the ‘signalling’ effects of HRM are understood to forge a
psychological contract between the employer and employees that shapes these perceptions
and experience.
The assumption is that ‘best practice’ HRM affects organizational performance as
workers change their attitudes and behaviours in response to their experience of HR
practice. So far however there is a dearth of research evidence based on employee
responses to HR practice, with Macky and Boxall (2007, p. 539) stating that this is a
‘neglected’ area of research (see also Grant and Shields 2002; Guest 1999, 2002; Ramsay,
Scholarios and Harley 2000). Further, to our understanding, few commentators have
attempted to test the universal model of HRM across national contexts (Budhwar and
Debrah 2001; Faulkner, Pitkethly and Child 2002). For instance, there appears to be no
direct international comparative studies in which the effects of HR practice on individual
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employee outcomes has been empirically tested (see, for instance, Wang, Bruning and
Peng 2007). The only studies to have considered cross-country adoption of best practice
HRM are those reported by Galang (2004) and Ichniowski and Shaw (1999), but even in
these instances, data were collected at the organizational not individual level, thus
employee responses remain unexplored. As such there is a pressing need to undertake
international, cross-cultural comparative work on the effects of ‘best practice’ HRM on
employee outcomes. In an attempt to provide such evidence, this paper presents the
empirical findings of a matched comparative study of worker responses in a public sector
setting – namely English and Malaysian local government organizations.

HRM theory
Over a decade ago Guest stated that there was a lack of ‘a theory about HRM, a theory
about performance and a theory about how they are linked’ (Guest 1997, p. 263). It
appears that little progress has been made in this area despite the accumulation of a
significant body of empirical research. For instance, in referring to Guest’s above
statement, Paauwe and Boselie (2005, p. 68) state that ‘Eight years later we observe only
modest progress on those three fundamental issues’. Fleetwood and Hesketh (2006,
p. 1986) provide an even gloomier review of progress in that they recognize that theories
of HRM do exist (their review isolates more than 40 theories), they nevertheless
conclude by stating ‘the theoretical base of the HRM-P link is, to say the least, in rather a
parlous state’.
Similarly, the question as to what HR practices should be used in assessing links
between HRM and performance, and whether these practices should be considered as
universally applicable or contingent on organizational context, largely remains
unanswered. With reference to the universal versus contingent approach, it appears that
there is more empirical evidence in support of the universal or ‘best practice’ approach
(see Delery and Doty 1996; Paauwe and Boselie 2005). However, there is a diversity of
views concerning what HR practices should be incorporated in lists of best practice. For
example, Paauwe and Boselie (2005, p. 69) report that ‘There is not one fixed list of
generally applicable HR practices or systems of practices that define or construct HRM’.
In fact, scholars have used an eclectic range of 26 HR practices (Boselie et al. 2005) with
Boxall and Purcell (2003, p. 62) stating that ‘it is difficult to see the underpinning logic in
such a long list of practices’. Thus it is argued that a more parsimonious approach needs to
be adopted in describing best practice models of HRM. To this end, Youndt, Snell, Dean
and Lepak (1996, p. 839) observe that ‘most [best practice models] . . . focus on enhancing
 The International Journal of Human Resource Management 655

the skill base of employees through HR activities such as selective staffing, comprehensive
training . . . [further they] tend to promote empowerment, participative problem-solving,
and teamwork . . . ’. This observation is consistent with a recent review undertaken by
Boselie et al. (2005) in which they identified the four most reported practices as: training
and development; contingent pay; performance management (which included conducting
appraisals); and careful recruitment and selection processes.
Further, if consensus is achieved over the types of HR practices that should be
regarded as ‘best practice’, researchers then need to consider a further range of issues. For
instance, it is possible to view each HR practice as discrete and make no attempt to link
practices together. This approach contrasts from those who would endeavour to ‘bundle’
mutually reinforcing HR practices in a coherent and integrated manner (Huselid 1995;
Ichniowski, Shaw and Prennushi 1997; Boselie et al. 2005). It is now generally accepted
that implementing ‘bundles’ of HR practices is more effective than introducing HR
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practices individually (Guest, Conway and Dewe 2004). However, even here questions are
raised as to which HR practices should be included in the bundle (Delery 1998). For
example, Boselie et al. (2005, p. 73) states that, ‘No accepted theory exists that might
classify different practices into “obligatory” and “optional”, “hygiene” practices and
“motivators”’. This, they argue, has resulted in ‘HRM . . . consist[ing] of whatever
researchers wish or, perhaps, what their samples and data sets dictate’ (Boselie et al. 2005,
p. 74). Also, a further question arises relating to the nature of the relationships between the
practices within each bundle (Lepak, Liao, Chung and Harden 2006). Delery (1998)
describes the potential relationships as: (i) additive (where each HR practice has its own,
unique effect on performance outcomes); (ii) interactive (the effect of each practice
depends on the up-take of other practices within the bundle); and (iii) synergistic (the
combined effect of the bundle is greater than the sum of the individual HR practices).
More recent commentaries also highlight the importance of differentiating between
HR policy and practice. The former outlines the organization’s intentions whereas the
latter is based on observable, actual activities as experienced by workers (Wright and
Boswell 2002; Van den Berg, Richardson and Eastman 1999). Kinnie, Hutchinson,
Purcell, Rayton and Swart (2005, p. 10) argue that researchers should always endeavour to
differentiate between
the intended or espoused HR policies and the actual enactment of these policies, usually by
line managers and how they are experienced by employees. Employee attitudes are influenced
not so much by the way these policies are intended to operate as by the way they are actually
implemented by line managers . . . on a day-to-day basis (italics added).
It is thought that addressing this issue will avoid problems associated with researchers
relying on organizational ‘rhetoric’ rather than ‘reality’ (Legge 2005). Thus, where
possible, researchers should endeavour to capture HR practice rather than policy. This is
regarded as being especially important when investigating the effects of HR practice on
employee outcomes (c.f. Truss 2001; Gould-Williams 2003, 2007; Boselie et al. 2005).

