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JCB 201402037
JCB 201402037
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lthough cortical actin plays an important role in exhibit complex and spatially correlated reorganization,
cellular mechanics and morphogenesis, there is which is dependent on myosin II activity. Surprisingly,
surprisingly little information on cortex organiza myosin II is organized into an extensive network of fila
tion at the apical surface of cells. In this paper, we char ments spanning the entire apical membrane in noncon
acterize organization and dynamics of microvilli (MV) fluent ECs. Dynamic MV, myosin filaments, and their
and a previously unappreciated actomyosin network at associated actin filaments form an interconnected, pre
the apical surface of Madin–Darby canine kidney cells. stressed network. Interestingly, this network regulates lat
In contrast to short and static MV in confluent cells, the eral mobility of apical membrane probes such as integrins
apical surfaces of nonconfluent epithelial cells (ECs) form or epidermal growth factor receptors, suggesting that co
highly dynamic protrusions, which are often oriented ordinated actomyosin dynamics contributes to apical cell
along the plane of the membrane. These dynamic MV membrane organization.
Introduction
The cytoskeleton is responsible for detection, transmission, and and depolymerization or via contraction mediated by myosin
generation of the mechanical forces that determine individual motors (Martin et al., 2009; Lecuit et al., 2011).
cell shape and collective cellular behaviors. Whereas microtubules Epithelial cells (ECs) organize into adherent groups, which
and intermediate filaments mostly pervade the cytosol, actin form the boundary layers that define tissue compartments in
filaments are concentrated at the cell periphery or cell cortex multicellular organisms. Such an interface must generate and
(Bretscher, 1991), where they facilitate the mechanical stabili- withstand significant mechanical stresses during tissue remod-
zation and remodeling of cell shape. Numerous morphogenetic eling in the course of development, growth, and wound healing.
processes are actively driven by actin dynamics, including cell It is therefore of great interest to understand the structural and
polarization, migration, division, and differentiation (Pantaloni dynamical aspects of cortical organization and remodeling that
et al., 2001; Pollard and Cooper, 2009). Mechanical forces re- enable ECs to exert and sustain such forces.
quired for these processes are generated by actin polymerization Individual cells within epithelial monolayers are polarized
along an apical–basal axis, a feature that is reflected in aspects
of membrane trafficking, ion transport, and cytoskeletal organi-
C. Klingner and A.V. Cherian contributed equally to this paper. zation (Nelson, 2009). At the basal surface of single-layered
Correspondence to Roland Wedlich-Soldner: wedlich@uni-muenster.de
Abbreviations used in this paper: EC, epithelial cell; EGFR, EGF receptor; EMT,
© 2014 Klingner et al. This article is distributed under the terms of an Attribution–
epithelial–mesenchymal transition; HGF, hepatocyte growth factor; MHCA, Noncommercial–Share Alike–No Mirror Sites license for the first six months after the pub-
myosin IIA heavy chain; MLC, myosin light chain; MSD, mean squared dis- lication date (see http://www.rupress.org/terms). After six months it is available under a
placement; MV, microvilli; SEM, scanning EM; STICS, spatiotemporal image Creative Commons License (Attribution–Noncommercial–Share Alike 3.0 Unported license,
correlation spectroscopy. as described at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/).
We then asked whether the observed differences in mor- point (Fig. 2 C, blue). Hence, this difference in MV morphol-
phology and density of MV protrusions were dependent on the ogy correlated with cell position, domelike shape, and absence
time elapsed after seeding or on the position of individual cells of neighbors.
within an epithelial sheet. To do so, we systematically evaluated Physiological situations in which ECs lose their coherent,
apical actin distribution in MDCK cells by phalloidin staining sheetlike organization and become motile include wound heal-
1–4 d after seeding. We classified cells according to their po- ing and EMT that occur during gastrulation (Chuai and Weijer,
sition as either single (isolated) cells (I), cells located at the 2009) and neural crest cell delamination (Thiery et al., 2009).
