BASIC BUILDING MATERIALS

& CONSTRUCTION

Module leader: BIRORI Jean, BSc.(Eng.)

INES- Ruhengeri
Department: Land Administration & Management
 Course details

• Course Title : BASIC BUILDING MATERIALS

& CONSTRUCTION
• Program: BSc. (LAM), Year 3
• Code: ILAD 125
• Credits: 15
• Contact Hours: 97.5 Hours
 Course assessment

Exam: 40 marks

Assessments + CAT : 60 marks

Total: 100 marks

Pass mark: 50 marks

 Brief Description

The course aims:

To provide the basics of architectural

drawings, building materials and construction
as applied to property management and
valuation.

It provides also the common construction

structures.
 Brief Description (cont’d)

It also provides the basics of building

materials and services as applied to Real
Estate Valuation practice.

The module covers the basic requirements for

property professionals engaged with the existing
built environment.
 Module Objectives:

At the end of this module, students will build

awareness:

o To the basic building materials;

o To the common component of building;
o To the basic building services.
 Course outline

• Part I: Architectural drawing techniques and building design

Chap. 1: Introduction,
Chap. 2: Principles of Architecture,
Chap. 3: Basic elements of planning residential buildings,
Chap. 4: Specifications used to draw the building drawing
 Course outline (cont’d)

• Part II: Building Materials

Chap. 1: Introduction,
Chap. 2: Stones and Bricks,
Chap. 3: Lime, Cement, Sand and Concrete,
Chap. 4: Metals and Timber,
Chap. 5: Glass, Tiles and Plastics,
Chap. 6: Paints and Varnishes.
 Course outline (cont’d)

• Part III: Building Construction

Chap. 1: Introduction
Chap. 2: Foundation,
Chap. 3: Wall Elevation,
Chap. 4: Floors & Roofs,
Chap. 5: Aeration & Stairs.
 Course outline (cont’d)

• Part IV: Building Services: Building Amenities (Equipment)

Chap. 1: Introduction,
Chap. 2: Ventilation and Air conditioning,
Chap. 3: Fire detection and protection,
Chap. 4: Sound installation in building,
Chap. 5: Electrical installation in building,
 References

 Timings R.L (2008). Engineering materials. Volume 1 &

2, Longman.

 Higgins R (2006). Materials of Engineers and Technicians.

Newnes.

 Darbyshire A (2008). Mechanical Engineering. Newnes.

 Part I:
Architectural drawing
techniques and building design
 Chap. 1: Introduction

• Drawing is the language of engineers. Drawings

represent reduced shape of structure and the owner
will be able to see what is going to happen. A beautiful
building, a set of apartment, hospitals, schools, cinema
halls etc. are all the transformation of the ideas in to
reality through the art of technical drawings.
 Introduction ( cont’d)

• In building drawings, a building is considered as an

object, and the drawings are prepared. The top view
(Plan), front view (elevation) and section view
(sectional elevation) are drawn by considering the
dimensions of the room sizes and components of a
building.
 Introduction ( cont’d)

o Important terms used in building drawing

Consider a small building having one room, The various
components of the building observed and their location are
as shown below.
 Introduction ( cont’d)

 Foundation (Substructure): the portion of the

building below the ground level which is in direct contact
with the ground.

 Super structure: The portion of the building above the

ground level or substructure.

 Basement: it is the lower storey of a building which is

partly below the ground level.
 Introduction ( cont’d)

 Wall: the thickness of the super structure which carries the

load of the roof, usually 200mm thickness.

 Parapet: the wall built above the flat roof, which provides
safety to the people, while they are on the top of the roof in a
building and it adds good appearance to a building.

 Flooring: the horizontal surface at the plinth level in a

building. It is usually prepared in two layers i.e. R.C.C and
floor finishes.
 Chap. 2: Principles of Architecture,

 A house, as far as possible, must satisfy the day to day

needs of its occupants.

 The following principles of architecture are followed to

achieve this;

Functional planning, Structural durability, Essential service,

Outward appearance i.e. aesthetic value and Economy.
 Principles of Architecture ( cont’d)

 1. Functional Planning: Normally buildings serve as

residential, educational, factories, offices, hospitals,
market, recreational places etc. Thus function forms the
shape and planning of the building.

 2. Structural Durability: A building is required to be

durable and strong. A building can be made with load
bearing walls, reinforced cement concrete, steel or
wooden depending up on its structural durability.
 Principles of Architecture ( cont’d)

 3. Essential Services: Sanitary, water, electricity, air

conditioner and sound insulation fittings from the
essential services of a building.

 4. Outward Appearance: Efforts are made to make a

building look beautiful and lively.

 5. Economy: A building is always planned and designed

as an economical structure.
 Chap. 3: Basic elements of planning
residential buildings,

A residential building has the following places of activities.

Place Description

(i) Living area Living or drawing rooms or lounges are the

main places in a residential building where
family members and friends meet, sit, relax
and entertain.

(ii) Sleeping This area is provided for sleeping and

Area relaxing, bathrooms and WCs are attached to
this area.
 Basic elements of planning
residential buildings (cont’d)

Place Description

(iii) Service Area This area is used for daily services like
cooking, eating, cleaning, bathing etc.
(iv) Kitchen It is the area where cooking is done.