The psychological climate and trust

According to Parker et al. (2003) the roots of psychological climate can be traced right
back to Lewin (1936) who used the term ‘life space’ to explain how change affected
individuals’ motivations. It is argued that psychological climate perceptions ‘enable an
individual to interpret events, predict possible outcomes and gauge the appropriateness of
their subsequent actions’ (Parker et al. 2003, p. 390). In understanding the effects of HR
practice on individual outcomes, commentators have begun to recognize the importance of
 656 J. Gould-Williams and R.B. Mohamed

climate as a key explanatory variable (c.f. Bowen and Ostroff 2004). Climate has been
defined as the ‘relatively enduring quality of the internal environment of an organization
that (a) is experienced by its members, (b) influences their behaviour, and (c) can be
described in terms of the values of a particular set of characteristics (or attitudes) of the
organization’ (Tagiuri and Litwin 1968, p. 27). Similarly, Biswas and Varma (2007) define
psychological climate as ‘an individual’s experiential abstraction of his/her routine
experiences at the workplace, and the consequent sense-making of the same’ (p. 666).
There is now growing recognition that employees’ experiences at work are affected by
organizational characteristics such as support, recognition, fairness, morale, rewards
equity and leader credibility (Moran and Volkwein 1992; McMurray 2003; Burton,
Lauridsen and Obel 2004).
It should be noted that oftentimes the terms collective climate, organizational climate
and organizational culture are used interchangeably in the literature. However, as noted
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by Parker et al. (2003) where these terms are measured and analysed at the individual
level, then it is the psychological climate that is being considered. And, whereas a
significant body of research has obtained the views of managers rather than non-
managerial workers in assessing climate (Peters and Waterman 1982; Weber 1996;
Denison 2001), we argue that it is important to incorporate the views of frontline workers
too, especially when considering the effects of climate on individual outcomes (Payne and
Mansfield 1973; Patterson, Warr and West 2004). It has been observed, for instance, that a
favourable psychological climate will lead to individuals engaging in extra role activities
such as organizational citizenship behaviours (Woodard, Cassill and Herr 1994; Biswas
and Varma 2007) and experiencing enhanced job satisfaction (Parker et al. 2003).
Further, employee outcomes have also been found to be affected by levels of trust
between employees and management, to the extent that trust influences employees’
responses to HR practices (Appelbaum, Bailey, Berg and Kalleberg 2000, p. iii; Whitener
2001; Gould-Williams 2003). According to Macky and Boxall (2007, p. 541):
Trust in management involves reification – a personalization of a collective identity
(management) based on an employee’s observations of the behaviour of individual
managers . . . . ‘trust in management’, or its lack, can be seen as developing from people’s
experiences over time regarding how they have been treated or have seen others treated by
managers.

Employee outcomes
The common underlying assumption of HR models is that HR practices affect
organizational performance through employee responses, namely changes in their work-
related attitudes and behaviours which are thought to determine, to a large extent,
whether employees use their skills and abilities to the benefit of the organization
(Wright, McMahan and McWilliams 1994; Guest 1999; Ramsay et al. 2000; Park et al.
2003; Wright and Nishii 2004; Macky and Boxall 2007). Important employee outcomes
include job satisfaction, commitment, motivation and organizational citizenship
behaviour, each of which are regarded as positive outcomes in terms of achieving
improved organizational performance (Spector 1997; Guest 1999; Hoque 1999; Park,
Mitsuhashi, Fey and Bjoorkman 2003). For instance, job satisfaction has been linked
with enhanced on-the-job performance (Spector 1997; Judge, Thoresen, Bono and
Patton 2001), customer satisfaction (Rogg, Schmidt, Shull and Schmitt 2001) and
organizational performance (Harter, Schmidt and Hayes 2002). Employee motivation
has been found to lead to reduced labour turnover and increased sales (Huselid 1995).
 The International Journal of Human Resource Management 657

Kinnie et al. (2005, p. 11) argue that ‘discretionary behaviour both on and off the job is
the critical factor in linking employee responses to performance’. Certainly, it appears
that researchers tend to include one or more of these employee outcomes as part of
their evaluation of the effects of HR practice, on the basis that individual skills and
abilities will not on their own add value to an organization. Rather, it is employees’
behaviour and attitudes that will ultimately determine the extent to which they are
prepared to put their abilities to use within the organization (Park et al. 2003). In
addition, there is now a growing awareness of the need to consider the potential
negative effects of HR practices (Godard 2001), with Ramsay et al. (2000)
incorporating employee stress and work intensification in their analysis.

Comparing the effects of best practice HRM across national contexts

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Commentators continue to debate whether the adoption of HR practice is converging or

diverging across national contexts (Budhwar and Sparrow 2002). Those adopting a
contingent or culturalist point-of-view argue that HR practices are diverging due, in part to
management styles being ‘cultural solutions to social problems’ (Crozier 1964 as quoted
in Tayeb 1998, p. 335). Similarly Budhwar and Sparrow note that national cultures
influence the adoption of HR practice as managers’ basic assumptions and values may: i)
render certain HR practices as being of no relevance whatsoever; ii) influence their
preferences for specific types of HR policy and the effectiveness of such policies; and iii)
be based on unique ways of doing things reflecting the management logic peculiar to a
particular country.
Alternatively, proponents of the convergence thesis state that the issues faced by
managers throughout the world are similar, thus management response and management
practice will also be similar, thus endorsing to a large extent the universal argument
(Negandhi 1979). This view is challenged by several commentators. For instance, Forster
and Whipp (1995) state that it is naı̈ve to assume there is just ‘one best approach’ for
managing people in that, according to their view, management practice should consider
cultural and regional differences between countries. Similarly, Budhwar and Sparrow
(2002) argue that the universal perspective is flawed as it is based on a very narrow view of
human experience, namely an Anglo-Saxon approach to management.
According to Tayeb (1998, p. 335), neither of the above perspectives reflect the
‘reality’ of management practice:
what actually managers do, . . . is too complicated to fit any one of the above or similar
black and white prescriptions. Some practices can be transferred almost without any
change from one country to another. Some must be modified to become workable in
another setting. Some are more deeply culture-specific and may not always be
transferable . . . . certain aspects of organizations are more likely to be universal, and there
are areas which are more culture-specific. The same broad division applies to a large
extent in the context of cross-cultural transfer. That is, those aspects of organizations and
management practices which involve human interactions with one another, e.g., human
resource management, are the areas where transfers are rather problematical, but not
necessarily impossible.
On this basis it is difficult to predict whether non-Anglo Saxon countries will have a
similar up-take of universal best practice HRM, and even more challenging to predict the
effects of HR practice on workers. However, consistent with the universal thesis, we argue
that the effects of HR practices will be similar across national boundaries. Empirical
evidence would help inform the development of HR theory in this area (compare Guest
1997).
 658 J. Gould-Williams and R.B. Mohamed