borders of small cell islands (II), or confluent (i.e., surrounded During these processes, ECs undergo drastic shape changes
by neighboring cells) cells within small (III) or large (IV) is- that facilitate large-scale tissue morphogenesis. To examine
lands (Fig. 2, A and B). We observed that, for confluent cells in how MV organization is altered during EC morphogenesis,
categories III and IV, the density of apical protrusions steadily we imaged apical actin organization in MDCK cells during
increased with time after seeding (n > 20 cells per data point; wound healing. We found that cells at the migration front
Fig. 2 C, green), whereas for nonconfluent cells (categories I exhibited the elongated MV typical of nonconfluent cells
and II), this parameter did not increase beyond the 48-h time (Fig. 2 D, 1). In contrast, cells further away from the advancing
edge retained the denser arrays of short MV typical for con- actin structures in nonconfluent cells resemble MV in protein
fluent cells (Fig. 2 D, 2). composition, even though they differ in morphology. In sum-
We then tested the effect of hepatocyte growth factor mary, we found that bent and elongated MV are a characteristic
(HGF) on MV morphology. HGF induces dispersion of adherent feature of ECs that are not completely surrounded by other cells
MDCK cells by promoting dissociation of the cell–cell junctions and are capable of undergoing morphogenetic changes.
that hold them together, thus facilitating subsequent migration.
This treatment is also used to mimic EMT (Montesano et al., MV in nonconfluent cells exhibit rapid
1991). Before addition of HGF, confluent cells displayed dense myosin II–dependent dynamics
arrays of MV on their apical surfaces (Fig. 2 E, 0 min). After To examine the molecular mechanisms that drive changes in
several hours exposure to 100 ng/ml HGF, MV progressively MV morphology and organization in subconfluent cells, we next
increased in length (Fig. 2 E), until the apical surface was com- performed time-lapse fluorescence microscopy on MDCK cells
pletely covered in very long actin-filled protrusions (Fig. 2 E, transfected with Lifeact-GFP. In confluent cells, the typical dotted
300 min). The ERM proteins ezrin, radixin, and moesin are MV structures remained largely static and only exhibited short-
classical components of MV, and ezrin is a known effector of range fluctuations (Fig. 3 A and Video 1). In contrast, nonconflu-
HGF during epithelial morphogenesis (Crepaldi et al., 1997). ent cells were characterized by extensive lateral rearrangements
We therefore tested localization of ERM proteins, as well as of their elongated MV (Fig. 3 B and Video 2). This rearrangement
their membrane adaptor EBP50, within elongated MV. We was accompanied by rapid turnover of actin, as shown by FRAP
found that all four markers colocalized with apical actin in non- experiments with actin-GFP–expressing cells (t1/2 = 4.7 ± 1.0 s
confluent MDCK cells (Fig. S2), indicating that the observed [mean ± SD]; n = 21; Fig. 3 C). This recovery did not simply
reflect cytosolic diffusion of actin monomers, as recovery of sol- More detailed investigation of this lateral translation of
uble Lifeact-GFP occurred much faster (t1/2 = 2.8 ± 0.7 s [mean ± whole MV in nonconfluent cells revealed that adjacent MV
SD]; n = 18). When we examined apical MV dynamics in greater often moved in a coordinated fashion (Fig. 4, A and B). To
detail, we frequently observed extensive bending (Fig. 3 D and determine the spatial extent of correlation in the observed mo-
Video 3) and exchange of connectivity (fusion and fission) be- tion, we performed spatiotemporal image correlation spectros-
tween neighboring structures (Fig. 3 E and Video 3). In addition, copy (STICS) analysis and found a mean correlation distance of
pivoting of straight MV (Fig. 3 F and Video 3), as well as lateral 3 µm (Fig. 4, C and D). As most MV movement was caused by
translation of whole MV (Fig. 3 G and Video 3), was detected. lateral reorganization in the plane of the membrane rather than
by polymerization and depolymerization, we hypothesized that (Fig. S3, C and D). In contrast, myosin II in confluent MDCK
myosin II might be the molecule driving the observed dynam- cells was localized to distinct patches that likely corresponded
ics. Indeed, when we inhibited myosin II ATPase activity by to the base of MV (Fig. 5, C and D; Hirokawa et al., 1982;
treating cells with 50 µM blebbistatin, apical actin reorganiza- Watanabe et al., 2007). The myosin network in nonconfluent
tion was slowed down significantly (Fig. 4, E–G), and the mean cells was branched and exhibited coordinated fluctuations (Fig. 5,
temporal correlation in the overall actin structure increased from E and F; and Video 4) that were sensitive to treatment with
1 to >2.5 min (Fig. 4 F). This effect confirmed that myosin II 50 µM blebbistatin or the MLC kinase inhibitor ML7 (Fig. S3 E).