(v) Bath and These areas are attached to bedrooms

W.C’s
(vi) Other areas Verandah, passages, corridors, staircases etc
come under these areas.
 2
4 5
5

3
2

1
 Chap. 4: Specifications used to draw the
building drawing

The specifications of the building components which are

commonly followed in residential and office building
construction are given in the table below:
 Specifications used to draw the
building drawing (cont’d)

No Description Minimum Sizes

1 Drawing room or living room 16m2
2 Bed rooms 12m2
3 Kitchen 8m2
4 Bath room 2.6m2
5 W.C 2m2
6 Bath and W.C. 5.5m2
7 Corridors 1.00m wide
 Part II:
Building Materials
 Chap. 1: Introduction

 The safety, stability and permanence of a building

depend very largely upon the construction materials.

 The service conditions of buildings demand a wide

range of materials and various properties such as
water resistance, strength, durability, temperature
resistance, appearance, permeability, etc.
 Introduction (cont’d)

 Those properties are to be properly studied before

making final selection of any building material for a
particular use.
 Properties of engineering materials:
o Physical properties: density, specific gravity, porosity,
water absorption, etc.
o Mechanical properties: tensile strength, compressive
strength, rigidity, hardness, fatigue, etc.
 Introduction (cont’d)

o Thermal properties: thermal conductivity,

thermal expansion, etc.
o Chemical properties: resistance to acids, alkalis,
and oxidation.
o Economic characteristics: cost savings
o Aesthetic properties: color, surface
smoothness, the reflection of light, etc.
 1.1. Physical properties

a) Density (ρ): density is defined as mass per unit

volume for a material. Its unit is Kg/m3.
Formula:
- ρ=M/V
M: material mass (g, kg,…)
V: material volume (m3, cm3,…)
Density units: kg/m3, g/cm3, …
 1.1. Physical properties ( cont’d)

b) Unit weight (ϒ): is the ratio of

material weight to material volume.
ϒ=W/V
- ϒ = unit weight (N/mm3 or KN/m3)
- W= weight (N or KN)
- V= volume (mm or m3)
- ϒ=(M.g)/V = ρ. g
 Physical properties (cont’d)

c) Specific gravity (Gs): is the ratio of solid density

of material and density of distilled water at a
temperature of 40C.
Gs= ρs/ ρw.
d) Porosity (n): is the ratio of the volume of the
spaces in the material to the over all volume.
n=Vv/V
e) Voids ratio (e): is the ratio between the size of
voids to the volume of solid material.
e=Vv/Vs
Physical properties (cont’d)
 Physical properties (cont’d)

f) Water absorption: it denotes the ability of the

material to absorb and retain water. It is expressed in
percentage.

w= M1-M/M * 100

Where M1= mass of saturated material (g) M= mass

of dry material (g)
 Physical properties (cont’d)

g) Weathering resistance: it is the ability of a material

to endure alternative wet and dry conditions for a long
period without considerable deformation and loss of
mechanical strength.

h) Water permeability: is the capacity of a material to

allow water to penetrate under pressure. Materials like
glass, steel and bitumen are impervious.
 1.2. Mechanical properties

 The properties which relate to material

behavior under applied forces are defined as
mechanical properties. The common mechanical
properties are: tensile strength, compressive
strength, rigidity, hardness, fatigue,…

a) Strength is the ability of the material to resist

failure under the action of stresses caused by loads
 1.2. Mechanical properties (cont’d)

b) Stress (σ): is the applied force P divided by the

original area Ao.
σ= P/Ao
There are several types of stress which depend on types of
applied load:
 Compression stress
 Tension stress
 Bending stress
 Torsion stress
 Shear stress
1.2. Mechanical properties (cont’d)
 Mechanical properties (cont’d)

 When bar is stretched, stresses are tensile (taken to be

positive).
 If forces are reversed, stresses are
compressive (negative).

Fig. Bar under tensile force

 Mechanical properties (cont’d)

c) Strain (ε): is the change in length divided by

the original length.
ε= δ/Lo
When bar is elongated, strains are
tensile (positive)
When bar is shortened, strains
are compressive (negative).
 Mechanical properties (cont’d)

d) The poisson effect : a positive

(tensile) strain in one direction will
cause a negative (compressive) strain
in the other direction. This lateral
contraction accompanying a
longitudinal extension is called the
poisson effect.
Mechanical properties (cont’d)
 Mechanical properties (cont’d)

• The ratio of lateral strain of the

material to axial strain within
elastic limit is defined as
poisson’s ratio.

ν= (lateral strain/ axial strain)

• The poisson’s ratio is a

dimensionless parameter.
 Mechanical properties (cont’d)

• Stress - strain
relationship: the
relation between stress
and strain is an extremely
important measure of a
material’s mechanical
properties.
Chap. 2: Stones and Bricks,
 2.1. Stones

• Stone is a naturally available building material which has

been used from the early age of civilization. It is available
in the form of rocks, which is cut to required size and
shape and used as a building block.