The English and Malaysian contexts

Several significant differences can be identified between the national cultures of England
and Malaysia. Relative to England, Malaysia shows a high level of collectivism and
power distance (Hofstede 1980). The England sample would be typical of the Anglo-
Saxon block of countries which emphasizes individualism and low power distance
(Hofstede 2001). However, due to the historical links between England and Malaysia,
many Malaysian organizational practices, especially in the civil service and government,
reflect those used in the UK due to the influence of British policy. For instance,
according to Chew (2005), HR practices in Malaysia are an artefact of both indigenous
and Westernized practices dating back to British colonization in the nineteenth century.
From our standpoint, we argue that the historical links between Malaysia and the UK
will have little effect on Malaysian organizations’ adoption of ‘best practice’ HRM as
HRM didn’t emerge in the UK until the late 1980s, early 1990s. Nevertheless, Chew
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(2005) argues that there is now evidence of growing convergence between Malaysian
and Anglo-Saxon HR practice and values, with ‘progressive Malaysian firms’
‘recognis[ing] the strategic importance of the HR department, evolving from a focus
on employee welfare to one that emphasises both human development and optimal
productivity’ (p. 89). Also, several important Islamic values emphasize the need for
honesty, self-discipline, motivation, teamwork and consensus. As such, if management
practice and employee responses are consistent with these values, we would expect the
Malaysian workforce to be highly motivated and self-disciplined. In other words, ‘best
practice’ HRM will have a lower predictive effect on employee motivation in the
Malaysian sample as compared with the England sample.

Research hypotheses and propositions

The above review proposes that ‘best practice’ HRM will positively affect employees’
attitudes and behaviours. These effects are thought to be universally applicable regardless
of national context, industry or occupational type. Even though there is no consensus as to
what constitutes ‘best practice’ HRM, the literature review suggests that there is some
agreement that HR practice should include activities that promote employee development,
rewards, teamworking, and careful recruitment and selection. Also, the review suggested
that ‘bundles’ of HR practices are more likely to have a positive effect on employee
outcomes than individual practices, with the further observation that such outcomes are
influenced more by employee perceptions of practice than HR policy directives. Finally,
climate and trust in management have now become recognized as key factors influencing
the effects of ‘best practice’ HRM. On this basis we will empirically test the universal
thesis by considering the following five research hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1: ‘Best practice’ HRM will positively affect employee motivation in both
the England and Malaysian samples.
Hypothesis 2: ‘Best practice’ HRM will positively affect employee job satisfaction in
both the England and Malaysian samples.
Hypothesis 3: Best practice’ HRM will positively affect employee’s organizational
citizenship behaviour in both the England and Malaysian samples.
Hypothesis 4: Best practice’ HRM will negatively affect job-related stress in both the
England and Malaysian samples.
Hypothesis 5: Best practice’ HRM will negatively affect employee intention to quit in
both the England and Malaysian samples.
 The International Journal of Human Resource Management 659

Due to the conflicting views relating to the development of HRM in Malaysia, it is difficult
to predict the extent to which HR practice has been embraced by local government
organizations. Thus, whether or not the up-take of HR practice is converging or diverging
between England and Malaysia will be informed by empirical investigation.

Methods
The England data were based on the 2003 Local Government Workplace Survey (LGWS).
The aim of the survey was to ‘evaluate the effects of . . . performance initiatives on staff
perceptions of their working environment and organisational performance’ in order to
inform the government’s modernization agenda (Office of the Deputy Prime Minister
(ODPM) 2004, p. 5 see also Gould-Williams 2007). The survey is based on a stratified
sample of 3,165 local government workers from 47 authorities in England.
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The England study was replicated in Malaysia by using the same questionnaire and
methods of distribution, and similar local government service departments. The original
LGWS questionnaire was back-translated into Malay by one of the authors and piloted
using three Malaysian research students. A few minor adjustments were made to the Malay
translation of the questionnaire to ensure uniformity of expression between the England
and Malaysian work groups (c.f. Adler 1983; Chan, Tong-qing, Redman and Snape 2006).
The questionnaires were distributed to the Malaysian sample of local government workers
in summer 2004.

A description of the samples

In order to achieve comparability between the Malaysian and England local government
authorities, the England sample was based on responses obtained from the Unitary and
County Councils and five of the eight service departments. The sampling frame for the
current research is based on workers from 45 service departments in England and 20
service departments in Malaysia local government organizations. The service departments
were Waste Management, Benefits and Revenue, Leisure Services, Housing Management
and Planning. The sampling unit consists of frontline workers, supervisors and middle
managers working in England and Malaysia local government organizations. Thus, the
sample for the current research is 569 and 453 frontline workers, supervisors and middle
managers from England and Malaysia local government service departments, respectively.
Just over half the respondents in England and Malaysia were female (57.7% and 56.5%
respectively). The largest age group for England consisted of those aged 31– 45 years
(46.6%), followed by the age group 46 –60 years (37.8%) and 21 –30 years (12.4%).
However, the largest age group for Malaysia consisted of respondents aged 21– 30 years
(62.7%), followed by the age group 31 – 45 years (25.2%). Of the respondents 10.6% were
aged between 4 and 60. Thus, the England sample consisted of a larger proportion of older
workers. In the England sample 91.3% of respondents were classified as White British and
in the Malaysian sample 94.9% were Malay.

