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    Sociological Theories

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    Tayeara Richards

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    beeen ot Theories: An Introduction ‘Wo learnt in Chapter 1 that 8 sociological theory is body of knowledge that helps to expiain how ‘something works and thal each theory has its particular way of viewing reel, Our attontion was ' ‘iso drawn to the fact that theories are categorised into various groupings for ease of reference, so that thedvles are deserbed as either macro of micro, structural or soci! action, and mocern cr postmodern. Within these categories we have functionals, Maprism and interacionisn, Funetlonaism and Manism are described as both macro and structural since they are concerned vith understanding how the various institutions effect human behaviour interactionism is deserved 2a rioro and social action since attention is p'aced on haw smal-scale interactions of groups and the meanings alcted from these interaction’ shape the way we behave, ‘This chapter wil focus on how each of those theories adresses important, specif issues that engage the attention of sociologists as they sock to understand the inner werkings of society. However, before this, we wil identify scene of the views of the early founding fathers of sociology ‘and show how thase views were respansile forthe ernergsnes of functionals, Marxsm and interactionism as sociological theories, Later on, attention wil be placad on the contributions of feminism to sociological theory and the important contribution that Carltibean socioiogis's have made towards the develooment of a Caribbean sociological perspective. Auguste Comte (1798-1857) +. Comte coined the word ‘socilogy" fom the Latin socios (society and the Greok logos (wonledge). Ha is regards as the first sociologist. 2. Togetir with the social thinkers of his time, he saw a need to study aodtoty bacause ofthe ‘many changee brought on by the French Revolution and the Industriel Revolution, ‘8. Comte recognised the need to study @oups in socaty as he baaved that when po ‘groupe helped to shape their behaviour over and beyond ther individual needs and wents 4, He argued that the method of research employed in the natural sciences wes applicable to the social eciencas, Hence, tho use of cbsenvations and experimentation could rep to produce lavis that could explain human behaviout 5. is studies of social grouse in his native Fanos helped rim to coms up wth nis as of ‘social staties how paris of society work togethor to actiove social ord) and laws of soctal dypamles (row society oxporionoes change). 66, He recognised that society Isa system mace up of parts. He idented these pzrts as famiy, region, economy and pola! structure, with each part cenying specific functions to serve the eds of society 7. Comte offered a theory on how social change s achieved in society, He belaved that society progresses in stages. These changes rettect tho development of hurnan eas: theological -idoas controled by the clergy 'b. metaphysical ~ ideas controlled by prilosophers ‘postive — the triumph of scientific thinking Je ve in Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) 4. Sponcer fed at a time when Britain was experimenting with a number of social end industrial reforms brought on by incustraisation. ‘Specialisation: > dvisen of labour by spitting work " dawnanto its smallest covsttuent paris. Ths leds to businesses becorrina ‘move profitable. ‘conselousness: Darke term or 306i and moral "order made possible _ whan members ofa socity Have shered “sahtinenis, values ‘and belies Sid ‘ J ‘Anomi reaiite, agoording to Burkeheim, when, a dociety fies a sat _of gid rules which al inclyiduals are expected to adhere ‘0. When sore individuals devieto for thee social ruids, Aomlessiiess, -oogus and the social: | orderin socety ‘bacomes at risk 2, He was influsnced by Chetlas Darvin are! sod his interost in biology to explain how society is structured, He boteved that just as the human body dapencs on all ks parts to survive (for ‘example, hear, lungs, Iver), 30 too do human socities, Spencer contributed to the qebate on how soci! changs in sociay ie achioved. He saw scctal change as an evolutionary procass with societies evohing from simpy to complexty through ifferentation end specialisation. To him, change was all bout growth and development. in terms of social change, he applied Darwin's idea of evolution o sociology. He ea societiss as evohing naturally from simple to more complox farms (hough aiferatiation and pecialsation) as wae occuring nthe incusiiaised societies of his time. This evolutionary process was equated with progress. 4. Spancer’ i bbaceuse all pats have the 15 aro reflected in functionalist thinking, where socity is spen as harmonious specific functions and together constitute general social stably Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) 4 Durkheim is corsidered to be the tue father of sociaogy because he made the subject 2 serous and respected cscioine with tho pubfeation of The Pues of Socilogical Methos (1895), Durkee was committe! o produc a sdarce of socoly. He insist that thre should be a aystem of rues to be {alowed In sacksogicel investigation and used the postvst maths in his study of suicide 2. Helosieved that betlefs, moral values and ways of behaving are paseed on rom gareration to goneretion. These act as guidsinas for human behaviour as they both ot inclviuals know ‘what soclety expects of them ard algo constran behaviour. He refered tots as socialisation loam terns of behaviour 8. Dutkholm argued that there is 2 dyramic relationship between the indvidual and society end thal what holds them together is @ bady of batts, mor codes and shared custom, Those are transmiied through the saciasation process, mabing nstitullone such as tho farily, the school and region ecoorting to Durknsim, refer to ways of etn, thinking and fain, They are called socia because thoy originate in the various insitutions in socety. He rers othe “tinge” that are objctve andl extemal othe inal end are use io siruture people’ ives. over the individ and guido all 4. Social facts na “Those ways of acting, thinking and! feeing exercise cor thai actions. Henca, Durkheim argued that itis important fo tnd these social facts in order to ‘explain social phenomena in society. 5, The collective consciousness ie a cocial fact that consists of an agreement on common ‘moral values and beliefs, I eocioty is unabi to maintain and enforce this common set of vvaluse, monbers fal into a stato of anomie, 6, Through sasialsation, the colsctive consciousness is interalised by the individual. t could be sald thet society fs presont inthe individual. 7. Durkhoim balleved that social err in society could only be achieved when people were witng to.cooperate with each other. This suggests that people act in response to moral commitment and obey rules because they balieve ther’ to be right (cofective consciousness) Talcott Parsons (1902-79) 1. Parsons was concerned with the nc for social ores. He agrzed with Dutéeim on the ned toheve stong central values that determin the norms of society He beloved that value Coors the bass or gromoting social ntegaton, unity, cooperation, coremon goal and cation of common erty RST RATE TE He recognised that there are @ number cf social systoms involvod in al areas of social ‘if, namely the famity, education, religion and 60 on. Each of tiem carries out spacialised functions that benefit bot the Indvidual and society. 