உடலிதை உறுதி க ய் ! அறிவிதை விரிவு க ய் !! கற்ற கதோழுகு !!!

!!

HIGHER SECONDARY FIRST YEAR

NAME :
CLASS : 11 SECTION:
SCHOOL :

EXAM NO :
மகள் தந்ததக்கு ஆற்றும் உதவி இவன் தந்தத
என் ந ோன்றோன் ககோல் எனும் க ோல்

. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed.,

PG ASST (PHYSICS)
GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
CUDDALORE DIST
MOBILE - 9940814079
 6 . 1 – GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY 6 . 2 – GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY NEAR 6 . 3 – VARIATION OF “g” WITH ALTITUDE
EARTH
• Mass of Earth =M • Mass of Earth = 𝑀𝑒
Radius of Earth =R Radius of Earth = 𝑅𝑒
Mass of the object =m Mass of the object =𝑚
• Assuming m1 to be fixed in its position, work must be Height above the surface = h Height above the surface = ℎ
done on m2 to move the distance from 𝒓 to r Height from the centre of Earth Height from the centre of Earth
• The work done to move “𝑚2 ” through a small distance =r =𝑟
“𝑑𝑟” against gravitational force is • Then gravitational potential • Acceleration due to gravity on
𝐺 𝑚1 𝑚2 energy of this system, the surface of the Earth,
𝑑𝑊 = ⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟 = 𝑟̂ . 𝑑𝑟 𝑟̂ 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺 𝑀𝑒
𝑟2 𝑈 =− = − 𝑔 = − − − − − (1)
𝐺 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑟 𝑅+ℎ 𝑅𝑒 2
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑑𝑟 ℎ −1
𝑟2 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚 • At height “h” above the earth surface,
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑈 = − = − (1 + )
• Then the total work done to move from distance “𝒓 ℎ 𝑅 𝑅 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 ℎ −2
” to “𝑟” is 𝑅 (1 + )
𝑅 𝒈 = = = (1 + )
𝑟 𝑟
(𝑅𝑒 + ℎ)2 ℎ 2 𝑅𝑒 2 𝑅𝑒
𝐺 𝑚1 𝑚2 1𝑟 • Since ℎ ≪ 𝑅, using binomial theorem, we have, 𝑅𝑒 (1 + )
𝑅𝑒
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑟 = 𝐺 𝑚 𝑚
1 2 [− ] 𝐺𝑀𝑚 ℎ
𝑟2 𝑟 𝒓 𝑈 = − (1 − ) − − − − (1) • If ℎ ≪ 𝑅𝑒 , and using Binomial expansion, we get
𝒓 𝒓 𝑅 𝑅 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 2ℎ
1 1 • But acceleration due to gravity is, 𝒈 = 2 (1 − 𝑅 )
𝑊 = − 𝐺 𝑚1 𝑚2 [ −  ] 𝑅𝑒 𝑒
𝑟 𝒓 𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀
𝑮 𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐 𝑮 𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐 𝑔= 2 (𝑜𝑟) =𝑔𝑅 • Put equation (1), we get
𝑾= − + − − − − − − (1) 𝑅 𝑅 2ℎ
𝒓 𝒓 • Using this in equation (1), 𝒈 = 𝑔 (1 − )

Case 1: If 𝒓 < 𝒓 ℎ 𝑅𝑒
• Since gravitational force is attractive, work is done by 𝑈 = − 𝑚 𝑔 𝑅 (1 − ) • Thus, we find that 𝒈 < 𝑔 . This means that as altitude
𝑅
the system spending its internal energy and hence the “h” increases the acceleration due to gravity (g)
𝑈 = − 𝑚𝑔𝑅+𝑚𝑔ℎ − − − − (2)
work done is said to be negative. • It is clear that the first term in the above expression is
decreases.
Case 2: If 𝒓 > 𝒓 independent of the height “h” and it plays no role in the
• Here work has to be done against gravity and result. Hence the first term can be omitted.
therefore work is done on the body by external force • Thus the gravitational potential energy of the object
and hence work done is positive. placed at a height “h” from the surface of the Earth is,
• When 𝒓 = ∞ , then equation (1) becomes, 𝑼 = 𝒎𝒈𝒉 − − − − (𝟑)
𝐺 𝑚1 𝑚2
𝑊= −
𝑟
• This work done is the gravitational potential energy
and it is denoted by U(r)
𝑮 𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
𝑼(𝒓) = −
𝒓
• The gravitational potential energy is always negative,
because when two masses come together slowly from
infinity, work is done by the system

VICTORY R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc ,M.Phil,B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS), GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI -608 502, CUDDALORE DISTRICT
 6 . 4 – VARIATION OF “g” WITH DEPTH 6 . 5 – VARIATION OF “g” WITH LATITUDE 6 . 6 – EXPRESSION FOR ESCAPE SPEED

• Mass of Earth = 𝑀𝑒 Escape speed :