Measures
As the 2003 LGWS questionnaire was designed to inform policy debate rather than
address theoretical issues, many of the measures in this study are based on single item
statements. As such, it is possible that the results may underestimate the effects of the
relationships between the independent and dependent variables used in this study.
 660 J. Gould-Williams and R.B. Mohamed

Single-item measures were used for the following explanatory variables: employee
selection; team working; discretionary pay; performance appraisal; trust between
managers and employees; and staffing levels (see Tables 1 and 2). Similarly, single item
measures were also used for the dependent variables job satisfaction, worker motivation,
organizational citizenship behaviour and intention to quit (see Table 3).
Training and development were assessed by combining two items: (i) In this
department, we are provided with the training needed to achieve high standards of work;
and (ii) I am provided with sufficient training and development. Three items were used as a
measure of communication: (i) We are kept well informed of what is going on in this
authority; (ii) Communication within this department is good; and (iii) This department
keeps me well informed.
Psychological climate was measured by using the following seven items: (i) Our line
manager/supervisor considers the personal welfare of our group; (ii) When I’m on a difficult
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assignment I can usually count on getting assistance from my line manager/supervisor; (iii)
Our line managers/supervisors are quick to blame us when things don’t turn out as planned
(reverse); (iv) My work mates/colleagues resist change (reverse); (v) I am treated fairly by
this department; (vi) There’s a friendly, supportive atmosphere amongst staff in this
department; and (vii) The morale in this department is very low (reverse).
Two measures were used to assess worker involvement: (i) our line manager/
supervisor consults us before making decisions; and (ii) our line manager/supervisor asks
us for suggestions when faced with service-related problems.
Two items were used as a measure of work pressure (i.e., I am under too much in my
job; My job involves too much work to do everything well).
A three-item measure was used for the dependent variable work-related stress: (i) My
workload negatively affects the quality of my life (e.g., family or social activities); (ii)
Some days I feel I can’t continue in this job due to work pressures; and (iii) In my job, I am
often confronted with problems I can’t do much about.
A summary of the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients are presented in Table 4. Workers
were required to indicate the degree to which they agreed or disagreed with each of the
questionnaire statements using a seven-point Likert scale (1 ¼ strongly disagree to
7 ¼ strongly agree).

Results
Tables 1 to 3 provide the means, standard deviations and t-test values of the differences
between England and Malaysia of the independent and dependent variables. The
results show that Malaysian respondents consistently perceived the level of HR activity
to be higher than their England counterparts. For instance, six of the nine HR items
were significantly higher for the Malaysian sample (t values ranged from 2 19.75,
p .000 to 2 3.45, p .001). The one exception was England respondents’ mean value for a
rigorous selection process which was significantly higher than the Malaysian respondents
(t value 2.94, p .003). These findings, at least from the workers’ perspectives, provide some
support for the convergence thesis. A less consistent pattern emerges when comparisons are
made between measures of climate, staff involvement and trust (Table 2). For instance,
respondents in England were more likely to receive assistance from their line manager when
undertaking a difficult assignment (t value, 3.35, p .001), were more likely to feel they were
treated fairly by their respective departments (t value, 3.10, p .002), and enjoy a supportive,
friendly working environment (t value, 4.23, p .000). However, England respondents also
experienced more pressure (t value, 4.61, p .000), were more likely to work in under-staffed
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Table 1. Means, standard deviations and t-test of differences in HRM practices between England and Malaysia local government.
Item(s) No. of cases Mean SD t value 2-tail sig.
HRM practices:
A rigorous selection process is used to select new recruits/workers.[C3] Eng 563 4.67 1.70 2.943 .003
Selection Mal 452 4.36 1.65
In this department, we are provided with the training needed to achieve Eng 560 4.39 1.84 2 1.099 .272
high standards of work. [B7]
Training
Mal 453 4.51 1.52
I am provided with sufficient training and development. [C4] Eng 565 4.49 1.80 1.575 .116
Mal 452 4.33 1.57
Teamworking Teamworking is strongly encouraged in our department. [C10] Eng 561 4.90 1.71 2 6.683 .000
Mal 452 5.55 1.39
Performance Staff are given meaningful feedback regarding their individual Eng 566 4.64 2.04 2 3.791 .000
appraisal performance, at least once each a year. [C12]
Mal 452 5.07 1.58
Discretionary pay In this department those who perform well in their jobs get better Eng 564 2.68 1.66 2 19.75 .000
rewards than those who just meet the basic job requirements [C1]
Mal 452 4.77 1.70
We are kept well informed of what is going on in this authority. [A16] Eng 565 4.04 1.75 2 7.555 .000
Mal 453 4.82 1.51
Communication within this department is good. [C8] Eng 566 4.27 1.71 2 4.445 .000
Mal 452 4.72 1.53
Communication This department keeps me well informed. [C13] Eng 566 4.40 1.71 2 3.446 .001
Mal 452 4.75 1.54

*Statistically significant at .05 level; **statistically significant at .01 level; ***statistically significant at .001 level.
The International Journal of Human Resource Management
661
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Table 2. Means, standard deviations and t-test of differences in organizational climate, involvement, trust and resources between England and Malaysia local
662

government.
Item(s) No. of cases Mean SD t value 2-tail sig.
Our line manager/supervisor considers the personal welfare of our group. [A5] Eng 565 4.87 1.83 0.242 .809
Mal 453 4.85 1.45
When I am on a difficult assignment, I can usually count on Eng 566 5.26 1.70 3.348 .001
getting assistance from my line manager/supervisor. [A6]
Mal 453 4.93 1.46
Our line managers/supervisors are quick to blame us when Eng 566 3.25 1.68 28.417 .000
Organizational things don’t turn out as planned. (Reversed score) [A14]
climate Mal 453 4.13 1.62
My work mates/colleagues resist change. (Reversed score) [B6] Eng 564 3.43 1.60 23.310 .001
Mal 453 3.76 1.54
I am treated fairly by this department. [C5] Eng 566 4.99 1.70 3.103 .002
Mal 452 4.68 1.54
There’s a friendly, supportive atmosphere amongst staff in this department. [C6] Eng 563 5.31 1.56 4.227 .000
Mal 452 4.89 1.57
The morale in this department is very low. (Reversed score) [C7] Eng 565 3.93 1.99 4.200 .000
Mal 452 3.44 1.74
Our line manager/supervisor consults us before making decisions. [A3] Eng 568 4.40 1.81 22.018 .044
Involvement Mal 453 4.61 1.43
Our line manager/supervisor asks us for suggestions when faced with Eng 566 4.81 1.72 1.714 .087
service-related problems. [A4]
Mal 453 4.65 1.37
Trust Line managers/supervisors and stuff trust each other. [A11] Eng 564 4.01 1.77 24.845 .000
J. Gould-Williams and R.B. Mohamed