8. He spoke about the imporlance of seelal equilibrium, in which socialy is abvays in &s ‘of balance 2s changes in one part of the social system are accompanied by changes in ‘othr pats, 10 restore balance. He argued that social equtiorium is maintained through the processes of fe) socialisation and (b} social control. n socialisation, values are passed cn {ror one generation to another via the ferily, education and religion and internaced by the Individual. Social central is achieved through laws, mores, fokways and sanctions, They ere sed lo rrinimise deviance and promote order 4. Parsons offered the view that the everyday sunival of society depends on a number of basic prerequisites, These include the need for: ‘a. adaptation, which provides basic needs food andl shelter) and allows peosie to ‘conetently adapt to changes in the environment '0, goal attainment: goa's must bo set and resources allocated to achieva tham {the poltical system and government are in charge of this) ©. Integration, which rote to the ways in which the system naeds to bind itself together 28 unified whole the Church ard the legal system are two of the institutions that achieve this) pattern maintenance: how the various institutions of society larly, schoo, religion, ‘ase media, and so on) Sass on the beliefs and values from one generation to another. 5. The issue of social change presented the greatest challengd to Parsons. He saw change as @ disturbance in society, something thal is normal as a soclly davelons. The clsruntive effects (of social change are mitigated by social equilibrium as the other interrelated parts cf society ‘make the necessary adjustments. He saw this as an evolutionary procese, ae changes in one faroa bring changes in other aroas, Functionalism: A Summary Comie, Spencer, Durkheim ard Parsons shared a number of similar views on important social | issues. Each of these views wil be explored in the folowing pareoraphs. How is society structured? ‘A society is normally refered to as a social system that is mads up of a number of institutions, Comte was the frst soclologist to recognise that socity Is made up of paris, something that ‘Spencer agreed with in his own atternpt to compare society te a biclogical orqanisin, Later on, Durkheim refered to these parts as institutions with the responsibilty of carying out speciaksed functions that wil benef: the ents society Parsons introduced the concept of siructural difrentiation, which he explained as a situation fn which institutions modern eocietles cany out specialised functions. How does society function? ‘Spencer made the ebservation that saclety functions very much ake the human body, es all the parts needs to be werking wal fhe organism & to function efficiently. (nthe same way, all the insthutions in society nead to work well with each other I the saciaty is to operate atiactively This idea of marrying structures with functions is minty associated with Talcott Parsons and has : pCR rer arenes Bee ee Pre huey ee oon Pere emt Persie ss Peo a Pee Be edges Pierro oe Poeun Ce Given rise to the concep of structural functlonalism. Emanaing from this is the notion that there is an interrelationship between all the interdependent pars that make up society and thet this allows {or the amooth running of society. In other words, tho structure of eociely exercise power over indvicuals. How does society achieve social order? Functionatsts ere concerned withthe need to create an oxdery society. Durkheim in particular _acidressed itis issue when he offered the idee of the colective consciousness, which he saw es the shared understandings, noms, values and belles that ell members ofa society share. He claimed thatthe collective consciousness forms the basis of socal order in traitonal societies (mechanical sdlidarty). He alco recogrisod that, as societies develop, the colective consciousness woskens ‘and is replaced by organic soldat, Talcott Parsons bofeved that value consensisis the basis for social order. He defined value consensus as a general agreement about the things that are deemed to be of worth by the mernbers of « society, Persons assumed tha, once this is achieved, differences among the various g-0ups in society are reivosd an conficls subside, paving the wey for a more integrated andl ordery society ‘The issue of social change Furctionalists underemphesise the issues of conflict, disagreement and dysfunction, Thay generally offer the view that all societies operate on the pritipies of consensus and cooperation, However, they recognise tha cocaslenally societies have to make adjustments in order to decornrodate new developments, such as changes in ther socal, ecenomic and poltical systems, This is seen as societies’ way of maintaining their equiforium. Comte suggested that societiss experience changes ‘through the inroduotion of new ides, Soencer explained that change is bast dealt with through an organism's ably to adapt to new situstions, and Parsone believed that change is bast deat With through a combination of adaptation and integration. Thay all agree that change In society is @ gradual process and hence is evolutionary in nature, Weaknesses asscciated witlh functionalism ‘Some of functionalism's weaknesses are as folows: + Funationalism fis to salistactorly explain social change, particularly sinos i does not ‘20c0un! for rapid social change and in the process ignores the Hkeihood of coarcion and conti. © Itpresents an oversociaisad view of humanity asf assumes thet once we are soctelised Into a society’ culture we are al going o behave in te same way all the time, This suggests. that human action is too detecrinistic and totaly dependent on the systems in socioty. It gnores the Important roe thatthe indivduel can olay in shaping his or her own word, Itis gut oF assuming that value consensus oxts in all societies as itignores the fact thet many societies today are heterogeneous and as such are made up of poonis frorn aferent ‘thricties and cultures and that, hence, It may be alfcut to have & aoctety with @ common ot of values shared by all its, members. Briefly outline three things you like about functionalism. 2. To what excenc isthe functionalists’ view of society applicable to the understanding of Caribbean society? Marxism: A Summary Karl Marx (1818-83) Marx Ned in Europe inthe eatly period of Industiasation, when most ofthe people were £00% snd observed how the new industial class exited the workers. He argued that this stuation ~ in which one group whe owned the wealth of society used their esonoric power to take advantage of those wiho were economically lass fortunate —had existed ftom the oariost historical times. He recognised that people must work togothar to produce the goods and services necessary for He. In capitalist economies, he arqued, workers are required to work long hours for relatively low wages, sometimes in the most inhurerie conditions, Merx eaw this as unfair to the workers as they ‘aro denied the opportunity to enjay a decent standarc of ving, He referred tothe workers as tho iproletatiat’ Mare recognised that In ab capitalst societies hare isthe bourgecisie, or lng class, who control the means of production. As such, all profits generstad from thasa businesses belong to them. “Tharelor, the less