Radius of Earth = 𝑅𝑒 • The minimum speed of an object thrown vertically up
Mass of the object = 𝑚 such that it escapes from the Earth’s gravity is called
Depth below the surface = 𝑑 escape speed.
• Acceleration due to Expression for Escape speed :
gravity on the surface of • Mass of Earth = 𝑀𝑒
the Earth, Radius of Earth = 𝑅𝑒
𝐺 𝑀𝑒 Mass of the object =𝑚
𝑔 = − − − − (1)
𝑅𝑒 2 • Let the object is thrown vertically up with an initial
• At depth “d” below the speed 𝑣𝑖 , then the initial total energy of the object is
surface, 1 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 𝑚
𝐸𝑖 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑖 2 − − − − − (1)
𝐺 𝑴 2 𝑅𝑒
𝒈 = − − − − (2) • As the Earth spins about its own axis, it is considered to
(𝑅𝑒 − 𝑑)2 • At an infinite height, the total energy becomes,
be non - inertial frame.
𝐸𝑓 = 0 + 0 = 0
Here 𝑴 −→ 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 (𝑅𝑒 − 𝑑) • So we must take in to account the centrifugal force.
• By law of conservation of energy,
• Let “𝜌” be the uniform density of Earth, then • If the Earth were not spinning, the force on the object
𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸𝑓
𝑀𝑒 (𝑅𝑒 − 𝑑)𝟑 would have been “mg”
𝑴 = − − − − (𝟑) • However the object experiences an additional
1 𝐺 𝑀 𝑒 𝑚
𝑅𝑒 𝟑 𝑚 𝑣𝑖 2 − =0
centrifugal force due to spinning of the Earth 2 𝑅 𝑒
• Put equation (3) in (2) 1 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 𝑚
𝐺 𝑀𝑒 (𝑅𝑒 − 𝑑)𝟑 • Consider the Earth spin with an angular velocity “𝜔” 𝑚 𝑣𝑖 2 =
𝒈 = about N-S axis. 2 𝑅𝑒
(𝑅𝑒 − 𝑑)2 𝑅𝑒 𝟑 • Let “𝑣𝑒 ” be the escape speed, (i.e.) the minimum
• Then the centrifugal force = 𝑚 𝜔2 𝑅
𝐺 𝑀𝑒 (𝑅𝑒 − 𝑑) 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 𝑑 speed required by an object to escape Earth’s
𝒈 = = (1 − ) • If “𝜆” be the latitude, then 𝑅 = 𝑅 cos 𝜆
𝑅𝑒 𝟐 𝑅 𝑒 𝑅𝑒 𝟐 𝑅𝑒 • Then the component of centrifugal force against gravitational field, then
• Put equation (1),, 1 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 𝑚
gravitational force is, 𝑚 𝑣𝑒 2 =
𝒅 𝐹𝑐𝑓 = 𝑚 𝜔2 𝑅 cos 𝜆 = 𝑚 𝜔2 (𝑅 cos 𝜆 ) cos 𝜆 2 𝑅𝑒
𝒈 = 𝒈 (𝟏 − ) 2 𝐺 𝑀
𝑹𝒆 2
𝐹𝑐𝑓 = 𝑚 𝜔 𝑅 cos 𝜆 2
𝑣𝑒 2 =
𝑒
− − − − (2)

• Thus, we find that 𝒈 < 𝑔 . This means that as depth Therefore resultant force is given by, 𝑅𝑒
“d” increases the acceleration due to gravity (g) 𝐺 𝑀𝑒
𝑚 𝒈 = 𝑚 𝑔 − 𝑚 𝜔2 𝑅 cos 2 𝜆 • But acceleration due to gravity ; 𝑔 =
decreases. 𝑅𝑒 2
𝒈 = 𝒈 − 𝝎𝟐 𝑹 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝝀 − − − − (𝟏) • Put this in (2)
1) At equator, 𝜆 = 0. Then, 𝒈 = 𝒈 − 𝝎𝟐 𝑹 𝑣𝑒 2 = 2 𝑔 𝑅𝑒
(i.e) acceleration due to gravity is minimum at
𝒗 𝒆 = √ 𝟐 𝒈 𝑹𝒆 − − − − (𝟒)
equator
• Thus escape speed depends on,
2) At poles, 𝜆 = 90, Then, 𝒈 = 𝒈
1) Acceleration due to gravity
(i.e.) acceleration due to gravity is maximum at poles
2) Radius of the Earth
• But escape speed is independent of,
1) Mass of the object
2) Direction of projection of the object
• For Earth, 𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚 𝑠 −2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑒=6400 𝑘𝑚 then,
𝒗𝒆 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟐 𝒌𝒎 𝒔−𝟏