Mal 453 4.50 1.46

Working
environment
Understaffed This service is understaffed. [B2] Eng 569 5.55 1.66 9.530 .000
Mal 453 4.54 1.71
I am under too much pressure in my job. [D11] Eng 565 4.14 1.76 4.610 .000
Work pressure Mal 452 3.64 1.67
My job involves too much work to do everything well. [D12] Eng 567 4.58 1.92 20.433 .665
Mal 452 4.63 1.53

*Statistically significant at .05 level; **statistically significant at .01 level; ***statistically significant at .001 level.
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Table 3. Means, standard deviations and t-test of differences in worker outcomes and perceived organizational performance between England and Malaysia local
government.

Item(s) No. of cases Mean SD t value 2-tail sig.

Motivation I look forward to coming to work. [D8] Eng 568 4.22 1.78 216.245 .000
Mal 452 5.81 1.33
Overall, I’m very satisfied with my job Eng 567 4.10 1.75 213.292 .000
Job satisfaction and couldn’t be more satisfied. [D2]
Mal 452 5.37 1.30
Organizational
I’m prepared to do extra work for no Eng 565 4.27 2.01 24.479 .000
citizenship
additional pay, just to help others. [D3]
behaviour
Mal 452 4.78 1.63
My workload negatively affects the Eng 566 3.71 2.00 1.157 .247
quality of my life (e.g. family or social
activities). [D10]
Mal 452 3.57 1.85
Stress Some days I feel I cannot continue in Eng 568 3.42 2.00 22.644 .008
this job due to work pressures. [D13]
Mal 452 3.73 1.74
In my job, I am often confronted with Eng 568 4.29 1.87 7.145 .000
problems I cannot do much about. [D14]
Mal 452 3.52 1.55
Intention to quit I would like to leave my job. [D7] Eng 567 3.23 2.02 9.759 .000
Mal 452 2.12 1.64

*Statistically significant at .05 level; **statistically significant at .01 level; ***statistically significant at .001 level.
The International Journal of Human Resource Management
663
 664 J. Gould-Williams and R.B. Mohamed

Table 4. Cronbach’s alpha scores for multiple item measures.

Cronbach’s alpha
Independent
variables: Eng. Mal.
best practice
HRM: Item (s) a a
Training In this department, we are provided with the training .88 .73
needed to achieve high standards of work.
I am provided with sufficient training and development.
Communication We are kept well informed of what is going on in this .81 .70
authority.
Communication within this department is good.
This department keeps me well informed.
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Climate Our line manager/supervisor considers the personal .80 .76

welfare of our group.
When I am on a difficult assignment, I can usually count
on getting assistance from my line manager/supervisor.
Our line managers/supervisors are quick to blame us
when things don’t turn out as planned. (Reversed score)
My work mates/colleagues resist change. (Reserved
score)
I am treated fairly by this department.
There’s a friendly, supportive atmosphere amongst staff
in this department.
Involvement Our line manager/supervisor consults us before making .86 .78
decisions.
Our line manager/supervisor asks us for suggestions
when faced with service-related problems.
Work pressure I am under too much pressure in my job. .80 .59
My job involves too much work to do everything well.
Stress My workload negatively affects the quality of my life .76 .68
(e.g. family or social activities).
Some days I feel I cannot continue in this job due to work
pressures.
In my job, I am often confronted with problems I cannot
do much about.

departments (t value, 9.53, p .000) where staff morale was perceived to be low (t value, 4.20,
p .000). The mean values also suggest that Malaysian respondents perceived that managers
were quick to blame them when things didn’t turn out as planned (t value, 2 8.42, p .000),
and their work mates were more likely to resist change when compared with the England
sample (t value, 2 3.31, p .001). However, the mean value for trust between managers and
staff was higher for Malaysian workers (t value, 2 4.85, p .000).
A comparison of the mean values for the employee outcome measures, as noted in
Table 3, suggest that Malaysian workers are consistently more motivated (t value, 2 16.25,
p .000), satisfied with their jobs (t value, 2 13.29, p .000), and more likely to display
organizational citizenship behaviours (t value, 2 4.48, p .000). The England respondents
were more likely to want to quit their jobs in comparison with the Malaysian sample
(t value, 9.76, p .000). The findings relating to measures of stress were less consistent, in
that Malaysian workers experienced greater work pressures (t value, 2 2.64, p .008),
whereas the England respondents reported being confronted with problems they couldn’t
resolve (t value, 7.15, p .000).
 The International Journal of Human Resource Management 665