they pay the workers, the more they keep for therrselves, Merk believed that soctely isa totalty made up of institutions, including the fey, edueation, “religion, the government, legal and poltica systems, the economy and so on. He referred to all the Insitutions except the economic eystorn as the ‘superstructure’ and to the economic. the ‘infraatructure’. To Marx, the economic institution exerts power over the other institutions in & cepitaist society “The pourgaciste gets their power not orly from their contro of the economy but also through their ‘control of the insitutions that make up the superstructure. Itis from these insttutlons that ideologies are created fo mai the masses loyal to the very Institutions that are the source of thelr exevoittion. Marx contended that the material vase of socaty {infrastructure} creates al ideas and knowiadye, ‘which ore then taken up by the superstructure, which passes them off es its awn. Inthe process, it Is the proletariat who are especially targotad and they lve in a state of false class consciousness. Individuals who five end work in a capitalst society are very ikely to lose thoi sonse of what is ineortant overtime, Marx claimed that, onoe this has ocourred, thase individuals wll have become alienated from society. Marx precicted that, as capltaist societies become more advanced the baurgeolsie become Increasingly wealthier and less carig towards the working classes, who become more impoverished. The vast diferences fn wealth and power result in greater antagonism and eventually polarisation of tho classes. Marc offered the view that workors, through thet afflation with trade unions and with the help of Intelectuals, would racognise that the capitalists wore the source of ther exploitation and that, when the workers became aware of this, they would become a class in itself, ppeciene from pafurs, Foy incest a2. a ~ WhoineoNvas from the -pg0IeE OUT, consciousness: where members of «the working dlasens.< geuirateter | Later on, when these same workers, through thir trade unions and other means, hed developed ‘he dosia to overthrow their oppressors, they would have become class conscious and ‘a class for itso". Marx erqued that ade unions would unite all werkers and as such would emerge as powerlul forcas in their ves, He beFoved that this would lead! to an intensifcation of conflet between workers and employers that, properly managed, would escalate into a revolution in which ‘he working class, now a ‘ctses for itso", would overthrow the ruling class and emerge victorious. Merk prodicted that, with the proteterat revolution, capitast society would comma to an end anc ‘would be replaced by a communist society vil rio rulng lass and no working olass. In this “society, workers would look out for each other, bocome iess interested in set anc become more Interested in the collective good and tnaly enjoy the fruits of ther labours. How is society structured? In Harxism, all societies, except the most simple, are strafed into distintive groups anc classes. in ‘modern-day cepitalt eaclatios there are two malor classes: the bourgecise (the owners of capita) and the proletariat fa class of wage labourers). The relationship that exists between these two ‘groups is based on exploitation, as the bourgeoisie or rung class uses its wealth and power to tak advantage of the working cass, which sels its labour to make a ling, How does society function? “The presance of two competing groups in society, withthe more powerful one exercising control ‘over the lass power, sets the stage for what Mian refead to as class confi, as each group pursues its own interests. The struggle for contol by the ruling class and the siruggle for survival by the working olase together results In situation where these groups are in perpetual contict with ‘each other, Marx, therefore, reasoned that capitakst societies function mainly thraugh olass confit How does society achieve social order? Society s a totality a stucture of interrelated lavels with the economic base or infrastructure (mode ‘of production) closely bound up with the superstructure: the institutions that produce knowiediga {eclucation, olgion, mase mecia and so on), [he main task of the superstructure is to mainte proper relations botiwosn tho rulng classes and the working classes so that class conflict is suomerged and a serrblance of peace arc! harmony is crealed in capitalist society; Marx ttriouted ‘histo both false class consciousness and the use of force. When 2 climate of social order is achiaved, itis only the ruling classes in society wino benef The issue of social change Cis confi isthe dymamo of histor. Marx was ofthe view tha conct botween economic groups isthe mest important dynamic in terms of trnging about changes in societies overtime. These ‘dass struggles are used to resolve mer diferenoss that develop as aach group seeks to protect 1s rtorosis. These struggles between the classes teke place aa loves of society, fom day-to-day econotic conics trough 0 poltical and violet revolutionary conf. n caiafstsociatie, tho mejor confictexsis between the proletariat anc! the bourgeoise, Marx precited thatthe proletariat would emerge victorious and that a new claee would omorge and a new historical enach beg. Some weaknesses of Marxism (One of the probleme associated with Maram is that it offers communism as a solution to the evils of capitan, Evidence from existing communis! societies does nat seem to bear this out, as within '80mn9 of these communist societies there have besn allegations of inequaltios experienced by some ‘rou in sactaty. Also, the decision of some communist sacietias to gle up communisin anc ‘embrace capialsm suggests that communism might not hava the answers fo solve the problems of the working classes, ‘A cocond weakness stems from the fact that the impression ls gen that the members cf the proletariat wil be brought together ay operession and dlscrimination, bocoming a clas for tse {and chalonging the rung cass, In 1959, the German sociologist - Ralf Dahrentdort ~ stated that the ikeltiood of 2 united working cles is far-fetched because the working class Is too fragmented, \whici would prevent them from becoming @ united, revolutionary foro Dahrendorf subscrined to the isa of a fragrnented clase structure, This fs where, because of Toater ations, occucational speciasalion and opportunites for socal mobility, membora of ‘he lower and midcle-cesses become increasingly spit from each other so that there is an upper ‘mile class and an upper lower class, so class solidarity Is weakened and the chances of tha mile end lower classes coming together a almost nonexéstent. | __ Manc offered the view that there would be a violent period of cantict betwoot the workers end the ccaatatsts in modern, capitalist socisly. Dahrencorf disputed ths by arawing to our attention how: developments in moder, capitalist soclety have negated this, 1. Identify and explain three features of Marxist cheory that were evident on plantations during the days of slavery. | 2. What aspects of the Mardist theory are sill important in understanding contemporary Caribbean society? ' The Social Action Perspective: A Summary Max Weber (1864-1920) ‘Weber soughi tc move auray from seding and exalaning sociaty from an economic perspective. He bused what later became known as a ‘social action’ approach, facusing on how indicia (social acters) use ther own understanding