 Types of stones:
Stones used for civil engineering works may be classified in
three ways: Geological, Physical and chemical.
 2.1. Stones (cont’d)

 Geological classification

 Igneous rocks: rocks formed

by cooling and solidifying of
the rock masses from their
molten magmatic condition of
the material of the earth.
 2.1. Stones (cont’d)

 Sedimentary rocks: when the

product of disintegration and
decomposition of any rock type
are transported, redeposited,
and consolidated or cemented
into a new rock type, the
resulting material is classified as
a sedimentary rock.
 2.1. Stones (cont’d)

 Metamorphic rocks: Rocks

that change due to intense
temperature and pressure action.

“Meta”=change, “morphoris”= form

in Greek.
 2.1. Stones (cont’d)

• Physical classification
 Stratified rocks: they
have layered structure
(planes of stratification).
They can be easily split
along these planes.
 2.1. Stones (cont’d)

 Unstratified rocks: they are not

stratified. They possess crystalline and
compact grains.
 2.1. Stones (cont’d)

 Chemical classification
 Silicious rocks: the main content of these rocks is
silica. They are hard and durable.
 2.1. Stones (cont’d)

 Argillaceous rocks:
the main content of
these rocks is argil i.e
clay. These stones can
not withstand shock.
Ex.: laterites
 2.1. Stones (cont’d)

 Calcareous rocks: the

main content of these
stones is calcium
carbonate.
 2.2. Bricks

 Brick is obtained by moulding good clay into a block,

which is dried and then burnt.

 Types of bricks:

 Building bricks: used for the construction of walls.

 Paving bricks: used as pavers

 2.2. Bricks (cont’d)

 Fire bricks: specially made to withstand

furnace temperature.

 Special bricks: specially made with respect to

their shape and the purpose.
 2.2. Bricks (cont’d)

 Properties of bricks

 Colour: colour should be uniform and bright

 Shape: bricks have plane faces, sharp and true right

angled corners.

 Size: bricks should be of standard sizes as prescribed

by codes.
 2.2. Bricks (cont’d)

 Water absorption: after immercing the brick in

water for 24 hours, water absorption should not
be more than 20 per cent by weight.

 Fire resistance: fire resistance must be good.

Bricks are used to encase steel columns to
protect them from fire.
 2.2. Bricks (cont’d)

 Soundness: when struck with hammer or with

another brick, it should produce metallic sound.

 Strength: crushing strength of brick should not be

less than 3.5 N/mm2.

 Hardness: finger scratching should not produce

any impression on the brick.
 2.2. Bricks (cont’d)

 Uses of bricks:

 Building blocks

 Lining of furnaces and chimneys

 Protecting steel columns from fire

 2.2. Bricks (cont’d)

 Reinforced concrete roofs

 Pavers for footpaths

 Lining sewer lines

Chap. 3: Lime, Cement, Sand and
Concrete
 3.1. Lime

 Lime has been used as the material of

construction from ancient time. When it is mixed with
sand it provides lime mortar and when mixed with
sand and coarse aggregate, it forms lime concrete.
 3.1. Lime (cont’d)

 Types of limes:

 Fat lime: it is composed of 95% of calcium oxide.

It has the White in colour

 Hydraulic lime: it contains clay and ferrous oxide.

Colour is not perfectly white

 Poor lime: it contains more than 30% clay. Its colour is

muddy. It has poor binding property.
 3.1. Lime (cont’d)

 Use of lime:

o For making mortar for masonry works and

plastering

o To produce lime sand bricks

o For soil stabilization
o For making cement
 3.2. Cement

 The cement is obtained by burning a mixture of

calcarious (calcium) and argillaceous (clay) material at
a very high temperature and then grinding the clinker
so produced to a fine powder.
 3.2. Cement (cont’d)

 Types of cement:

Cement Appropriate uses

White cement It is used for the floor finishes, plastering,

ornamental works, swimming pools, etc

Coloured Coloured cements are used for giving finishing

cement touches to floors, walls, window sills, roof, etc

Pozzulana (Pozzulana is a volcanic powder)It is used for

cement mass concrete works, sewage line works, etc.
 3.2. Cement (cont’d)

Cement Appropriate uses

Acid resistant It has a good resistance to action of acid and

cement water. It is used in the construction of
chemical factories.
Ordinary The most widely used type of cement, which is
Portland suitable for all general concrete construction. It
cement is the most commonly produced and used type
of cement around the world
 3.2. Cement (cont’d)

 Uses of cement:
 Cement paste is used for filling cracks in concrete
structures;
 Cement mortar is used for masonry work and plastering;
 3.2. Cement (cont’d)

 Cement concrete is used for the construction of

various structures like buildings, bridges, Water tanks,
tunnels, etc.

 It is used in the construction of roads, railway,

footpaths, etc.
 3.3. Sand

By definition, Sand is a mixture of small grains of rock

and granular materials which is mainly defined by size,
being finer than gravel and coarser than silt. And ranging
in size from 0.06 mm to 2 mm. ...
 3.3. Sand (cont’d)

Sand is made by erosion or

broken pebbles and
weathering of rocks, which
is carried by seas or rivers.

It forms a major ingredient

in concrete, lime mortar,
cement mortar, etc.
 3.3. Sand (cont’d)

 Sand is very commonly used in construction, often

providing bulk or size, strength, and stability to other
materials such as asphalt, concrete, mortar, render,
cement, and screed.
 3.3. Sand (cont’d)

Types of sand
According to the natural sources from which the sand is
obtained, it is of the following three types:

 (1) Pit sand

 (2) River sand

 (3) Sea sand.