To test our research hypotheses, namely to assess whether HRM had similar effects on
worker outcomes in both Malaysia and England, OLS multiple regression analyses were
conducted by regressing respondents’ country of origin, personal characteristics, working
environment and HRM on each of the five dependent variables. An HRM X Country
interaction term was added to the regression equations to test for the strength of the
country effect. The results of the regression analyses are outlined in Table 5. The analyses
show that the predictive variables explained at least a quarter of variation in the dependent
variables (with the exception of OCB in which the independent variables predicted 14%
change). The highest R2 was noted in equation 4: dependent variable Stress where almost
50% of change in the dependent variable was explained by the independent variables. On
this basis it can be argued that the regression equations provide an adequate explanation of
variation in four of the five equations. Further consideration needs to be given to
identifying potential explanatory variables that will more fully explain change in OCB.
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The analyses also suggest that, compared to England respondents, Malaysian respondents
were more motivated (b 2.46, p .001), experienced greater job satisfaction (b 2.43, p .001),
and demonstrated a willingness to display OCB (b 2.20, p .001). England respondents were
more likely than their Malaysian counterparts to want to quit (b .28, p .01). These country
differences are consistent with the results outlined in Table 3, even after controlling for
organizational and individual variables.
With regards to our research hypotheses, the analyses reveal consistent results in
support of all five hypotheses. For instance, ‘bundles’ of HR practice had statistically
significant explanatory effects across all five equations while controlling for the effects of
personal characteristics, climate, worker involvement, trust between managers and
workers, and resources. The size of the effects of the HR bundle ranged from b .19, p .000,
for equations 1 and 2 (dependent variables Motivation and Job Satisfaction) to b 2 .06,
p .01 as noted in equation 4 (dependent variable Stress). Thus it would appear that these
findings provide convincing evidence in support of the universal thesis. They also do not
support the view of the critical writers who contended that HR practices lead to increased
stress amongst workers (Godard 2001). To the contrary, a small, inverse effect was noted.
The literature review suggested that, due to national cultural values Malaysian workers
would be more motivated than England workers, and thus HR practice would have a lower
predictive effect. However, the interactive HRM X Country term was not significant in
equation 1, thus suggesting that similar effects were observed for both England and
Malaysian respondents. Country effects were, however noted for Job Satisfaction and
Intention to Quit, in which the coefficients suggest that the relationship between the HR
bundle and Job Satisfaction was stronger or more pronounced for the England respondents.
In contrast, the relationship between the HR bundle and Intention to Quit was stronger for
Malaysian respondents. In other words, even though England and Malaysian workers were
less likely to leave where respondents experienced higher levels of HR practice, the effect
on Malaysian workers was greater.
There was a less consistent pattern for the relationships between the dependent
variables and the remaining explanatory variables. The following effects were noted: Trust
positively impacted respondents’ motivation, job satisfaction, OCB and intention to quit
(the beta values ranged from b .12, p .01, dependent variable OCB, to b 2 .09, p .05,
dependent variable Intention to Quit). Work-related pressure also had consistent effects
across four of the five equations (the exception being OCB). Here, the beta values ranged
from b .64, p .001 (dependent variable Stress), to b 2 .14, p .001, (dependent variables
Motivation and Job Satisfaction). Our Climate measure predicted Job Satisfaction (b .13,
p .01), and OCB (b .07, p .05), whereas Involvement predicted OCB (b .08, p .05).
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666

Table 5. Regression analyses of the affects of HRM practices on worker outcomes.

Equation 1 Equation 2 Equation 3 Equation 4 Equation 5

Motivation Job Satisfaction OCB Stress Intention to Quit

931 930 930 931 931
n bD b b b b b b b b b b b bD b b

Step 1
Personal
characteristics
Age 2 .01 .01 .03 .06 .07* .10* .02 .03 .04 .09* .04 .02 .04 .02 .01
Salary .08 .06 .06 .04 .01 .00 .16*** .13 .13** .03 2 .04 2 .03 .01 .01 .02
Gender .000 2 .00 2 .00 2 .02 2 .02 2 .02 .07* .08 .08** 2 .05 2 .03 2 .03 2 .02 2 .01 2 .01
Contract 2 .01 2 .02 2 .03 2 .00 2 .02 2 .02 .01 2 .01 2 .01 .01 .01 .01 .06 .07* .07*
Job position 2 .05 2 .05 2 .05 2 .04 2 .03 2 .03 .03 .02 .02 .04 2 .01 2 .01 2 .00 2 .01 2 .01
Service
Departments
Revenue & 2 .06 2 .04 2 .04 2 .10** 2 .09** 2 .08* 2 .02 .00 .01 2 .12*** 2 .12*** 2 .12*** .03 .02 .01
Benefits
Planning 2 .04 2 .03 2 .03 2 .08* 2 .07* 2 .07* 2 .02 2 .01 2 .02 2 .05 2 .07 2 .07* .05 .04 .04
Housing 2 .06 2 .05 2 .04 2 .04 2 .03 2 .02 2 .02 2 .01 2 .00 2 .04 2 .04 2 .04 2 .00 2 .01 2 .01
Management
Leisure 2 .03 2 .02 2 .02 2 .08* 2 .07* 2 .07* .03 .04 .04 2 .00 2 .02 2 .02 .07 .05 .05
J. Gould-Williams and R.B. Mohamed

Country 2 .50*** 2 .43*** 2 .46*** 2 .46*** 2 .38*** 2 .43*** 2 .22*** 2 .18*** 2 .20*** .03 2 .01 .02 .31*** .24*** .28***
DR 2 .23*** .18*** .05*** .04*** .10
Adj R 2 .22 .17 .04 .03 .10
Step 2
HRM .25*** .19*** .29*** .19*** .17*** .13*** 2 .11*** 2 .06** 2 .23*** 2 .13***
Climate 2 .00 .03 .08** .13** .04 .07* 2 .01 2 .03 .02 2 .02
Involvement .04 .05 .01 2 .02 .07 .08* 2 .01 2 .02 2 .03 2 .04
Trust .08** .11*** .05 .09** .09** .12** .01 .01 2 .06 2 .09*
Working
environment
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Understaffed .03 .01 .04 .02 .05 .04 2 .01 2 .01 2 .04 2 .02
Work pressure 2 .12*** 2.14*** 2 .12*** 2 .14*** 2.01 2 .01 .64*** .64*** .22*** .24***
DR 2 .15*** .20*** .10*** .44*** .16
Adj R 2 .37 .37 .14 .48 .25
Step 3
Country X HRM .07 .14*** .06 2 .07 2 .13**
DR 2 .00 .01*** .00 .00 .01
Final adj R2 .37 .38 .14 .48 .25
F value 26.85*** 34.48*** 32.71*** 20.28*** 35.28*** 34.20*** 5.08*** 10.65*** 10.10*** 3.62*** 52.34*** 49.59*** 9.88*** 20.14*** 19.57***
931

*Statistically significant at .05 level; **statistically significant at .01 level; ***statistically significant at .001 level; Dstandardized beta values shown.
The International Journal of Human Resource Management
667
 668 J. Gould-Williams and R.B. Mohamed