of situations to pursue thelr goals. Henoe, human behaviour is "ot determined by economic forces but by the chotoes individuals make, Wielver suagestod that socictogy should seek the inferpretalive understanding of social action. This involves examining the maenings actors give to their own behaviour and the behaviour of others | rather then sesking to find the causes of hurian actions, Weber used the concept of verstehen to ‘explain his approach. Methodolagicaly, he moved away ftom the posite tredition and introduced ‘he intorpretative approsch (this eporoach will be explained in Chapter 3, on methodology), ‘Anothor key concer of Weber was the foar that human actions would be stifed by the growing ower of bureaucracies. Ho beloved tha they threatened the freedorn of inaividuals in soclty \Websr argued that individuals use various rational actions to dea with the demands ofthese bodies, thus mainisining thelr teedom, Cee ito putea ns ee rere Pr ice aaa Drea ule Pega ec eye eae Pe ea Prema Ae PCR Uschi Puede 1. Queline any three ways in which Weber’s views on society differ from those of the Marxists 2, State some concerns that positivists would have about Weber's views on society. Web: offered the argurnent that saclal change Is made possible through the actions of Individuals, ‘whether via their baets or via speciic actions they take to address a problem in society George H. Mead (1863-1931) Mead wes the founder of syrrboic interaciionism, an American branch of sociology. He was influenced by Weber's ides that human beings are creative and active, Symbolic interactionism was developed from Moad's eocial psychological anproach. la Mind, Sattand Sooiaty (1994), Mead argued agahnst the bolo that humans simply respond to stimu, Ho claimed that we think belore we respond and thet, in the process of thinking, we ge meaning to things. In other words, humans are active thinkes. Much of Mead's work was devoted to explaining the role that meanings play in human beraviour “The meanings we put to things have a lot to do with our membership of social groups, In other ‘words, two aiferent people ray be faced with the same situation but because of thei diferent ‘class positions thay vil aiibute diffrent meanings toi. Therefore, meanings are social n oxgin and tis important to understand this in erler to make sense of hurman behaviour. Another dimension to Meed's discourse on mearingsis that, as incividuais, we communicat through tho use of symbols. Symbols are objects and events such as language, dress and ‘gestures that convey meanings that we share. As @ member ofa sooial group, we share a common Lndorsianding of certaln words, phases axl exprassions with other members of the group and this rmaies i easy to communicate with these group members. Drawing on his knowledge of psychology, Mead introcuced the concept of ‘sel or identity’. He ‘leimed that one’s seis a product ef one's social experiences and our percaption of others through their actions. The seis mada up of the ‘and the ‘mo’ and tho corning togather ofthese two parts | helps to oraate who we ara, Assoctaled with the anc the ‘me! ara the concapis ofthe ‘significant other’ andthe ‘generalised = other’, ‘Significant other’ refers to people who are important in ou lives ard who may even act as role models, Mead says thal in the ‘play stage! of our lives, we often unconsciously assume these people roles, for example playing ‘mummy’ end! ‘daddy’. The concept of the ‘generalised other" becomes relevant when a parson begins to evahuate him- or hersef from the point of view of the whole ofthe wider socioly; this takes placa in the ‘game stage’, when the individual is invoved with a larger group of people and in the oppertunties to assume cther roles, such as co-ordinate, presenter, leader, and so on in a bigger, more organised erwirormrent. Overtime, the significant and Generalised other helps in the creation ofthe ‘sa as we take what we leern from both selves in crdar to make sense of the world around! us. Herbert Blumer (1900-87) Blumer was a student of Mead and expanclort or Meadls ideas. One auch kdea had to do with the bball that ‘hun beings act on the basis of rnganings that they gle fo objects and events, rather Caen GAL cs eee then reecting to extol stimull such a8 eoclal forces or the internal stimuli such as orgpanic cives: ‘Symbolic interactionisn therefore claims that all human action is consciously undertaen nnd is not secialy or biologically determined’ Haralamioos et al 2008, p. 853). Blumer added to Meads argument on mesringa won he siatod that, during interactions with others, people attribute meanings to the things that othore do, Mesrings are therefore ‘create, ‘modified, developed and changed within Interactive stuations rather than fixed or pre-formed’. In thor words, humans do not always allow themselves to be bound by the roms of society end a5 2 result choose to Lchave as the situation determines (Harelambos et al 2008, p.883}, Within certain interactive situatione, humans take the rol of others in order to better understand how other indivicuals fool and think, It isn thie context that meanings are created, as the social ‘actor can now eee things through the eyes of othors and give a better assessment of a situation (Haralembos ot at 2008, p. 883), Erving Goffman (1922-82) Gottman is regarded as ora of the most influential proponents of the symbol interactionist ‘rection. He cevelonad what is called a ‘cramaturgioa’ approach. Goffman offered the view thatthe ‘expectations others have of us aro the baie of roles and that we simply act out these expectations. He argued that socialite is all realy an act ~ itis drama (dramaturgy) during which we play diferent roles wile managing our porformances, In Sociology in Focus by Haralamos and Langley (1981, p. 29) reference was made to the writings of Gotimar's Presentation of Salfin Everylay Life, whare twas reported that peoote aotualy do things in order to achieve certaln outcomes. For example, ho said that ‘as social actors, we give ‘continuous performances’, in that we may appear to be a keen student, 2 responsitle parent or a dedicated teacher anci we speak, cress and! act appropriately. We crasts the proper setting in tho ciasscoom, home and offca to reinforce these impressions. This is refered to as impression management. Gaiman also went on to say that we gst so caught up in creating imoressions tat, ater a vitia, as actors we are not clear what is imagined or rl. lust 8 we engage in impression management in orier to projact ourselves, we bor conscious of the eotions of thers and become skied at detecting when thelr impressions do.not rmetch thoi actions, For exemple, we might be complimented! for cooking a ovaly meal but observe that not much of Iwas eaten (Heralambos et el. 1961, p. 28) in his book Asylum (1968), Gottman showod how a group of inmates leerntto adjust ther Ives {6 Sut the demands ofthe intitution, Thesa inmates became skiled at using everyclay routines, to offect change in ther salt Ilenthies. For example, they engaged in outrageous behaviours (claying mad) to ward off attacks ftom other inmates. In this study, Goffman shower that, even in bureaueracies, there is an infoxmal structure that people learn to exploit for their own survival ‘Wl. Thomas (1863-1947) |WI. Thomas was an Amexican sociologist whe contributed to the symbole interactionist tration, According to Haralambos and