 3.3. Sand (cont’d)

 (1) Pit sand:

This sand is found as deposits in soil and it is obtained

by forming pits into soils. It is excavated from a depth of
about 1 m to 2 m from ground level. The pit sand
consists of sharp angular grains which are free from salts
and it proves to be excellent material for mortar or
concrete work.
 3.3. Sand (cont’d)

For making mortar,

the clean pit sand
free from organic
matter and clay
should only be
used.
 3.3. Sand (cont’d)

 (2) River sand

This sand is obtained from banks or beds of rivers. The

river sand consists of fine rounded grains probably due
to mutual attrition under the action of water current. The
colour of river sand is almost white. As river sand is
usually available in clean condition, it is widely used for
all purposes.
 3.3. Sand (cont’d)

River sand
 3.3. Sand (cont’d)

 (3) Sea sand.

This sand is obtained from sea shores. The sea sand, like
river sand, consists of fine rounded grains. The colour of
sea sand is light brown. The sea sand contains salts.
These salts attract moisture from the atmosphere.
 3.3. Sand (cont’d)

 Such absorption causes dampness, efflorescence and

disintegration of work. The sea sand also retards the
setting action of cement. Due to all such reasons, it is
the general rule to avoid the use of sea sand for
engineering purposes except for filling of basement,
etc.
 3.3. Sand (cont’d)

It can however be used as a local material after being

thoroughly washed to remove the salt.
 3.3. Sand (cont’d)

 Classification of Sand:
 According to the size of grains, the sand is classified as
fine, coarse and gravelly.

 The sand passing through a screen with clear openings

of 1.5875 mm is known as the fine sand. It is mainly
used for plastering.
 3.3. Sand (cont’d)

 The sand passing through a screen with clear openings

of 3.175 mm is known as the coarse sand. It is
generally used for masonry work.

 The sand passing through a screen with clear openings

of 7.62 mm is known as the gravelly sand. It is
generally used for concrete work.
 3.3. Sand (cont’d)

 Properties of Good Sand:

 Following are the properties of good sand:

 It should be chemically inert.

 It should be clean and coarse. It should be free from any

organic or vegetable matter. Usually 3 to 4% clay is
permitted.

 It should contain sharp, angular, coarse and durable grains.

 3.3. Sand (cont’d)

 It should not contain salts which attract moisture from

the atmosphere.

 It should be well graded i.e., should contain particles of

various sizes in suitable proportions. It should pass BIS
No. 480 mesh sieve and should not pass BIS No. 15
sieve. The fineness modulus of sand should be between 2
and 3.
 3.4. Concrete (cont’d)

Concrete is a mixture
of cement (usually
Portland cement),
aggregates (gravels
and sand) and water.
 3.3. Concrete (cont’d)

Major ingredients of concrete: binding material

(cement, lime, polymer), fine aggregate (sand), coarse
aggregates (crushed stones), and water.
 3.3. Concrete (cont’d)

 In proportioning of concrete it is kept in mind that

voids in coarse aggregates are filled with sand and
voids in sand are filled with cement paste.

 Example of proportioning: 1:1:2, 1:1.5:3,1:3:6,

1:4:8, which is the ratio of weights of cement to
sand to coarse aggregate.
 3.3. Concrete (cont’d)

 Concrete grades with their nature of work

Ordinary grade of concrete
Grades Mixing Nature of work
proportion
M10 1:3:6 Ideal for work such as levelling course,
bedding for footing, etc.
M15 1:2:4
M20 1:1.5:3 Used for RCC ( Reinforced Cement
Concrete) work such as slab, beams,
columns, footing etc.
 3.3. Concrete (cont’d)

Standard grade of concrete

M25 1:1:2 Used for RCC ( Reinforced Cement

Concrete) work such as slab, beams,
M30 1:0.75:1.5
columns, footing etc.
M35 1:0.5:1
M40 1:0.25:0.5 Used for Pre-stressed concrete work,
slabs, beams, columns, footing etc.
 3.3. Concrete (cont’d)

High strength concrete:

• M60, M65, M80 are used for RCC works where high
compressive strength is required such as high
building, long span bridges etc.

M: is the grade of concrete which means mix, and

it is followed by a number (compressive strength of
tat concrete at 28 days in N/mm2.
 3.3. Concrete (cont’d)

 Preparing and placing of concrete:

a) Batching: is the measurement of materials for making
concrete. It is done by either volume batching or weight
batching.

b) Mixing: to produce uniform and good concrete,

it is necessary to mix cement, sand and coarse aggregate,
first in dry condition and then in wet condition after adding
water.
 3.3. Concrete (cont’d)

 Mixing process may be done by hand mixing or

machine mixing.

c) Transporting and placing: in transporting care

should be taken to see that the segregation of
aggregate from matrix of cement do not take place.
The form works should be cleaned and properly oiled.
 3.3. Concrete (cont’d)

d) Compacting: in the process of placing

concrete, air is entrapped. The entrapped air reduces
the strength of concrete up to 30%. Hence it is
necessary to remove it by compaction.