plays an important role in the lateral motility of apical MV in Their patterns of movement were comparable to those of MV, as
nonconfluent MDCK cells. confirmed by both spatial and temporal correlation coefficients
(Fig. 5, G and H). Finally, the change in myosin organization
An isotropic myosin network spanning the was also seen in wound-healing experiments, in which cells at
apical surface of ECs the wound edge contained myosin II networks at their apical
As myosin II was essential for MV motility, we determined surfaces (Fig. 5 I, 1), whereas cells deeper within the sheet had
the localization of myosin at the apical cortex. To this end, we a more patchy myosin localization with only a few filamentous
generated cell lines stably expressing GFP fusions to myosin connections (Fig. 5 I, 2).
light chain (MLC; MLC-GFP) and myosin IIA heavy chain To observe apical actin and myosin structures simultane-
(MHCA; MHCA-GFP). Ectopic expression levels of MHCA- ously, we generated stably transfected MDCK cells coexpress-
GFP were comparable to those of endogenous myosin IIA ing Lifeact-mCherry and MHCA-GFP. Remarkably, actin and
(Fig. S3 A), and we did not observe any changes in cellular myosin did not show extensive colocalization, but rather formed
morphology upon expression of the fusion proteins. Surpris- a joint network covering the apical surface of cells, made up of
ingly, we found that myosin II formed an extensive network alternating stretches of actin and myosin II (Fig. 6, A and B).
of filaments located immediately below the apical surface of Although overlap between the two filament systems was low,
nonconfluent cells (Fig. 5, A and B). Both myosin markers co- both actin and myosin exhibited coordinated isotropic motion
localized within filaments (Fig. S3 B), and the network could (Fig. 6 C and Video 5) with similar spatial and temporal correla-
also be visualized with antibodies against endogenous MHCA tion coefficients (Fig. 6, D and E). Interconnection between
actin and myosin was further confirmed by significant cross- When we disrupted apical actin structures by exposure to the
correlation between the respective velocity fields at zero time actin-depolymerizing drug latrunculin A (2 µM), we found that
shift (Fig. 6 F). within a few minutes, MV and myosin networks were disrupted
at multiple sites and that the remnants of both structures aggre-
A cortical actomyosin network under gated in randomly dispersed clusters (Fig. 7, A–C; and Video 6),
mechanical tension consistent with previous studies using low levels of actin drugs
Although fluorescent actin markers, such as Lifeact-GFP, can be (Verkhovsky et al., 1997; Luo et al., 2013). The clustered MV
efficiently used to label bundled actin such as in MV, finer actin could also be observed using SEM (Fig. 7 D). This behavior is
structures and individual actin filaments often cannot be dis- consistent with the existence of a planar actomyosin network
tinguished against the high cytosolic background. To indirectly that is under isotropic tension. We confirmed this hypothesis by
reveal the existence of myosin-associated, load-bearing actin using laser ablation on MHCA-GFP–expressing cells, in which
structures within the plane of the apical plasma membrane, we the myosin network clearly exhibited tension release when lo-
tested whether the apical myosin network in nonconfluent ECs cally and rapidly severed (Fig. 7 E). Initial retraction of myo-
was being subjected to actin-dependent mechanical tension. sin fibers perpendicular to the cut occurred with 261 ± 51 nm/s
(mean ± SD; n = 19), and this experiment also revealed that To test this hypothesis, we first monitored lateral mobility
new myosin filaments were rapidly formed to fill the gap in the of carboxylated and collagen (type I)-coated beads attached
network (Fig. 7 E, kymograph). to the apical surface of MDCK cells. For robust quantification
If connectivity in the apical network relies largely on acto- of bead motility, we automatically tracked individual beads
myosin interactions, we reasoned that it should be possible to (Fig. S4 A) and calculated their mean squared displacement
unbalance the system instead of disrupting it, by only slightly (MSD; Fig. S4 B). With a mean MSD exponent of 1, carboxylated