Langley (1981, p. 28) Thomas's femous quote ‘men define stustions as real, they are real in the consequences’ (Thoms end Thomas 1928, p. 872) Figure 2.4 impression ‘management: 2 helpful teachor and a keen student Ccantured one of the most powerlU insights into interactioniam. in other wor, the statement ‘says that people aot according to how they defrie situations. For exampi: if aman walks along 2, sireet dressed in a white, flowing gown, hold wat looks lke 3 religious book and acting pious, ‘observers may interpret his in diferent ways. Some might act towards him as ithe were a men of God, others might think its just Joke and laugh at him, and yet others might think that itis an ect nd completely nora him. Thomas's point is thal our response to people's actions has everything ‘to-do with how, as individuals, we define situstions. ‘Overview of the social action perspective Despite the variations batween the diferent social action perspectives, there are some generally shared assumptions: ‘= They focus on the study of individuals and sxnall groups, not entire societias, ‘© They argue that the social world exist in the minds of individuals. They co not subscribe tothe belief that there Is an objective reality. ‘© Thay all speak of the power of shared moanings as thoso are responsibe forthe creation of social order in social. » Unik the functionalsts and Marxists, hey bene thal roles are not fixed and are entirely ‘based on socialisation and determined through negotiation, + They use the interpretative approach when doing research es they believe that this method wll provide them with opportunities to see things from the perspective of the social actors and give them Insight into the actors’ exeerionces uf thor social wart, Interactionism: A Summary How is society structured? \nteracionsts beleve tha! naviduas reat thelr social world Through interacting wit others. ‘Dung the process of interaction, inchicuels consciously relate to cach other through tre use of _yrook (paiculay language). This ongoing process of interaction means that indus are ‘constanty adusting to each other as they keep interpreting and ceinterpreting each other's actions. interactioniets car that tf trough this procoss that individuals create thelr ov social word, as ‘they put in place institutions and other social systems that reflect their own interests and what they. 99 88 Important to them, How does society function? Individuals play an Important role in the way a society functions. This 's 60 because we are aways rationalising our thoughts and actions and in the process we keep coming up with new ideas anc new ways of doing things, which are used to intuencs behaviours in cur environment. On the other hand, saclay also constrains people's behaviours through a system of jules and regulations that pave been putin place. Hance, there is constanl interolay between individuals’ ideas and society's Ingttutions, with the latter having a controling inthyence on our ves. How does society achieve social order? Interactionats do nt attemat to come up with a theory of how eodkl order is actioved n soclty \What they do iso expan naw nevus hr amel-group stations fd ways io wate to each other in an ordory and peacotl way. This approach fs based on the premise thal total power is notin the hands of any one group or inalvidual. Interactions argue that social ord is achieved through "negotiation, in which indivcuals bargain with each other on a day-to-day basis fn order to establish how they ought to bohave in certain situatons, Intoractionit focus on what hanpens in the hore, the classroom and the courts and show how the power of negotiation Ie used to resolve diferences and create social order ‘The issue of social change Inhis study The Protestant Ethic and the Spiit of Capital, Weber ilustrated how ides can be ‘powerful in bringing about changes in society. He showed how the Calvinists rationalsed that they. had to work hard and Ive asceticaly i they were to win God's favour. Thelr practice of these beter hha the effect of bringing major changes to thelr communities as they were unconscicxsly Sowing the seeds for the creation of a capitalist society. Weber's contention is that soclel charge can result ‘tom the everyday actions of people based on their bots and idess, Weaknesses of interactionism Interactionists focus thei research on small-scals situations but generaly neglect to address issues of wider society hance their ndings cannot be used to generalise situations nthe wider society Interactioniets ignore tho important roe thet insttutions playin ehaping human behaviour, while siructural sociotogsis clin that econorric, poltical and ther institutions largely determine how we behave in society Intoractionisis give us the impression that once we cfs a situation as real tis lly fo become realin its consequences. ‘This has been erioised on the grounds that if a verso" i living In poverty regardless of how he porceives himself, would not change his deprived sfuation. ‘Match the given concepts to the following sociologists: Cooley, Blumer, Goffman, Mead, Thomas. ‘Write a shore note on each concept. 1. the self the looking glass self significant others generalised others a 3. 4 5. impression management 66. “human beings act on the basis of meanings that they give to objects and events? 2 ‘ifmen define situations as real, they are real in their consequences! Feminism: A Summary Rationale for feminism The main sociological theories of functionalism, Manism and inleractionism are accused of being ‘androcentic as they are based on the ideas of mien euch ae Comte, Durkheim, Marx, Weber, Mod and 80 on, This makes sociology a malo-cominatod dscpine as It 8 ony the ideas of melas that are highlighted and the important role that women play in the development of society has been \argely ignored. Ferinists believe that thair views ought to be aired so that women's issues can be brought into the public domain, r feitee ole Pate Cereus Figure 2.2 Feminists, sch as Ann Oakley, Plghilght women's suse Reasons for the growth of feminism t “There ae various factors tha 4, Inthe Fist Word War, women manned the factories, ran the econamies an took oare ofthe familes while tho men were away ching. This gave women 2 naw sense of independence and confidence in their own ables, something thay were net wling to surender when the wer enciad ans the men came back heme 2, The expansion ofthe education eyotom In tho immediate postwar years gave wernen access to secondary and later trary education. This proved women wth the als and qualifications to have careers and work ouside the home, By the 1660s, there ware greater job oppertuntios avalable as counties rebut their economies inthe aftermath ofthe Second Word War. The intoduction of technology into the \workglace end now modes of manufacturing pened un a large range of employment cotions forwomen. This meant that wornen could now become ecoromicaly independent and werein | 2 poston to take charge of thei vas witout depending on men. 4. Women ease that, although thay wars contiouting tothe development of ther sockets, ‘hey were deried many opperturites to access power in public enterprises such as niluenced the tise of feiniem: rg ce eau et asus freee sins eon feos aa Miron ue ky. tra Ny Callaghan and Pieces ‘government, the miltay and the workplace, Also, they recognised that in mery areas of eoctal Ite they ware faced with acts of discrimination as males stil believed that they should dorrint| the ives of women, 5. The catalyst that served to moblise women into action was the social and poilical upheavals of the 1970s in the USA, which started as the anti-Viatnam Wer protests but later expancied to ralee issues such as women's rights, the rights of young oeople and the cil rights movernert ‘The feminist movement emerged out of these developments and ovér the years hes continued ta fight forthe rights of women. 