VICTORY R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc ,M.Phil,B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS), GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI -608 502, CUDDALORE DISTRICT
 6 . 7 – EXPRESSION FOR ORBITAL SPEED 6 .8 – TIME PERIOD OF SATELLITE ORBITING THE 6 . 9– ENERGY OF THE SATELLITE
EARTH
• The horizontal speed given to the satellite launched • Mass of the Earth = 𝑀𝑒
• The time taken by the satellite for one complete
at calculated height from the earth surface, in order to Radius of the Earth = 𝑅𝑒
rotation around the Earth is called its time period (T).
orbiting around the Earth is called orbital speed. Mass of the satellite =𝑀
• During this time, the distance covered by the satellite is
Expression for Orbital speed : Height of the satellite above the Earth surface = ℎ
equal to 2 𝜋 (𝑅𝑒+ ℎ)
• Mass of Earth = 𝑀𝑒 Orbital speed = 𝑣𝑂
• By definition, the orbital speed (𝑣𝑂) is
Radius of Earth = 𝑅𝑒 • From the derivation, orbital speed is,
2 𝜋 (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ)
Mass of the satellite =𝑀 𝑣𝑜 = − − − (1) 𝐺 𝑀𝑒
𝑇 𝑣𝑂 = √ − − − − (1)
Height of the satellite above the Earth surface = ℎ • But expression for orbital speed is, (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ)
• For a satellite to move in a circular orbit, centripetal
force must be acting on the satellite. 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 • Potential Energy of the satellite,
𝑣𝑂 = √ − − − − (𝟐) 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 𝑀
• This centripetal force is provided by the Earth’s (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ)
𝑈 = − − − − − (2)
gravitational force. Hence (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ)
• Thus from equation (1) and (2)
𝑀 𝑣𝑂 2 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 𝑀 • Kinetic Energy of the satellite,
= 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 2 𝜋 (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ) 1 1 𝐺 𝑀𝑒
(𝑅𝑒 + ℎ) (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ)2 √ = 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑀 𝑣𝑂2 = 𝑀 − − − (3)
𝐺 𝑀𝑒 (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ) 𝑇 2 2 (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ)
𝑣𝑂 2 = • Therefore, total Energy of the satellite, 𝐸=𝑈 +𝐾𝐸
(𝑅𝑒 + ℎ)
(𝑅𝑒 + ℎ) 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 𝑀 1 𝐺 𝑀𝑒
𝑮 𝑴𝒆 𝑇 = 2 𝜋 (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ)√ 𝐸= − + 𝑀
𝒗𝑶 = √ 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ) 2 (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ)
(𝑹𝒆 + 𝒉)
• Squaring on both sides, we get 𝑮 𝑴𝒆 𝑴
𝑬= − − − − − (𝟒)
• As “h” increases, the speed of the satellite decreases. (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ) 𝟐 (𝑹𝒆 + 𝒉)
𝑇 2 = 4 𝜋 2 (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ)2
𝐺 𝑀𝑒 • The negative sign in the total energy implies that “the
2
4 𝜋 2 (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ)3 satellite is bound to the Earth and it cannot escape
𝑇 = − − − (3)
𝐺 𝑀𝑒 from the Earth”.
• If 𝒉 ≪ 𝑹𝒆 , then equation (3) becomes
4 𝜋 2 𝑅𝑒 3 4 𝜋 2 𝑅𝑒
𝑇2 = =
𝐺 𝑀𝑒 𝐺𝑀
( 2𝑒 )
𝑅𝑒
2
4 𝜋 2 𝑅𝑒 𝐺 𝑀𝑒
𝑇 = [∵ 𝑔 = ]
𝑔 𝑅𝑒 2
𝑹𝒆
𝑻= 𝟐𝝅√
𝒈
• For Earth, 𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚 𝑠 −2 and 𝑅𝑒 = 6.4𝑋 106 𝑚 .
∴ 𝑻 ≅ 𝟖𝟓 𝒎𝒊𝒏