reducing the amount of cortical actin filaments available. Indeed, beads of 100-nm diameter that bound unspecifically to noncon-
after treatment with 500 nM latrunculin B for several minutes, fluent cells exhibited free diffusion, indicating that they were
apical myosin networks again began to rupture at several positions not significantly obstructed by dynamic MV (Fig. S4, A and B,
(Fig. 8 A). However, instead of clustering the remnants, the resid- black graph; and Video 8). In contrast, larger beads of 500-nm
ual networks started to manifest massive long-distance rearrange- or 1-µm diameter frequently became stuck between surrounding
ments and oscillations (Fig. 8 A and Video 7). Interestingly, stress MV and were therefore actively (MSD exponent > 1) moved along
fibers at the basal cell surface (Fig. 8 A, light blue; and Video 7) the cell surface via myosin-dependent forces (Fig. S4, A and B,
were not affected by low latrunculin concentrations and remained red/blue graphs; and Video 8). Interestingly, we could also ob-
static in spite of the fast rearrangements occurring within the api- serve trapping of 100-nm beads between dynamic MV (Fig. 8 B
cal network. These findings indicate that forces within apical and and Video 9). However, reorganization of MV was rapid enough
basal actomyosin assemblies are largely balanced within their re-
to not significantly obstruct diffusion of these beads (exponent
spective structures and that local actomyosin assemblies are not
in MSD analysis did not drop <1 as expected for restricted dif-
necessarily connected into a cell-spanning mesh. In summary, our
fusion). For collagen I–coated beads, we found tight association
results are consistent with a joint isotropic 2D network made up of
with MV independent of bead size, reflected in active motion
actin and myosin that covers the apical surface of ECs.
(Fig. 8 D and Fig. S4 C, bottom). As a consequence, beads
Apical actomyosin dynamics influences closely followed the dynamic rearrangement of their MV at-
lateral membrane organization tachment sites (Fig. 8 C and Video 10). We expected attachment
Dynamic MV emerge from the cortical actomyosin network as of collagen I beads to MV to be mediated by binding to the main
actin-filled membrane protrusions. Such protrusion could di- collagen I receptor, integrin 21. Indeed, incubation of cells
rectly affect the lateral mobility of membrane-associated fac- with the 1-blocking antibody AIIB2 (Hall et al., 1990) led to
tors, either through changes in local topology and membrane a loss of bead–MV association and to a diffusion-characteristic
composition or via interactions of membrane components with MSD exponent of 1 (Fig. 8 D). In addition, collagen I beads at-
the underlying cytoskeletal elements. tached to the apical surface of confluent cells exhibited random
mobility (Fig. 8 D), in accordance with the fluctuations seen for This was also reflected in the guided motion of labeled EGF
short MV in these cells (Fig. 3 A). As 1 integrins are highly (Fig. S5 B) and the resulting random distribution within re-
expressed in ECs, localization of integrin 1–GFP is difficult to stricted areas (Fig. S5 B, max). Upon binding to nonconfluent
interpret in the presence of endogenous protein (Parsons et al., cells, both EGF and its receptor were rapidly taken up via endo-
2008). To verify whether integrin localization supports our obser- cytosis (Fig. S5 C). In contrast, EGF was hardly bound to the
vations of MV-restricted beads, we instead expressed integrin 5– apical surface of confluent cells, where the EGFR was found nearly
GFP in MDCK cells. We found that integrin 5–GFP was con- exclusively at the lateral surface or cell–cell contact regions
centrated on dynamic MV (Fig. 8 E). However, in contrast to the (Fig. S5 D). Endocytic uptake was consequently minimal in these
immobilized collagen I beads, integrin 5–GFP showed rapid cells (Fig. S5 D). Collectively, our results strongly suggest that
lateral mobility in FRAP experiments (Fig. 8 E). apical actin protrusions, MV motion, and actomyosin network
We found a similar mechanism of kinetic trapping in dy- dynamics have a significant effect on the lateral distribution—
namic MV of nonconfluent MDCK cells for the EGFR (Fig. S5 A). and function—of a variety of apical surface markers.