8. Atan academic evel, many soctologists Idantilied wit the feminist movement and over the years have focused on women's issues in order to better understand the relationship between \women's experiences and the social institutions they inhabit Some key features of feminism feminist sociologist Is any cociloglst who takes @ pro-women atiuce to the study of social, Issues, They generally employ a stuctural-analyaie approach tothe study of women's issues in scclety. This involves observing social event, clscoverng their patterns and formulating concepts «and theorlss, 80 that over tine things wll change, new observation techniques wil be erroloyed and revision of existing theoras wil become nenessary Feminist sociologists believe thatthe study of women requires them to use more than a sociological perspective, hanes en Interdiselplinary approach nas became important in understanding the situation of women in society. the context of feminism, this spproach allows researchers to get ‘a good Idea of wornen's experiences and provides them witha large body of information that thay ‘can use to formulate their theories wile providing an opportunity for the soctl transformation of ‘women’s Ives on the basis of women’s experiences, Types of feminism There ar four main types of femiiom: 1, LUberl feminists bekeve that tls not necessary to completely restructure eoctay, onto alter It enough that wornen can be incorporated into mesringtl and equtabie roles. Thoy call for changes n socialisation patterns and revamping of the egal system to bing an end to dsriination against women in society 2, Neat there ere socialist, or Mans, feminist sociologists, who blame captelsm for women's infeor postion in society. They araue that worren are made to balleve that ther place isn the home, where they provide unpeld labour by carrying out household tasks for thelr famies, which allows Gapitalsts to pay low wages to ther husbands, Wornan also function as a reserve labour force as they are called upon to work only if needed, Marxst feminists baliove that ‘women's iberation is tis tothe destruction of caritaem. 8. Athird grouoing of feminists is radical ferinists. They argue that women's inferior positon in society has to do with sexism brought en by Iving In patriarchal society and that, hence, ‘women’s oppression siems ‘tom rale dominetion. To this end they belive in the need to establish women-centred inetutions where women ray on other wornen and nat on men. An ‘extreme form of radical feminiem cals for en end to heterosexual relationships and accepts lesbianism as @ viable aternatve 4. The fourth group Is matiouturalferinism, which inks gender to class, rans and issues of Colenisation and explotetion of women, This form o feminism has bacome popular mong women of colour and thoge who lvein developing counties es they believe thet thelr experlences are diferent from those dlaoussed by white feminists, vino ere unfarier wth issues Ike racism end cther problems associated with past history of colonial, Basic assumptions shared by feminism From the above tis clear that thre Is no sing feirist perspective asthe diferent porspectves offer contcting Viaws on the crigins and solutions to women’s problems. Nevertheless, folowing are cro vows they al rae: 1 Farnem hod the vew that wonen's ard men problems in godly are ihe rest of oda, | not natal orbisega, ecto in ther words, acorn ofeinsm is wrong to se a | dltrminl ecgroach nord o exiles Ike Inequltiesbetwean the 9s | 2, Anoterpoaion shred by al fei tht scl natutons end soc etuctosgoneraly | | | jet ctesea Saracen ei cea teria or oats Saeco ole A third view shared by feminists is thet institutions in society must oe transformed in such a way that women’s interests and vewpolnts are sercusly teken into consideration. t 4, Feminists also believe that feminism le both a way of thinking and a way of acting, and that through this union of action and thought meaningful programmes of social chango wil resut. In essence, feminists sesk to create @ new social order where both sexee sre treated equally ‘and the conticts brought ebout by gender inequalities are elrrinated, However, to achieve this, feminists must educate loth women end men cn the challenges they face, Some criticisms of feminism i ‘There are some crtciava thet cen be laveted at feminism: “+ Livera feminists have been accused of not explaining the emergence of gender inequalty oF ‘adressing he offects of race and class stretlication In women's Ives. > Manis fomissts blame women's oppression on canitallem but they fall to expan the subordination of women in non-capttalst societies and even in sooiaist societias; non-cantalst | ‘men also cartinue te place womsn in subservient roles in society. + Libera, Marxist andl racical feminists have all bean accused of being ethnocentro 2s they i 888 things from theit own historical and cultural point of view and in the process treat the exoeriances of white women In the West as universal fr ell women, Multicultural ferinists ‘argue that many women in developing counties, having experienced slavery and colonialism, share cifferent experiences. Hence, issues of historical and cultura diversity need to be acidressed in order to truly find solutions to women's problems, 1. Research the events that took place in the USA and Western Europe in the period after the 1960s | that helped co promote the rise of feminism. 2, identify three things abour feminism that particularly interest you Theories Offered by Caribbean Sociologists 1 Piantation society CCarboeen soclty as @ whole steremed ftom the cultural divexgence created by the introduction of the trensatiantc save trad and the plantation society. The plantation was the chist machanisn of European colonisation end expiotalion in the Caribbean and other parts of the Americas, George Beckford in his article ‘Plantation society: Towards a genera! theory of Cariobaan society’, wrote thet a plantation was a unit of agrcultura! production with a specific type of economic orgenisation characterised by a large resident laoour force of unsklled workers who were directed by a small supenisory staf (Barrow and Reddock 2001, p. 198). The plantation was ¢ community whose social composition and patterns of Interpersonal rlationehip mostly relacted the authorkative structure in charge of the economic organisation, Plantations coveres relatively large areas in which there were numerous unsklled workers, whle decision making was highly centralised, George Beckford noted thet, within the plantation community there existed a rigid paitern of social stratification based on @ caste system that separated owners and menagers {who were white Europeens) from the workers (who were Attioans or East Indlans) (Barrow and Reddook 2001, p.140), ‘The plantation sa total nsttutton that bind everyone In ts resp to a specific task (Becktord 1972, . 