VICTORY R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc ,M.Phil,B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS), GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI -608 502, CUDDALORE DISTRICT
 6 . 10– APPARENT WEIGHT IN ELEVATORS 7 . 1 – HOOKE’S LAW VERIFICATION 7 . 2 – TYPES OF MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
• There are two forces acting on a man standing on the
Hooke’s law : Modulus of Elasticity :
elevator,
• Within elastic limit, stress and strain are directly • Within elastic limit, the ratio between stress and strain
1) Gravitational force (weight) acting downwards
proportional to each other. is a constant and it is called modulus of elasticity.
(⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑔 = − 𝑚 𝑔 𝑗̂ ) Experimental verification: 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
2) Normal force exerted by the floor on the man = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
• Let initial length of spring = L 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
acts vertically upwards (𝑁 ⃗ = 𝑁𝑗̂ ) Area of cross section = A • Its unit is N m-2 (or) pascal
Case (1) - Elevator is at rest : Volume =V=AL • There are three types of elastic modulus.
• In this case, the acceleration of the man is zero, Extension for a load “F” = ΔL (a) Young’s modulus
therefore • A graph is plotted by taking “F” (b) Rigidity modulus (or Shear modulus)
⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑔 + 𝑁
⃗ =0 (𝑜𝑟) − 𝑚 𝑔 𝑗̂ + 𝑁𝑗̂ = 0 along X-axis and “ΔL” along Y- (c) Bulk modulus
• By comparing the components, axis (1) Young’s modulus (Y) :
− 𝑚 𝑔 + 𝑁 = 0 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑵 =𝒎𝒈=𝑾 • This graph is a straight line • When a wire is stretched (or compressed) the
Hence the apparent weight of the man is equal to his passing through the origin (O). ratio of Tensile stress (or Compressive stress) to
actual weight (N = W) • From the graph, the slope (m) is the Tensile strain (or Compressive strain) is
Case (2) - Elevator moving uniformly in the upward or 𝐴𝐵 ∆𝐿 defined Young’s modulus.
𝑚= = 𝑭
downward direction 𝐵𝐶 𝐹 𝝈𝒕 (𝒐𝒓) 𝝈𝒄 [ ] 𝑭𝑳
𝑨
• In uniform motion (constant velocity) the net force on ∆𝐿 𝐴 𝐿 𝒀= = =
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑚= . 𝜺𝒕 (𝒐𝒓) 𝜺𝒄 ∆𝑳 𝑨 ∆𝑳
the man is still zero. 𝐹 𝐴𝐿 [ ]
𝑳
• Hence the apparent weight of the man is equal to his 𝐹 𝐿 ∆𝐿 (2) Bulk modulus (K) :
(𝑜𝑟) = ( )
actual weight (N = W) 𝐴 𝐴𝑚 𝐿 • The ratio of volume stress (pressure) to the
Case (3) - Elevator is accelerating in the upward 𝐹 ∆𝐿 volume strain is defined as Bulk modulus.
direction : (𝑜𝑟) = 𝑘
𝐴 𝐿 𝝈𝒄 ∆𝑷
• Let upward acceleration be, ⃗⃗⃗𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑗̂ with respect to 𝐹 ∆𝐿 𝑲=− = −
𝜺𝒄 ∆𝑽
ground, then (𝑜𝑟) ∝ [ ]
𝐴 𝐿 𝑽
⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑔 + 𝑁 ⃗ = 𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗𝑎 (𝑜𝑟) − 𝑚 𝑔 𝑗̂ + 𝑁𝑗̂ = 𝑚 𝑎 𝑗̂ (i.e.) stress ∝ strain • Here negative sign indicates as pressure
• By comparing the components, − 𝑚 𝑔 + 𝑁 = 𝑚 𝑎 • Hence stress is directly proportional to strain within increases, the volume decreases.
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑵 = 𝒎 𝒈 + 𝒎 𝒂 = 𝒎 (𝒈 + 𝒂) elastic limit. This is Hooke’s law (3) Rigidity modulus ( 𝜼𝑹) :
• Hence, apparent weight is greater than his actual • The ratio of shearing stress to the shearing strain
weight (𝑁 > 𝑊) (angle of shear) is known as Rigidity modulus.
𝑭 𝑭
Case (4) - Elevator is accelerating in the downward 𝝈𝒔 [ 𝒕] [ 𝒕]
∆𝑨 ∆𝑨
direction : 𝜼𝑹 = = 𝒙 =
𝜺𝒔 [ ] 𝜽
• Let downward acceleration be, ⃗⃗⃗𝑎 = − 𝑎 𝑗̂ with 𝒉
respect to ground, then
⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑔 + 𝑁 ⃗ = − 𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗𝑎 (𝑜𝑟) − 𝑚 𝑔 𝑗̂ + 𝑁𝑗̂ = − 𝑚 𝑎 𝑗̂
• Comparing the components, −𝑚𝑔 +𝑁 = −𝑚𝑎
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑵 = 𝒎 𝒈 − 𝒎 𝒂 = 𝒎 (𝒈 − 𝒂)
• Hence apparent weight is lesser than his actual weight
(𝑁 < 𝑊)