MV contain bundles of short actin filaments that turn over cortical actomyosin network is structurally interlinked with MV.
rapidly. The curved shape of MV likely results from lateral This apical cortex organization constitutes a particularly inter-
pulling forces exerted by the underlying myosin II filaments. esting case of an active biopolymer network in which molecular
These forces are most probably also responsible for the lateral motors use chemical energy to modify the topology of a semi-
cortex reorganization implied by the frequent occurrence of fu- flexible polymer mesh (Koenderink et al., 2009; Köhler et al.,
sion and fission events between adjacent MV. Importantly, we 2011). Such dynamics at the level of whole actin bundles could
found that MV in nonconfluent ECs are mechanically coupled provide a very efficient mechanism for large-scale reorganiza-
and undergo coordinated lateral motions with characteristic length tion of the cortex, without direct connection to stable reference
and time scales. Such coordinated dynamics have so far not points, such as those provided by focal adhesions on the basal
been described for individual cultured cells but are typical for surface or adherens junctions at cell–cell contacts. In spite of its
networks of flexible polymers and resemble the tissue scale dy- apparent organizational flexibility, the joint actomyosin network
namics found in Drosophila melanogaster or Caenorhabditis is under considerable tension, as becomes apparent after latrun-
elegans epithelia undergoing morphogenetic changes (Munro culin A treatment or focal laser ablation.
et al., 2004; Martin et al., 2009). Actin bundles in MV are typically connected to the plasma
A major finding of our study is that an extensive, isotropic membrane via proteins of the ERM family and their membrane
network of myosin filaments lines the inner apical surface of adaptors (Fehon et al., 2010). Hence, the localization of all
nonconfluent EC. Interestingly, this myosin network is discon- major ERM proteins, as well as the adaptor EBP50, to bent MV
tinuous, with alternating stretches of filaments and gaps (Fig. 9 A). suggests that, during myosin-driven lateral reorganization, actin
However, as indicated by the coordinated motions within the bundles in MV remain closely associated with the apical plasma
network and the collective motion observed in drug perturbation membrane. We were therefore not surprised to find that the
experiments, myosin filaments are likely connected through actin apical actomyosin network and its dynamics have a direct influ-
filaments that cannot be visualized against the high background ence on the mobility and lateral segregation of various plasma
signal of cytosolic actin probe (Fig. 9 A). Myosin II probes are membrane markers. The single membrane-spanning receptor
therefore optimally suited to visualize lateral cell cortex orga- 5 integrin exhibits rapid lateral mobility within the apical
nization. In addition, correlation analyses show that the lateral membrane. However, despite its fast diffusion rate, 5 integrin
active lateral motion of the actomyosin network. Indeed, the Antibodies and beads
constant isotropic rearrangement of bent MV seems well suited Commercial antibodies for immunofluorescence and Western blot analy-
to distribute and bring into contact those surface-bound factors, ses used in this study were rabbit anti–nonmuscle myosin IIA (Novus
Biologicals), mouse anti–nonmuscle myosin IIA antibody (Abcam), rabbit
which have been immobilized and concentrated near MV. An anti-radixin (Abcam), and mouse anti-moesin (Abcam). Two further anti-
exciting task for future studies will be to determine whether the bodies were obtained from the Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank,
observed actomyosin motion might serve to increase the effi- developed under the auspices of the National Institute of Child Health
and Human Development, and maintained by the Department of Biology
ciency of receptor dimerization, receptor–ligand interaction and at the University of Iowa (Iowa city, IA): mouse anti-ezrin (CPTC–Ezrin-1,
ultimately signal transduction. developed at the National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD) and mouse
Irrespective of its potential role in membrane organiza- anti–integrin 1 (AIIB2, developed by C.H. Damsky, University of California,
San Francisco, San Francisco, CA).