55). The present-day composton othe poauatons ofthese forme pantation economies of the world se drect resi ofthe moverment of labour thatthe plantation aystern brought about br the past, The social structure of the slave plantation took ita shape from the social orgerisation rneoessery for oroduction. This resuited in a system that placed the white European planters and dministrators at the top and the enslaved blecks at the bottom, lter to be jorned by East incians and other indentured labourers, Among the enslaved Atrican people emerged a group of racial anc cultura hafcastes, as @resut ofthe expats of white meles with black tervales (Beckford 1872, 62), Al bieck people end East Indians in the New World were brought there by the plantation system Beckford 1972, p. 66), AS @ result, according to Becktors (1972), cultural plurality is «a characteristic feature of al lentation societies, asthe plantation brought togetiner peoole of ferent races and ouitural backgrounds to cary cut the task of production. | Did you ayes Berean Cem Moments DS po a Buu ir eed Rite a MaRS Guichen COME athe COC et Masel ec Lite eter cate and language of Bers ee ss Darmé end Nurse, as quoted by Norman Girvan (2002) in Notes for a Retrospsction In the Theory of Plantation Economy of Lloyd Best end Kari Polanyl-Levit, stated that the plantation economy, as lustrated ly George Backor Is at its strongest when it analyses class and race relations in plantation societies on the basis of ethnic antagonism in ethricaly plural societles such es Tnidad end Tobsgo, Jamaica and Guyana, Givan ilustrated ths by refering to contemporary Jamaica as ‘a society in the process of sodlal fragmentation. On one hand there Is @ serounging ruling cises ‘who use ther close connections with the poltcal dactorate to obtain for themselves kurative slate contracts and other fevours in order to maintain thelr weelth end power In Jarraica, This class is largely the product of the policies of structure’ adjustment and liberalisation and combines the remnants of the old piantation-mercantila system In Jameica with a new brown-and-black ‘bourgeoisie thet evierged cut of fhancialIberalistion anc! privatisation. On the other hand; Givan noted thatthe majority ofthe black population experiences varying degrees of social and economic segregation as they Ive within rundown inner-city communttss, Ths attitudes of the Jamaican ruling class towards these inner-city communities are Fh the maln characterised by a mixture of Indiference, contempt and fear; thus, they bear a close resemibianoe to the altitudes of the planters ‘owerds the ensaved some two centuries ago, Ree ici ns nee eee tay ul fee nee ny ‘The structural features of the plantation society noted by George Beckford and Norman Girvan show thatthe plantation society has ts ovm special type of socal and potticl organisation that ‘sets it apart from other kinds of societies throughout the world. The plantation society Is 4 plural sexiety Beckford 1872, p, 79} at consists ct various rail end cultural groups thet ae brought Figure 24 Workers on a banana plantstion together only in the realm of economia activity. Social statitestion Is a particuisr form of social Inequalty thet concerns the presence of cstinet socal groups that are ranked one alvove the other in terms of factora such as prestige and wealth (Harelembos anid Holborn 2004, p. 1). These stint social groups can clearly be seen within the plural societies found within the Cariobean, as a result ofthe plantation societies that existed there in the past Write short comments on what Beckford said about each of the following issues: 1. the social composition ofa plantation society 2. the stratification system and plantation societies in the Caribbean 4, the role of the economic and political institutions \ | 4 f ‘ | 3. how the plantation operated as a total institution | | 5. cultural plurality. \ \ Figure 2.8 A plura society Piural society JS. Furnivall stated that a plural society Is @ society that comprises various ethnic groups that ‘mix yot do not combine, Each group has its cwn religion, culture and language as wel as its own dens and waye of Iving (Furivall 1945, p, S04), The dafintion of a plural soviet, as itrelates to the ‘special relationships inetween different classes and between Indviduals o diferent ethnic origins within the Carlabean, is of great significance. M.G. Smith used the concept of plurals as a comprehensive theary in an attempt to explain the social structure ofthe Carobean, in terms of social and cutural pluralism, he identtied three types ‘of society. The fst isthe homogeneous society, which is a society that shares a set of socal and ‘cuturalinsttutions. The gecond is the plural soolety, In which the various sections of the population cdo not share the seme set of basic Institutions. The this the heterogeneous sacaty in which a sel of basis institutions is shared but alternative institutions also exist. Within these societies, the basic institutions are the family, religion and property. The main idea that Smith put forward in his article ‘Puralism end social statifcation’ was that Caribbeen soclty s plural, out he sav It as being divided into aections and not classes, as there may be class division within a section of a society (Barrow and Redcook, 200%), \What did MG, Smith learn from Furnivall in order to develop his own theory ofa plural society? 2. Fully explain the important roles that institutions playin the maintenance ofa plural society according to M.G. Smith, Creolisation theory Eciwerd Kamau Brathwelte hes noted that the most important factor in the development of Caribbean society, especially in Jarmaica, was not the imported influence of the mother country (the European nation thet had total control over the Caribbean colonise) gained through tha plentation socioty (Barrow and Reddock 2001, p. 108) but the integration of new races into the New World ‘and the creation of & plural society. Thus, a new conetruct wae crested. Ths eodlal process was termed ‘crecileation’. According to Brathwaite, creosation began with the seasoning process, \which was @ process that enslaved Atricans endured, once they were captured and brought tothe CCatibivean (Barrow and Redock 2001, p. 108). This process took place over one to three years, during which the slaves were given new names, apprenticed to aiready-creoliced slaves, t2ught ‘the fundamentals of the new language and intiated into the work routine that avelted them, These ‘work routines were the next Important step in creotsation (Barrow and Reciock 2001, 708), Brathwaite has identtfed the process as follows: through plantation work, slaves became Identified with thelr work; soon they would learn to accept thelr place and role within the new soclaty; and then, through the staves’ participation in a numberof actives, creolsation would be aseured, Creciisation Is defined:as the cultural changas that occur when people of two diferent backgrounds come together in a naw environment and are so affected Sy interactions with each other and the environment that a new cutture is born (Batrow and Reciock 2001, p. 111}. ‘The mein components of crealsation are acouturation end interculturtion. Acouituraton isthe forced acceptance of aspects of encther's culture, whsreas Intercuturation isthe uiconscious and someuihat conscious (but always wiling} absomption of aspects of another's culture, Both {are resopnsible for crecisation (Brat'walte 1974, p. 11). The dual processes