VICTORY R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc ,M.Phil,B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS), GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI -608 502, CUDDALORE DISTRICT
 7 . 3 – ELASTIC ENERGY STORED PER UNIT 7 . 4 – TERMINAL VELOCITY 7 . 5 – POISEUILLE’S FORMULA
VOLUME DEFINITION AND EXPRESSION
• When a wire is stretched, work is done against the Terminal velocity : • Poiseuille derived an expression for the volume of the
restoring force. This work done is stored in the wire • The maximum constant velocity acquired by a body liquid flowing per second through the capillary tube.
in the form of elastic energy. while falling freely through a viscous medium is called • Consider a liquid flowing steadily through a horizontal
• The work done in stretching the wire by "𝑑𝑙 " is, the terminal velocity (𝑣𝑡) capillary tube.
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 𝑑𝑙 Expression for Terminal velocity : • Let v= 𝑉/𝑡 be the volume of liquid flowing out per
• Then the total work done in stretching the wire from • Consider a sphere falls freely through a highly viscous second (i.e.) rate of flow which depends on
0 to 𝑙 is, liquid. 1) Coefficient of viscosity (𝜂) of liquid
𝑙 𝑙
• Let radius of sphere =r 2) Radius (𝑟) of the tube
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑙 − − − −(1) 3) The pressure gradient (𝑃/𝑙)
0 0
Density of sphere =𝜌
• By definition, Young’s modulus is given by, Density of liquid =𝜎 𝑷 𝒛
∴ 𝐯 ∝ 𝜼𝒙 𝒓 𝒚 ( )
𝐹 Coefficient of viscosity of liquid 𝒍
[ ⁄𝐴] 𝐹 𝐿 𝑷 𝒛
𝑌= = =𝜂 𝒙 𝒚
(𝑜𝑟) 𝐯=𝒌 𝜼 𝒓 ( ) − − − (𝟏)
[𝑙⁄𝐿] 𝐴 𝑙 Terminal velocity = 𝑣𝑡 𝒍
𝑌𝐴𝑙 • Weight acting downwards on the sphere 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑘 → 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
(𝑜𝑟) 𝐹= 4 • Put the dimensional formula in equation (1),
𝐿 𝑊 =𝑚𝑔= 𝜌 𝑉𝑔= 𝜌 𝜋 𝑟3 𝑔
• Put this in equation in (1), 3 [𝐿3 𝑇 −1 ] = [𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 ]𝑥 [𝐿] 𝑦 [𝑀𝐿−2 𝑇 −2 ]𝑧
𝑙 • Up thrust on the sphere due to displaced liquid, 𝑀0 𝐿3 𝑇 −1 = 𝑀 𝑥+𝑧 𝐿−𝑥+𝑦−2𝑧 𝑇 −𝑥−2𝑧
𝑌𝐴𝑙 𝑌𝐴 𝑙 4
𝑊=∫ [ ] 𝑑𝑙 = ∫ 𝑙 𝑑𝑙 𝑈 = 𝑚 𝑔 = 𝜎 𝑉 𝑔 = 𝜎 𝜋 𝑟3 𝑔 • comparing powers on both sides, we get
0 𝐿 𝐿 0 3 𝒙 = −𝟏 ; 𝒚=𝟒 ; 𝒛= 𝟏
𝑙
𝑌 𝐴 𝑙2 𝑌𝐴 𝑌 𝐴 𝑙2 • At terminal stage, the viscous force on the sphere in • Put this in equation (1),
𝑊= [ ] = [𝑙 2 − 0] = upward direction, 𝐹 = 6 𝜋 𝜂 𝑟 𝑣𝑡
𝐿 2 0 2𝐿 2𝐿 𝑃 1
1 𝑌𝐴𝑙 1 • At equilibrium, v = 𝑘 𝜂 −1 𝑟 4 ( )
𝑙
𝑊= [ ]𝑙 = 𝐹𝑙 𝑊 = 𝑈+𝐹 𝑟4𝑃
2 𝐿 2 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑊− 𝑈 =𝐹 v=𝑘
• This work done is called elastic potential energy (U). 4 4 𝜂𝑙
𝟏 𝜌 𝜋 𝑟3 𝑔 − 𝜎 𝜋 𝑟 3 𝑔 = 6 𝜋 𝜂 𝑟 𝑣𝑡 • Experimentally the value of k is shown to be , we
𝜋
𝑼 = 𝑭𝒍 3 3 8
𝟐 4 have
• Energy per unit volume is called Energy density (u) 𝜋 𝑟 3 (𝜌 − 𝜎) 𝑔 = 6 𝜋 𝜂 𝑟 𝑣𝑡
1 3 𝝅 𝒓𝟒 𝑷
𝑈 𝐹𝑙 1 𝐹 𝑙 4 𝜋 𝑟 3 (𝜌 − 𝜎) 𝑔 𝐯=
𝟖𝜼𝒍
𝑢= = 2 = [ ][ ] 𝑣𝑡 =
𝐴𝐿 𝐴𝐿 2 𝐴 𝐿 3 6𝜋𝜂𝑟
𝟏 𝟐 𝒓 𝟐 (𝝆
− 𝝈) 𝒈
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 = [ 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑿𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏] 𝒗𝒕 =
𝟐 𝟗 𝜼
• Hence, 𝒗𝒕 ∝ 𝒓𝟐
• If σ > ρ, then the term (ρ - σ) becomes negative leading
to a negative terminal velocity. That is why air bubbles
rise up through water or any fluid. This is also the
reason for the clouds in the sky to move in the upward
direction.