So far we have established that the combined effect of HR practices on worker

outcomes is consistent across countries. However, the overall explanatory effect of the HR
bundle may be due to one or more HR practices being powerful predictors of each of the
dependent variables. For instance, it is possible for any one of the HR practices to have
more or less of an impact on the dependent variables in comparison with the other
practices between each of the two countries. Thus further analyses were undertaken to
observe the individual effects of each of the HR practices. The results are outlined in
Table 6 and suggest that teamworking had the largest and most consistent effect on four of
the dependent variables (b values ranged from b .33, p .001, dependent variable
Motivation, to b .11, p .05, dependent variable Job satisfaction). The only dependent
variable unaffected by teamworking was OCB. Training and Communication both had
significant effects on two outcomes each. Increased training, for instance, positively
predicted job satisfaction (b .13, p .05) and inversely predicted intention to quit (b 2 .15,
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p .001), whereas communication positively predicted worker motivation (b .17, p .001)

and OCB (b .16, p .001). Based on these findings, we would argue that teamworking
should be regarded as the primus inter pares of HR practices. This finding is consistent
with earlier results based on Welsh local government workers’ responses to HR practices,
in which teamworking activities had similar effects on work-related attitudes and
behaviours as those reported here (Gould-Williams 2004). And more generally in the field
of HRM, teamworking has been viewed as constituting a fundamental component of new
work systems in which the management-employee relationship has been transformed
(Geary and Dobbins 2001).
An unexpected relationship is noted between individual appraisals and OCB, with
appraisals leading to a reduction in OCB (b 2 .16, p .001). Thus, it appears that even
though staff are given meaningful feedback on their performance, the feedback itself does
not impact their individual roles as anticipated but instead reduces organizational
citizenship behaviours. It is possible that respondents view appraisals as a subtle form of
control (see for instance Sinclair 1992), especially if appraisal interviews tend to focus on
individual performance targets. Certainly, further research is needed if a convincing
explanation is to be provided. Also, rigorous selection processes appear to lead to higher
quit intentions across the two samples (b .15, p .001). This finding should alert public
managers of the need to introduce policies that will encourage the retention of high calibre
staff, such as, for instance, career development programmes (Super, Thompson and
Lindeman 1985).
When the interaction terms were included in the equations, several HR practices were
found to have a more pronounced effect in one or other country. For instance,
teamworking had a stronger effect on Malaysian respondents’ motivation in comparison
with England respondents, as too were the effects of job appraisals on stress, and selection
on respondents’ intentions to quit. The effects of training on job satisfaction were stronger
for England respondents as too were the effects of appraisals on OCB. In this latter case,
the inverse effect of appraisals on OCB was more pronounced for England respondents.
So even though our findings provide support for the universal thesis, our evidence also
suggests that in some instances the relative effects of HR practice will differ between
countries.

Discussion and conclusions

The purpose of this research was to present evidence based on a matched comparative
study of local government workers in England and Malaysia, of the effects of ‘best
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Table 6. Regression analyses of the affects of individual HRM practices on worker outcomes.
Motivation Job satisfaction OCB Stress Quit intentions

924 923 923 924 924

n bD b b b b b bD b b b b b bD b b

Step 1
Personal
characteristics
Age 2 .01 .00 .02 .06 .08 .09 .01 .03 .05 .09* .03 .02 .04 .01 .01
Salary .08 .07 .08 .03 .03 .02 .17*** .15** .13** .03 2 .05 2 .04 .01 .00 .00
Gender 2 .01 .00 .01 2 .03 2 .01 2 .02 .07* .08** .08** 2 .05 2 .03 2 .03 2 .02 2 .02 2 .02
Contract 2 .01 2 .02 2 .01 2 .00 2 .01 2 .01 .00 2 .01 2 .01 .01 .01 .00 .06 .06 .06
Job position 2 .05 2 .05 2 .05 2 .04 2 .03 2 .03 .02 .01 .01 .04 2 .00 .00 2 .00 2 .00 2 .00
Service
Departments
Revenue & 2 .05 2 .04 2 .03 2 .11** 2 .08** 2 .08** 2 .02 2 .00 2 .00 2 .12** 2 .12*** 2 .12*** .02 2 .01 .01
Benefits
Planning 2 .04 2 .03 2 .03 2 .09* 2 .06* 2 .07* 2 .02 2 .02 2 .02 2 .05 2 .07 2 .07* .06 .04 .04
Housing 2 .06 2 .05 2 .05 2 .05 2 .03 2 .03 2 .02 2 .01 2 .01 2 .04 2 .04 2 .04 .00 2 .01 2 .01
Management
Leisure 2 .03 2 .02 2 .01 2 .08* 2 .06* 2 .06* .03 .04 .03 2 .00 2 .03 2 .02 .07 .04 .04
Country 2 .50*** 2 .41*** 2 .36*** 2 .46*** 2 .39*** 2 .42*** 2 .22*** 2 .13** 2 .17** .04 2 .00 .03 .30*** .23*** .23***
DR 2 .23*** .18*** .05*** .03*** .10***
Adj R 2 .22 .17 .04 .08
Step 2
Selection .02 2 .00 2 .04 .01 .01 .03 2 .00 .04 .05 .15**
Training .02 2 .03 .23*** .13* .01 .00 2 .04 2 .05 2 .15*** 2 .15***
Teamworking .20*** .33*** .14*** .11* .06 .08 2 .11*** 2 .12** 2 .12*** 2 .18**
Appraisals 2 .01 2 .04 2 .01 .03 .01 2 .16*** 2 .03 .08 2 .02 2 .03
PRP .03 .01 .04 2 .02 .12* .13* .01 2 .01 2 .02 2 .01
The International Journal of Human Resource Management

Communication .17*** .13* .13*** .07 .12** .16*** 2 .03 2 .06 2 .10* 2 .06
Climate .01 2 01 .09** .10** .06 .06 2 .01 .01 .01 .01
Involvement .04 .05 .02 .01 .06 .06 2 .01 2 .01 2 .04 2 .05
Trust .08* .09** .05 .06 .11** .11** .00 .00 2 .06 2 .06
669
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Table 6 – continued
670