Compaction may be carried out either by hand or with

the help of vibrators. Vibration should be stopped as
soon as cement paste is seen on the surface of
concrete.
 3.3. Concrete (cont’d)

o Properties of concrete:

Concrete has completely different properties when it is

in the plastic stage (fresh concrete) and when is
hardened (hardened concrete).
 3.3. Concrete (cont’d)

o Properties of fresh concrete:

 Workability: is the state in which concrete can be

compacted fully without segregation and bleeding. It
depends upon the quantity of water, grading, shape
and the percentage of aggregates present in the
concrete.

 Segregation: is the separation of coarse particles

from the green concrete.
 3.3. Concrete (cont’d)

 Bleeding: is the appearance of the water along

with cement particles on the surface of freshly laid
concrete. It should be avoided by controlling the
quantity of water in the concrete and by using
finer aggregates.
 3.3. Concrete (cont’d)

o Properties of hardened concrete:

 Strength: The characteristic strength of concrete is

defined as the compressive strength of 150 mm size cubes
after 28 days of curing. The unit of stress used is N/mm2.

IS 456 specifies minimum grade of M20 to be used for

reinforced concrete works. Strength of concrete depends
upon the amount of cement, quality and grading of
aggregates, water cement ratio, compaction and curing.
 3.3. Concrete (cont’d)

 Dimensional change: Concrete shrinks with age. The

total shrinkage depends upon the constituents of concrete,
size of the member and the environmental conditions. The
total shrinkage is approximately 0.0003 of original
dimension.

 Durability: This may be defined as the ability of concrete

to resist weathering action, chemical attack, and abrasion
while maintaining its desired engineering properties.
 3.3. Concrete (cont’d)

 Dimensional change: Concrete shrinks with age. The

total shrinkage depends upon the constituents of concrete,
size of the member and the environmental conditions. The
total shrinkage is approximately 0.0003 of original
dimension.

 Durability: This may be defined as the ability of concrete

to resist weathering action, chemical attack, and abrasion
while maintaining its desired engineering properties.
 3.3. Concrete (cont’d)

 Impermeability: is the resistance of concrete to the flow

of water through its pores.

Excess water during concreting leaves a large number of

continuous pores leading to the permeability. Since the
permeability reduces the durability of concrete, it should be
kept very low by using low water cement ratio, dense and
well graded aggregates, good compaction and continuous
curing at low temperature conditions.
 3.3. Concrete (cont’d)

 Uses of concrete:

o As bed concrete below column footings, wall

footings, on wall at support to beams;

o For flagging the area around buildings;

o For pavements;

o For making building blocks.

QUIZ – 1 /10 Date: …/10/2021
 3.4. Reinforced concrete

 Reinforced concrete is a
concrete in which steel is
embedded in such a
manner that the two
materials act together in
resisting forces.
 3.4. Reinforced concrete (cont’d)

 Requirements of good reinforced concrete:

 It should be capable of resisting expected
tensile, compressive, bending and shear
forces;
 It should not show excessive deflection;
 There should be proper cover to the
reinforcement, so that the corrosion is prevented;
 The cracks developed should be within the
permissible limit;
 3.4. Reinforced concrete (cont’d)

o Quality of good reinforced concrete:

 It is a good fire resistant material;

 When it is fresh, it can be moulded to any desired

shape and size;

 Durability is very good;

 It can be designed to take any load.

 3.4. Reinforced concrete (cont’d)

 Uses of reinforced concrete:

 It is used as a structural element in footings, beams

and lintels, stairs, columns and slabs;

 It is used for the construction of storage structures

like water tanks, dams,…
 3.4. Reinforced concrete (cont’d)

 It is used for the construction of big structures

like bridges, retaining walls, under water structures, …

 It is used for paving roads and airports;

 It is used in constructing tall structures like multistorey

buildings, chimneys and towers.
Chap. 4: Metals and Timber
 4.1. Metals

 Various metals used for building works are classified as

ferrous metals and non-ferrous metals.

 Ferrous metals: a ferrous material is the one in which iron is

a main constituent. The common ferrous materials are:

 Cast iron (carbon content 1.7% - 4.5%)

 Wrought iron (carbon content 0.05% -0.15%)

 Steel (carbon content 0.15% - 0.25%)

 4.1. Metals (cont’d)

1) Cast iron: important properties of cast iron are:

- Compression strength is 70N/mm2 and tensile strength

is 150 N/mm2;

- Specific gravity is 7.5;

- Its structure is coarse, crystalline and fibrous;

 4.1. Metals (cont’d)

- It can not be magnetized;

- It has low melting point of about 1200 C;
- It doesn’t rust easily.
 Use of Cast iron:
- It is used for making rain water and sanitary pipes,
sanitary fittings and manhole covers;
- It is used for making railings and spiral stair cases.
 4.1. Metals (cont’d)

2) Wrought iron: important properties of wrought

iron are:

- Its ultimate compressive strength is 200N/mm2 and

ultimate tensile strength is 375N/mm2;

- It melts at about 1500 C;

- It cannot be magnetized permanently;

- It rusts more easily.