tion, the apical actomyosin network is ideally positioned to act For surface-labeling experiments, carboxyl-coated, red fluorescent
as a mechanosensory element. It provides mechanical resistance polystyrene beads with diameters of 100, 500, or 1,000 nm were used
to external forces, while at the same time being flexible enough (FluoSpheres; Invitrogen). To induce binding to integrin 21, beads were
incubated overnight at 4°C in 2 mg/ml type I rat tail collagen solution
to allow for structural adaptations upon mechanical or chemical (PureCol 100 type I collagen; Nutacon). Subsequently, beads were col-
stimulation during programmed morphogenetic changes. Such lected by centrifugation for 30 min at 12,000 g. Before use, beads were di-
a role would be in keeping with the appearance of the actomyo- luted in PBS, sonicated, and added to the cells for 15 min. Unbound beads
were removed by washing with imaging buffer before the experiment.
sin network in nonconfluent ECs that are still motile and are To inhibit binding of collagen-coated beads, cells were treated with
therefore exposed to a more varied environment. Furthermore, a the integrin 1 inhibitory antibody AIIB2 at 1:10 dilution of the supernatant.
mechanosensory function might not be limited to the cell cortex, The antibody was added to the cell culture medium 15 min before addition
of collagen-coated beads and was present throughout the experiment.
as it has recently been proposed that mechanical forces acting
on the cell nucleus directly influence transcriptional activities Immunofluorescence
(Khatau et al., 2010; Mazumder and Shivashankar, 2010; Swift For immunofluorescence staining, cells were grown on glass coverslips,
et al., 2013). A flexible, cagelike apical actomyosin network fixed with 3.2% paraformaldehyde in PBS for 20 min, washed in PBS, per-
meabilized in 0.3% Triton X-100 in PBS for 5 min, and blocked with 1.25%
could offer the protection and adaptability required to maintain gelatin and 0.05% saponin in PBS for 20 min before incubation with pri-
and control the stress exerted on the nucleus. Thus, elucidating mary antibody for 1 h. After washing in PBS and incubation in secondary
the response of apical actomyosin to local or global changes in antibodies and phalloidin (Alexa Fluor goat anti–rabbit/mouse [A11008/
A11029; Invitrogen] and rhodamine-phalloidin [R415; Invitrogen]) for 1 h
the mechanical environment is another exciting challenge for in 1.25% gelatin and 0.05% saponin in PBS, cells were washed again in
future research. PBS before mounting in Mowiol/DABCO (Roth).
Western analysis
Materials and methods For detection of MHCA in Western blots, equal amounts of cell lysates
were separated by SDS-PAGE, transferred to Immobilon-P-membrane
Cell culture and transfection (Serva), incubated in primary antibody in the presence of 5% skim milk
MDCK, HeLa, HaCaT, and MCF-7 cells were grown in 25-cm2 tissue cul- in TBS-T (TBS with Tween 20) overnight, and labeled with HRP-coupled
ture flasks (Falcon Company) at 37°C and 5% CO2 in DMEM-GlutaMAX-1 secondary antibodies.
(Gibco) supplemented with 10% FBS (Gibco). For imaging of noncon-
fluent cells, 200–400 µl cells were seeded in 8-well µ-Slides (Ibidi) at 2 × Transmission EM and SEM
104 cells/ml and incubated for 48 h. For observation of confluent mono- Transmission EM of MDCK cells was performed as described previously
layers, cells were seeded at 4–5 × 105 cells/ml and incubated for 3–4 d. (Keil and Steinbrecht, 2010). In brief, cells were fixed for 30 min at 40°C
All cell transfections were performed using Lipofectamine 2000 in 0.1 M cacodylate buffer containing 2.5% glutaraldehyde (Sigma-
(Invitrogen) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. To obtain stably Aldrich) and 5% sucrose at pH 7.2. Cells were then incubated for 30 min