of acculturation and, Interoulturtion required Caribean people to imitate (which is what hapoens in the acculturation process) and then adi thelr own significant elements of creativity ntarculturation/indigerisation, 88 evident in the creation of cialeots} and in the process oreate their ov set of unique culture traditions, Within the Catlobean, accuiturtlon can be seen in raligions such as the Shouter Baptists, which incorporete sloments of iradtional West Atican religions into Crvstanity Define and illustrate the important role that, according to Brathwaite, each of the following concepts. played in developing a unique Caribbean culture: ‘he seasoning process acculturation rerculturation creolisation, Franklin W. Knight stated that every eécioty Is @ creation of the particular tistorcal forces shat gave \tits shape and appearance. More than most other peopias in the word, Carbbean people were shaped by a history that in many ways was unique, and uniquely complex. in adtion, they have ‘also more than others had to Ive and intemalise mutipi images anc mutiolereaities, making @ synchronised union out of them. Comply, nluralty and struggle — not merely In terms of race, class ard ethnic identies Gut alsa in terme of language, cuitwre and community ~ therefore is daeply embecided in the haart of the Caribbean existence (Knight 1996, p. 30). This mulplcty is pervasive throughout the region as this hybricsation has fed to the emergence of a Creole society ~ «2 socily that is deeply interconnected as peopie all look out for one another. This can sill be sean Figure 26 The Jamaican coat of arms ‘today, as the Jamaican national motto, emblazoned on its coat of ars, reads: ‘Out of Many One People’. Sirtaly, that of Tinléad and Tobago reads: Together We Aspire, Tagether We Achieve’ Links Between Mainstream Theories and Those Offered by Caribbean Sociologists ‘Av enalysis ofboth sets of thecres would show thet shore are sore sills between functonalsis, Marxists and intractonists on the ane hand ancl the theorks of Backford {Petation, MG, Smith plural society) and Brathuelte (creaksation) on the other, Some cf these sais wil now be explored. Functionalism ‘The role of socialisation In promoting social order in society Furcttonalists speak about the ned to have a collective consciousness in order to have social cider in soctety By this they meen thet all members of society should share the same nerms, values, belles and language. Durkheim noted thet, when people become a meriber of & new ‘cuitu, there is a need to integrate them so as to maintain homogeneity in society, Durkheim baloved that institutions such as the schco! could play @ prominent role in the resociasing of Indviduate, Stray, n his ceotsation theory, Brathwralte spoke about how newly acquired slaves were put ‘through a ‘seasoning process’ where thay ware placed in the care of other slaves so that they could learn ‘the fundamentals of language’, given new names anid mace fo serve an epprentioaship of one fo three yeers during which they ‘understudied’ the already creolised slaves and in the process: Pree ioyr know? According to Knight, iM Lovee tee | CURE ra etry isratTe Fe if | aCe es Leas clea erty a Cael etsy Pater ener ere inevitable concepe af Ponce ere ae ce oe leamt to accept their piace and roles on the plantation. Brathwaite went on to observe thet this attempt at resoclalisation achieved its goel of Inducing partial conformity ofthe newly accuired to the socal order of piantation life, However, there was stl the fear of change and becoming attached to places and people with whom they had identiied themselves. To further the process of sociasstion, punishment wae used for the ‘docile’, while for the ‘vena the inducement of gits was employed Bralthwalte in Barrow and Reddock 2001, p.109), ‘The importance of institutions in society Talcott Parsons argued that, In modern societies, netitutlons are responsible for carrying out i ‘specialised functions that serve the needs of indMiduals and the wider soctely.inttutlons also act ‘as machanismes of social control as they exert praseure on thelr members so that they wil carry out thelr functions based on prescribed guidelines. According to Parsons, without these systems in place, socal lfe would be in jagparty, MG. Smith (1963), in an article In Barrow and Recdosk (2001, », 128), wrote on the role of Institutions In Carlobean society. He claimed that in @ homogeneove socity the posulation shares : ‘a single set of institutions, while in a plural soclty there are difarances inthe system concerning basic institutions such as ‘Ainship, ecucetion, religion, property and economy, recreation and certain ‘sociales’ (Smith 1985, p. 82) Ina heterogeneous society, the memioers share a common system (of basic institutions but practise ciferng ‘stemative’ and ‘exclusive’ institution, In his arguments, } ‘Smith craws our attention to the fact that, in spite of the plural nature of Caribbean society, itis the Ey : Insttutions that keep the alferent groups together Marxism | ‘The issue of social stratification t ‘A oantral theme associated with Marxism Is the argument that economic foroas shape the social y structure of sooty, Thus, in feudel society there was the nobllty-peasantry relationship; in sleve soclety there wes the planter-sleve arrangement; and in cackalist society there isthe bourgeoisie proletariat relationship. Marx noted that these social structures were castes ir rature, 2s social mobiity was almost Impossible to achieve, He also argued that @ combination of socalsatlon (ideological conditioning) ard force Is used to ensure thet the respective groups accept their postion n society “This observation Is evident In the vitings of Beckford lantation society theory] where he observed ‘that ‘the social structure of tha slave plantation took its shape from the social organisation necessary for production’ (Barrow and Raddock 2001, p. 143}, Ho went on to eay that this resulted In the white European planters and aominstrators atthe top while the enslaved blacks were atthe ‘bottom, later joined by the Bast Incians and other indentured 'abourers, What Beckford is drawing to our attention Is the strict statiication system that existed on the plantaton end that has carried ‘over to present-day Caribbean society. Tris argument was later reinforced by Lioys Best, Kari Levit ‘and Norman Given, The point to note here is that economic eegregation is responsible forthe ‘social fragmentation that characterises Caribbean society today, Interactionism ‘Total institutions Erving Gottmans study Asylums brought to our attention the Important role that total Institutions play in our ves. Total institutions are desorbed es orgarisations such as prisons, asylums and 1 ; | | 4 | i army camps that control the whole tives cf Inmates while they are part of the institution. These organisations are all-encompassing because of thelr residential neture. The inmates have to Participate as whole persons end in the process leam to adjust ther behaviours in crder to sunive, Central to Gofman's contribution to the ole o institutions inthe ives af indicus isthe abilty of inmates to manipulate the rues and regulations and create an informe structure, even within the stict confines of the organisation, Beckdord’s plantation society thesis also speaks of the plantation as a total institution, where

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