VICTORY R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc ,M.Phil,B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS), GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI -608 502, CUDDALORE DISTRICT
 7 .6 – RELATION BETWEEN SURFACE TENSION 7 . 7 – EXCESS PRESSURE INSIDE A 7 .8 – EXCESS PRESSURE INSIDE A
AND SURFACE ENERGY LIQUID DROP LIQUID (SOAP) BUBBLE
• Consider a rectangular • The small bubbles and liquid drops are spherical • The small bubbles and liquid drops are spherical
frame of wire ABCD in because of the forces of surface tension. because of the forces of surface tension.
a soap solution. Here • Here the pressure inside a bubble or a drop is greater • Here the pressure inside a bubble or a drop is greater
AB be the movable than that outside it. than that outside it.
wire. Excess pressure inside a liquid drop : Excess pressure inside a liquid bubble :
• Here a soap film is
formed which pulls the
wire AB inwards due
to surface tension.
• Let, Length of wire AB = 𝑙
Surface tension = T
Force due to surface tension = F
• Since soap film has two free surfaces, 𝐹=(2 𝑇) 𝑙
• Suppose AB is moved to new position AB through a
small distance Δ𝑥. • Consider a liquid (soap) bubble of radius “R” and
• Consider a liquid drop of radius “R” and surface tension
• Since the area increases, some work has to be done surface tension “T” A soap bubble has two liquid
“T . The various forces acting on the hemispherical
against the inward force due to surface tension. So surfaces in contact with air.
liquid drop are
Work done = Force X Distance • The various forces acting on the hemispherical liquid
1) Force due to surface tension towards right
𝑊 = 𝐹 × Δ𝑥
2) Force due to outside pressure towards right bubble are
𝑊 = (2 𝑇) 𝑙 × Δ𝑥
3) Force due to inside pressure towards left 1) Force due to surface tension towards right
• Increase in area of the film, 2) Force due to outside pressure towards right
• As the drop is in equilibrium,
Δ𝐴 = 2 𝑙 𝑋 Δ𝑥
𝐹𝑇 + 𝐹𝑃1 = 𝐹𝑃2 3) Force due to inside pressure towards left
• Therefore surface energy,, • As the bubble is in equilibrium,
2 𝜋𝑅 𝑇 + 𝑃1 𝜋𝑅2 = 𝑃2 𝜋𝑅2
𝑊 (2 𝑇) 𝑙 𝑋 Δ𝑥 𝐹𝑇 + 𝐹𝑃1 = 𝐹𝑃2
𝑈= = =𝑻 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑃2 𝜋𝑅2 − 𝑃1 𝜋𝑅2 = 2 𝜋𝑅 𝑇
∆𝐴 2 𝑙 𝑋 Δ𝑥 (𝑜𝑟) ( 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) 𝜋𝑅2 = 2 𝜋𝑅 𝑇 2( 2 𝜋𝑅 𝑇) + 𝑃1 𝜋𝑅2 = 𝑃2 𝜋𝑅2
• Hence the surface energy per unit area of a surface is 2 𝜋𝑅 𝑇 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑃2 𝜋𝑅2 − 𝑃1 𝜋𝑅2 = 4 𝜋𝑅 𝑇
numerically equal to the surface tension. (𝑜𝑟) ( 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) = (𝑜𝑟) ( 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) 𝜋𝑅2 = 4 𝜋𝑅 𝑇
𝜋𝑅2 4 𝜋𝑅 𝑇
2𝑇 (𝑜𝑟) ( 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) =
(𝑜𝑟) ( 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) = 𝜋𝑅2
𝑅
4𝑇
• Here ( 𝑃2− 𝑃1)= Δ𝑃 →𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, Therefore, (𝑜𝑟) ( 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) =
𝟐𝑻 𝑅
∆𝑷 = • Here (P2− 𝑃1)= Δ𝑃 →𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 . Therefore,
𝑹 𝟒𝑻
∆𝑷 =
𝑹