 4.1. Metals (cont’d)

 Uses of Wrought iron:

- It is used for making nails nuts, bolts,

wires,…

- It is used for making roofing sheets, grills,

fences,…
 4.1. Metals (cont’d)

3) Steel: it is extensively used as a building material.

The following three varieties of steel are used: Mild
Steel, High Carbon Steel, and High Tensile Steel.

 Mild steel: it contains a maximum of 0.25% carbon,

0.055% of sulphur and 0.55% of phosphorus.

 Properties:
- It is malleable and ductile;
 4.1. Metals (cont’d)

- It is more elastic;

- It can be magnetized permanently;

- Its specific gravity is 7.8;

- It can be welded easily;

- It is equally strong in tension and in

compression.
 4.1. Metals (cont’d)

 Uses of Mild Steel:

- Round bars are extensively used as

reinforcement in reinforced concrete works;

- Rolled sections like I,T,L,C, plates,… are used to build

steel columns, beams, trusses, etc;

- Mild steel sections are used in making parts of many

machineries.
 4.1. Metals (cont’d)

 High Carbon Steel: the carbon contents is 0.7% to 1.5%.

 Properties:
- It is more tough and elastic compared to mild steel;

- Welding is difficult;

- It can be magnetized permanently;

- It is stronger in compression than in tension;

- It withstands shocks and vibrations better.

 4.1. Metals (cont’d)

 Uses of High Carbon Steel:

- It is used for making tools such as drills, files, chisels,
etc;

- Many machine parts are made with high carbon

steel since it is capable of withstanding shocks and
vibrations.
 4.1. Metals (cont’d)

 High Tensile Steel: it contains 0.8% carbon and 0.6%

manganese. Its strength is high. High tensile steel
wires are used in prestressed concrete works.
 Non-ferrous metals:
 Aluminium
 Copper
 4.1. Metals (cont’d)

1) Aluminium:

- It is very light in weight;

- It is a good conductor of electricity;

- It has very good resistance to corrosion;

- It melts at 66 C;

- It is highly ductile and malleable;

- It has high strength to weight ratio.

 4.1. Metals (cont’d)

 Uses of aluminium:

- It is used to make door and window frames;

- Aluminium wires are used as conductor of electricity;

- Aluminium powder serves as pigments in paints.

 4.1. Metals (cont’d)

2) Copper: it is naturally available metal in the form

of ores which contain small amount of iron and

sulphur. After removing impurities, it is processed

electrolytically to get purest metal.

 4.1. Metals (cont’d)

 Properties:

- It is having reddish brown colour;

- It is highly ductile and malleable;

- It resists corrosion;

- It can be welded easily;

- It has electric and thermal conductivity;

- Its melting point is at 1083 C.

 4.1. Metals (cont’d)

 Uses of copper:
- It is used as electric wire and cable;

- For the construction of joints, copper plates are

used;

- Copper tubes are used for hot and cold water

supply, gas and sanitation connections.
 4.1. Metals (cont’d)

Requirements for steels:

 They should provide sufficient strength to bear the
loads coming on them;

 They should provide resistance to corrosion and weather

actions;

 They should provide resistance to heat and fire;

 They should have good adhesion with cement concrete.
 4.2. Timber

 Timber was used as building material even by primitive

man. Many ancient temples, palaces and bridges built
with timber can be seen even today.

 By sawing, rough timber is converted into various

commercial sizes. Such form of timber is known as
converted timber.
 4.2. Timber (cont’d)

 Classification of timber:
Timbers are classified based on their mode of
growth, modulus of elasticity, durability, and grading.
 4.2. Timber (cont’d)

 1) Classification based on mode of growth:

Exogeneous: trees which grow outward by adding distinct

consecutive ring every year. These rings are known as
annual rings, and it is possible to find the age of
timber by counting them.
 4.2. Timber (cont’d)

 1) Classification based on mode of growth:

Exogeneous: trees which grow outward by adding distinct

consecutive ring every year. These rings are known as
annual rings, and it is possible to find the age of
timber by counting them.
 4.2. Timber (cont’d)

 Endogeneous trees: these trees grow inwards.

Fresh fibrous mass is in the inner most portion.
Example: bamboo, cane,…they are not useful for
structural works.
 4.2. Timber (cont’d)

2) Classification based on modulus of elasticity

On this basis timber is classified as:

 Group A: E= 12.5N/mm2

 Group B: E= 9.8N/mm2 – 12.5N/mm2

 Group C: E= 5.6N/mm2 – 9.8N/mm2

 4.2. Timber (cont’d)

3) Classification based on durability: durability tests

are conducted on standardized specimens and observe
their conditions over several years. The timbers are
classified as:

 High durability: average life is more than 10 years;

 Low durability: average life less than 5 years.
 4.2. Timber (cont’d)

4) Classification based on grading: IS 883-1970

classifies the structural timber into three
grades: grade I, grade II and grade III. The
classification is based on permissible stresses,
defects, etc.
 4.2. Timber (cont’d)

 Properties of a good timber:

 Colour: it should be uniform;

 Odour: it should be pleasant when cut freshly;

 Soundness: a clear ringing sound when struck indicates

the timber is good;

 Density: higher the density, stronger is the timber;

 4.2. Timber (cont’d)

 Hardness: harder timbers are strong and durable;

 Toughness: timber should be capable of resisting

shock loads;

 Strength: timber should have high strength in bending,

shear and compression;
 4.2. Timber (cont’d)

 Modulus of elasticity: timber with higher modulus of

elasticity are preferred in construction;

 Fire resistance: a good timber should have high resistance

to fire;

 Permeability: good timber has a low water permeability;

 Workability: timber should be easily workable i.e it should
not more resist the saw;
 4.2. Timber (cont’d)

 Durability: good timber is one which is capable of

resisting the action of fungi and insects attack;

 Defects: good timber is free from defects like knots,

cracks, etc.