Motivation Job satisfaction OCB Stress Quit intentions

924 923 923 924 924

n bD b b b b b bD b b b b b bD b b

Working
environment
Understaffed .01 .01 .03 .03 .04 .04 .01 .01 2 .03 2 .03
Work pressure 2 .15*** 2 .13*** 2 .13*** 2 .12*** 2 .02 2 .02 .64*** .64*** .23*** .22***
DR 2 .19*** .25*** .12*** .45*** .19***
Adj R 2 .40 .41 .15 .48 27
Step 3
Interactive terms
Country X Selection .04 2 .06 2 .04 2 .05 2 .15**
Country X Training .07 .12* .01 .01 2 .01
Country X Teamwork 2 .18** .03 2 .01 .02 .08
Country X Appraisal .04 2 .06 .23*** 2 .14** .03
Country X PRP 2 .06 .07 2 .01 .01 2 .05
Country X .03 .09 2 .07 .04 2 .05
Communication
D R2 .01* .01** .01* .01 .01*
Final adj R2 .41 .42 .15 .48 .28
F value 26.38*** 30.47*** 24.47*** 20.05*** 31.64*** 25.67*** 4.81*** 8.51*** 7.18*** 3.59*** 41.10*** 32.57*** 9.56*** 17.09*** 13.93***

D
*Statistically significant at .05 level; **statistically significant at .01 level; ***statistically significant at .001 level; standardized beta values shown.
J. Gould-Williams and R.B. Mohamed
 The International Journal of Human Resource Management 671

practice’ HRM. The literature review highlighted the importance for researchers to use
employee perceptions of HR practice rather than rely on HR policy directives. Doing so
captures management practice rather than organizational rhetoric. The research presented
here is based on such views. Also, this research provides evidence of the effects of HR
practice on employee outcomes and included potential negative effects of HR practice
(Ramsay et al. 2000). As such, it makes a valuable contribution to our understanding of the
ways in which HR practice effects ‘black box’ issues, namely employee attitudes and
behaviours. Most notably, of course, comparing the findings of our analyses on two
different national samples, provides further insight into the effects of HR practice on
employee outcomes.
A simple comparison of the mean scores suggests that ‘best practice’ HRM is more
likely to be evident in Malaysian local government organizations than England. However,
for these findings to be more convincing, it will be necessary for perceptions of both
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samples to be audited and organizational policy directives assessed – something that was
beyond the scope of this research project. Nevertheless, these results are consistent with
Chew (2005) who argued that there is evidence of growing convergence between
Malaysian and Anglo-Saxon HR practice, with the levels of HR activity being even more
pronounced in Malaysian local government service departments when compared with
England. However, this cannot be stated with regards to the remaining explanatory
variables, in which no observable patterns emerged from our analysis.
Fundamentally, our research supports the universal thesis, in that the effects of the HR
bundle were consistent across both samples, and in the hypothesized directions. The size
of the effects were largely consistent across the samples, with two exceptions – HR
practice had a more pronounced positive effect on Job Satisfaction for England
respondents, whereas HR practice had a greater effect on Malaysian respondents’ quit
intentions. Essentially, then, public sector managers can be confident that introducing
bundles of ‘best practice’ HRM will lead to desirable employee outcomes, which in turn,
according to the literature review, should thereafter impact organizational performance.
Within the HR bundle, teamworking which was found to be a powerful predictor of all
except one of our dependent variables – OCB. In other words, teamworking consistently
impacts worker motivation, job satisfaction, stress (inverse) and quit intentions (inverse)
in both countries. Also, the effects were similar across the two samples, with the exception
of worker motivation, where teamworking had a more pronounced, positive effect on
Malaysian respondents’ motivation in comparison with England respondents. It was
also noted that these findings are consistent with previous research undertaken in Welsh
local government (Gould-Williams 2004) thus it could be argued that teamworking
should be regarded as the ‘kernel’ of HR bundles in local government authorities. Further
research is needed to determine whether these findings are consistent across public sector
organizations internationally.
The above findings should be read with the following limitations in mind. This study is
based on samples drawn from just two different cultures, thus it is possible that future
studies may wish to include a more diverse range of national cultures in their analysis,
(inter alia, Asian, Anglo-Saxon, South American, European). Also, it is assumed that each
of the respondents in this study shared nationally attributed cultural values, as culture was
not measured at the individual level. It is possible that individual values may differ
between individuals of the same nationality, as well as across national contexts (see, for
instance, Clugston, Howell and Dorfman 2000). Thus our study provides only a limited
test of the effects of national culture on HR practice.
 672 J. Gould-Williams and R.B. Mohamed

Second, even though our survey has reported the impact of various HR practices on
individual workers, it has not provided detailed descriptions of each of these practices.
In other words, we have considered HR practice at a very general level. This approach is
consistent with much of the quantitative studies in this area (Huselid 1995; MacDuffie
1995; Guest et al. 2000, 2003), but it would be useful to have fuller descriptions of each of
the HR practices to enable researchers and managers to answer the following illustrative
questions: To what extent are teams in local government organizations autonomous and
self-directed? Does teamworking affect worker productivity and performance and/or
provide a preferred working environment? How much and what type of training
programmes are most effective in developing desirable work-related outcomes? A multi-
method approach could address such questions by conducting case study site visits in
selected organizations from a survey sample.
Third, our approach for this study could be criticized for having an ‘ethnocentric bias’
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(Clark, Grant and Heijltjes 2000, p. 15). We have adopted an Anglo-Saxon perspective of
HRM and imposed it on a non-Anglo-Saxon sample (Malaysian workers). As such, we
have assumed, as Clark et al. (2000) point out, that ‘the instruments and measures
developed in one culture are believed to be equally appropriate and applicable in other
nations’ (p. 15). In so doing, we may have failed to capture many of the societal and
cultural differences between the Malaysian and England sample. Instead, we have focused
on management and employee response to HR practices between the two counties rather
than using differences in cultural values to explain these differences. Despite these
limitations, we would argue that this research provides convincing evidence of the
universal effects of ‘best practice’ HRM in a non-Anglo-Saxon country.

Acknowledgements
We wish to thank Dr Peter Morgan, Cardiff Business School, for his advice and guidance on
appropriate statistical techniques. We should also like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their
helpful recommendations.

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