VICTORY R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc ,M.Phil,B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS), GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI -608 502, CUDDALORE DISTRICT
 7 . 9 – EXCESS PRESSURE INSIDE A 7 . 10 – SURFACE TENSION OF A LIQUID BY 7 . 11 – ENERGY POSSESSD BY THE LIQUID IN
AIR BUBBLE CAPILLARY RISE METHOD STEADY FLOW
• The small bubbles and liquid drops are spherical • A liquid in a steady flow can possess three kinds of
because of the forces of surface tension. energy.
• Here the pressure inside a bubble or a drop is greater 1) Kinetic energy
than that outside it. • The kinetic energy of a liquid of mass “m” moving
Excess pressure inside an air bubble : with a velocity “𝑣” is
1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚 𝑣 2
2
• Kinetic energy per unit mass
1
𝐾𝐸 𝑚 𝑣2 1
= 2 = 𝑣2
𝑚 𝑚 2
• Kinetic energy unit volume,
1
• The rise or fall of liquid inside the narrow tube is called 𝐾𝐸 𝑚 𝑣2 1
capillarity. It is due surface tension of the liquid. = 2 = 𝜌 𝑣2
𝑉 𝑉 2
• Consider an air bubble of radius “R” and surface tension “T” • Volume of the liquid column in the tube. 2) Potential energy :
2 • The potential energy of a liquid of mass “m” at a
The various forces acting on the hemispherical air 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ + 𝜋 𝑟 2 𝑟 − 𝜋 𝑟3
bubble are 3 height “h” above the ground level is given by,
2 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚 𝑔 ℎ
1) Force due to surface tension towards right 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ + 𝜋 𝑟 3 − 𝜋 𝑟3
2) Force due to outside pressure towards right 3 • Potential energy per unit mass,
2
3) Force due to inside pressure towards left 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ + (1 − ) 𝜋 𝑟 3 𝑃𝐸 𝑚𝑔ℎ
3 = =𝑔ℎ
• As the drop is in equilibrium, 1 𝑚 𝑚
𝐹𝑇 + 𝐹𝑃1 = 𝐹𝑃2
2
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 ℎ + 𝜋𝑟 3 • Potential energy per unit volume
3 𝑃𝐸 𝑚𝑔ℎ
2 𝜋𝑅 𝑇 + 𝑃1 𝜋𝑅2 = 𝑃2 𝜋𝑅2 𝑟 = = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 (ℎ + ) 𝑉 𝑉
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑃2 𝜋𝑅2 − 𝑃1 𝜋𝑅2 = 2 𝜋𝑅 𝑇 3
(𝑜𝑟) ( 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) 𝜋𝑅2 = 2 𝜋𝑅 𝑇 • Weight of the liquid column in the tube 3) Pressure energy :
2 𝜋𝑅 𝑇 𝑟 • The energy acquired by a fluid by applying pressure
(𝑜𝑟) ( 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) = 𝑊 = 𝑚 𝑔 = 𝜌 𝑉 𝑔 = 𝜌 𝜋𝑟 2 (ℎ + ) 𝑔 on the fluid.
𝜋𝑅2 3
• The upward force, balance the weight of the liquid 𝐹
2𝑇 𝑃= (𝑜𝑟) 𝐹 = 𝑃 𝐴
(𝑜𝑟) ( 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) = column, then we have 𝐴
𝑅 𝑟 • Hence pressure energy is,,
• Here ( 𝑃2− 𝑃1)= Δ𝑃 →𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, Therefore, 2 𝜋 𝑟 𝑋 𝑇 cos 𝜃 = 𝜌 𝜋𝑟 2 (ℎ + ) 𝑔
3 𝐸𝑃 = 𝑊 = 𝐹 𝑑 = 𝑃 𝐴 𝑑 = 𝑃 𝑉
𝟐𝑻 𝑟
∆𝑷 = 𝜌 𝜋𝑟 2 (ℎ + ) 𝑔
3 • Pressure energy per unit mass,
𝑹 𝑇= 𝐸𝑃 𝑃𝑉 𝑃 𝑃
2 𝜋 𝑟 × cos 𝜃 = = 𝑚 =
𝒓 𝑚 𝑚 𝜌
𝝆 𝒓 (𝒉 + ) 𝒈 ( )
𝑻= 𝟑 𝑉
𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 • Pressure energy per unit volume,
𝒓
• If 𝒓< <𝒉 , then neglecting 𝐸𝑃 𝑃𝑉
𝟑 = = 𝑃
𝝆𝒓𝒉𝒈 𝑉 𝑉
𝑻=
𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
1
• Since, ℎ ∝ , smaller the radius of the tube, greater
𝑟
the capillarity.

VICTORY R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc ,M.Phil,B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS), GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI -608 502, CUDDALORE DISTRICT
 7 . 12 – BERNOULLI’ S THEOREM 7 . 13 – VENTURIMETER 8 . 1 – CALRIMETRY AND FINAL TEMPERATURE