 It has a low heat conductivity.

 4.2. Timber (cont’d)

 Defects in timber:

 Defects due to natural forces (knots, wind cracks, and

upsets);

 Defects due to defective seasoning and conversions;

 Defects due to attack by fungi and insects;

 4.2. Timber (cont’d)

 Preservation of timber: preservation of timber means

protecting timber from fungi and insects attack
so that life is increased. The following are used
preservatives: tar, paints, chemical salt, etc
 4.2. Timber (cont’d)

 Uses of timber:
 Heavy construction works like columns, trusses,
piles;

 Light construction like doors, windows,

flooring, and roofing;
 4.2. Timber (cont’d)

 Railway sleepers, fencing poles, electric poles and

gates;

 Temporary works in construction like scaffolding,

centering, packing of materials and partition walls.
Chap. 5: Glass, Tiles and Plastics,
 5.1. Glass

 Silica is the main constituent of glass. Sodium,

potassium carbonate is added to bring down melting
point, lime or lead oxide is also added to make it durable.

 Glasses are manufactured by grounding and sieving raw

materials which are mixed in specific proportion and
melted in furnace. Glass items are obtained by blowing,
rolling and pressing.
 5.1. Glass (Cont’d)

 Properties of glass:

 It absorbs, refracts or transmits light. It can be

made transparent or translucent;

 It can take excellent polish;

 It is strong and brittle;

 5.1. Glass (Cont’d)

 It is not affected by atmosphere;

 It has excellent resistance to chemicals;

 It is available in various beautiful colours;

 Glass panes can be cleaned easily.

 5.1. Glass (Cont’d)

o Different Types of Glass & Their Uses:

Glass can be manufactured with a range of physical

properties to be used for many different requirements.
From large industrial designs to basic domestic windows,
the uses are exceedingly large.
 5.1. Glass (Cont’d)

• Flat glass
o Where is it used?:
windows, glass doors
 5.1. Glass (Cont’d)

• Toughened glass
Where is it used?: shower doors, glass
furniture, glass shelves
 5.1. Glass (Cont’d)

• Patterned glass
o Where is it used?: doors, bathroom windows
5.1. Glass (Cont’d)

• Laminated glass
o Where is it
used?:
storefronts,
curtain walls,
front doors
 5.1. Glass (Cont’d)

• Mirrored glass
o Where is it used?: wardrobe doors, bathroom
mirrors
 5.1. Glass (Cont’d)

• Tinted Glass
o Where is it used?: Windows, doors
 5.1. Glass (Cont’d)

• Sandblasted Glass
o Where is it used?: Bathroom windows, shower
doors, decorative glass
 5.2. Tiles

 Tiles are clay products like brick but are thin.

Depending upon their use, building tiles may be classified

as:

 Roofing tiles

 Flooring tiles and wall tiles.

 5.2. Tiles

1) Roofing tiles: roofing tiles are used to cover sloping

roofs. They are supported on wooden reapers or steel
rods.
 5.2. Tiles (cont’d)

 Properties:
 Tiles should not absorb moisture more than 20% by
weight;

 They should give pleasing look;

 They should be capable of taking load;
 They should be durable;
 They should be uniform in shape and size;
 5.2. Tiles (cont’d)

2) Flooring tiles and Wall tiles: they are manufactured

by burning pressed green tiles twice. First they are
burnt at 700 C, then dripped in the glaze solution and
again burnt at 1250 C to fuse them with glaze. The
thickness vary from 15 to 20 mm. They are flat and have
pleasing appearance.
 5.2. Tiles (cont’d)

There are two types of flooring tiles:

 Glazed tiles: they are used as finish surfaces for floors,

and walls in kitchen and bathrooms. They are
glazed and are provided with attractive colours and
designs.
 5.2. Tiles (cont’d)

 Mosaic tiles: they are precast concrete tiles with marble

on the top surface. After fixing these tiles polishing is
done.

 Desirable properties of flooring and roofing tiles:

 They should be uniform in shape and colour. The colour
should be long lasting.
 5.2. Tiles (cont’d)

 They should be hard and durable;

 They should have very low percentage of water

absorption;

 They should give a clear ringing sound when struck

with each other;

 They should show good resistance to abrasion;

 They should be easy to clean.

 5.3. Plastics

 Plastic may be defined as a natural or

synthetic organic material which are having the property

of being plastic at some stage of their manufacture when
they can be moulded to required size and shape.

 Types of plastics:

 Thermosetting

 Thermoplastic
 5.3. Plastics (cont’d)

1) Thermosetting plastics: it needs momentary heated condition

and great pressure during shaping. The change is not reversible
and it is hard.

Example: Bakelite

2) Thermoplastic: the linkage between the molecules is very

loose. It can be softened by heating which helps for reuse of
waste plastic. They need time to cool down and harden.

Example: bitumen
 5.3. Plastics (cont’d)

 Properties:

 Colour: some plastics are transparent. Using pigments,

colour can be produced;

 Durability: plastic offers great resistance to moisture

and chemicals. Hence it is more durable;

 Electrical insulation: plastics possess excellent

electrical insulating property;
 5.3. Plastics (cont’d)

 Strength: the plastics are reasonably strong. Their

strength may be increased by reinforcing with various
fibrous materials.

 Specific gravity: the specific gravity of plastics is very

low;

 Ductility: the plastics are not ductile;

 They are light in weight;
 5.3. Plastics (cont’d)

 Maintenance: there is no maintenance cost for plastic

articles i.e they do not need painting and polishing;

 They can absorb shocks.

 5.3. Plastics (cont’d)

 Uses of plastics:
 Overhead water tanks;
 Flooring tiles;
 Bath and sink units;
 Lighting fixtures;
 Electrical conduits and insulators;
 Pipes to carry waters.
Chap. 6: Paints and Varnishes.
 6.1. Paints

 Paints are applied on the surfaces of timber, metals and

plastered surfaces as a protective layer and at the same
time to get pleasant appearance.

 Essential constituents of paints: Bases, vehicles,

pigments, driers, and thinners.

 Bases: it is a principal constituent of paint. It possesses

the binding properties.
 6.1. Paints (cont’d)

 Vehicles: vehicles are the liquid substances which

hold the ingredients of a paint in liquid suspension
and allow them to be applied on the surface to be
painted. Examples: linseed oil, tung oil, nut oil, etc
 Pigment: pigments give required colour for paints.
The common pigments for different colours are:
- Black : lamp black, suit black
- Red: venedion red, red lead
 6.1. Paints (cont’d)

- Green: chrome green, copper sulphate

- Blue: prussian blue, ultra marine
- Yellow: ocher, chrome yellow.
 Driers: the function of a drier is to absorb oxygen from
the air and supply it to the vehicle for hardening. The
excess drier is harmful because it destroys elasticity.
 The thinner: it makes paint thinner and hence increases
the coverage. It helps paint to be uniformly spread over
the surface.
Example: turpentine
 6.1. Paints (cont’d)

 Properties of ideal paint:

 It should be possible to apply easily and freely;

 It should dry in reasonable time (within 24 hours);

 It should form hard and durable surface;

 It should not be harmful to the health of workers;

 It should not be easily affected by atmosphere;

 6.1. Paints (cont’d)

 It should not crack and shrink;

 It should possess attractive and pleasing
appearance.
 6.1. Paints (cont’d)

 Types of paints:
Depending upon their constituents there are various types
of paints.

 Oil paint: it is cheap and easy to apply.

 Enamel paint: it contains white lead, oil, petroleum
spirit and resinous material. The surface provided by it
resists acids, alkalies and water very well. It can be used
both for external and internal walls.
 6.1. Paints (cont’d)

 Emulsion paint: it contains binding materials such as

polyvinyl acetate, synthetic resins, etc. it is more durable
and can be cleaned with water.

 Cement paints: it is available in powder form. It consists

of white cement, pigment and other additives. It is
durable and exhibits excellent decorative appearance. It
should be applied on rough surfaces rather than on
smooth surfaces.
 6.1. Paints (cont’d)

 Bituminous paints: it is manufactured by dissolving

bitumen in oil or petroleum. It is black in colour and it
is used for painting iron works under water.
 6.1. Paints (cont’d)

 Aluminium paint: it contains finely ground aluminium.

It is visible in darkness. The surfaces of iron and steel are
protected well with this paint. It is widely used for
painting gas tanks, water pipes and oil tanks.

 Anti-corrosive paint: it consists mainly of oil, a strong

drier, lead or zinc chrome. It is cheap and resist corrosion
well.
 6.1. Paints (cont’d)

 Application of Paints:

Preparation of surface for application of paint is the most

important part in painting. The surface to be painted
should not be oily and it should be free from flakes of the
old paint. Painting work should be carried out in dry
weather. The under coats and first coats must be allowed
to dry before final coat is applied.
 6.2. Varnishes

 Varnish is the solution of resins or resinous substances

like amber, copal, shellac, gum resin, etc in solvents like
oil, alcohol, turpentile, etc.

Varnishes provide protective coatings for wooden surfaces,

paintings, and various decorative objects. Varnish protects
and enhances the appearance of wooden floors, interior
wood paneling and trim, and furniture.
 6.2. Varnishes

 Depending upon the solvents used varnishes are

classified as:

o oil varnishes,

o turpentile varnishes,

o spirit varnishes and water varnishes.

 6.2. Varnishes (cont’d)

 Desirable characteristics of ideal varnish are:

 It should give glossy surface;

 It should be durable;

 It should dry rapidly after application;

 6.2. Varnishes (cont’d)

 It should not develop cracks after drying;

 The varnish should adopt or accommodate to the

expansion & contraction of wood due to temperature
variations.
The end of Part I & II