• The measurement of the amount of heat released or

• According to Bernoulli’s theorem, the sum of • This device is used to find the rate of flow of the
absorbed by thermodynamic system during the
pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential incompressible fluid flowing through a pipe.
heating process is called calorimetry.
energy per unit mass of an incompressible, non - • It works on the principle of Bernoulli’s theorem.
• The heat lost or gain is measured using calorimeter.
viscous fluid in a streamlined flow remains a
constant. • Consider a sample at high temperature (𝑇1) is
Proof : immersed in to a water at room temperature (𝑇2) in
the calorimeter. After some time, both sample and
water reach final equilibrium temperature (𝑇𝑓).
• Here 𝑠1 & 𝑠2 are the specific heat capacities of sample
and water respectively.
• As the calorimeter is insulated, 𝑸𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 = − 𝑸𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕
𝑚2 𝑠2 ( 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇2 ) = − 𝑚1 𝑠1 ( 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇1 )
• From the equation of continuity, 𝑚 2 2 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑚2 𝑠1 𝑇1 = − 𝑚1 𝑠1 𝑇𝑓 + 𝑚1 𝑠1 𝑇1
𝑠
• Consider a flow of liquid through a pipe AB. 𝐴 𝑚2 𝑠2 𝑇𝑓 + 𝑚1 𝑠1 𝑇𝑓 = 𝑚1 𝑠1 𝑇1 + 𝑚2 𝑠2 𝑇2
• Let “V” be the volume of the liquid when it enters 𝐴 𝑣1 = 𝑎 𝑣2 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑣2 = 𝑣 − − − (1)
𝑎 1 [𝑚1 𝑠1 + 𝑚2 𝑠2 ] 𝑇𝑓 = 𝑚1 𝑠1 𝑇1 + 𝑚2 𝑠2 𝑇2
“A” in a time “t” which is equal to the volume of the • Using Bernoulli’s equation for horizontal tube,, 𝒎𝟏 𝒔 𝟏 𝑻 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒔 𝟐 𝑻 𝟐
liquid leaving “B” in the same time. 𝑃1 1 2 𝑃2 1 2 ∴ 𝑻𝒇 =
𝒎𝟏 𝒔 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒔 𝟐
• The total energy due to the flow of liquid at “A”., + 𝑣1 = + 𝑣2
𝜌 2 𝜌 2 • It is the final temperature of the mixture
𝐸𝐴 = 𝐸𝑃𝐴 + 𝐾𝐸𝐴 + 𝑃𝐸𝐴 1 1
𝑷𝑨 𝟏 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌 𝑣22 − 𝜌 𝑣12
𝑬𝑨 = + 𝒗𝑨𝟐 + 𝒈 𝒉𝑨 2 2
𝝆 𝟐 • Put equation (1),
• The total energy due to the flow of liquid at “B”., 1 𝐴 2
1
𝐸𝐵 = 𝐸𝑃𝐵 + 𝐾𝐸𝐵 + 𝑃𝐸𝐵 ∆𝑃 = 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌 ( 𝑣1 ) − 𝜌 𝑣12
2 𝑎 2
𝑷𝑩 𝟏 𝟐 1 2 𝐴2 1 2 (𝐴2 − 𝑎2 )
𝑬𝑩 = + 𝒗 + 𝒈 𝒉𝑩 ∆𝑃 = 𝜌 𝑣1 ( 2 − 1) = 𝜌 𝑣1
𝝆 𝟐 𝑩 2 𝑎 2 𝑎2
• From law of conservation of energy,, 𝑬𝑨 = 𝑬𝑩 2 ∆𝑃 𝑎 2

𝑃𝐴 1 𝑃𝐵 1 ∴ 𝑣12 =
+ 𝑣𝐴2 + 𝑔 ℎ𝐴 = + 𝑣𝐵2 + 𝑔 ℎ𝐵 𝜌 (𝐴2 − 𝑎2 )
𝜌 2 𝜌 2
𝑷 𝟏 𝟐 2 ∆𝑃
(𝒐𝒓) + 𝒗 + 𝒈 𝒉 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑣1 = 𝑎√
𝝆 𝟐 𝜌 (𝐴2 − 𝑎2 )
• This is known as Bernoulli’s theorem. Its another • The above equation gives the speed of flow of fluid at
form the wide end of the tube,
𝑷 𝟏 𝒗𝟐 • Hence the volume of the liquid flowing out per second
+ + 𝒉 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝝆𝒈 𝟐 𝒈 is,,
• When liquid flows through a horizontal pipe, h = 0,
𝟐 ∆𝑷
𝑷 𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝑽 = 𝑨 𝒗𝟏 = 𝑨 𝒂√
+ = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝝆 (𝑨𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 )
𝝆𝒈 𝟐 𝒈
(i.e) Pressure head + Velocity head = Constant
• It implies, that when velocity increases, then pressure
decreases and vice versa.

VICTORY R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc ,M.Phil,B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS), GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI -608 502, CUDDALORE DISTRICT
 8 . 2 – NEWOTON’S LAW OF COOLING 8 . 3 – MAYER’S RELATION FOR IDEAL GAS 8 . 3 – WORKDONE IN ISOTHERMAL PROCESS

• Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate of loss of
heat of a body is directly proportional to the
difference in the temperature between that body and
its surroundings.
Explanation :
• Consider an hot object lost heat to the surrounding.
• Consider “𝜇” mole of an ideal gas in a container with
volume “V”, pressure “P” and temperature “T”
• When the gas is heated at constant volume, the
temperature increased by “dT” and the given heat “Q”
will increase only the internal energy .(i.e.) no work is
done (W=0)
• Consider an ideal gas which is allowed to expand quasi-
statically at constant temperature “T”
• Let its initial state be = 𝑃𝑖 & 𝑉𝑖 and
Final state be = 𝑃𝑓 & 𝑉𝑓
• The work done during this process be,
𝑉𝑓

• Mass of the object =𝑚 • If “𝐶𝑉” is the molar specific heat capacity at constant 𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 − − − − − (1)
• Its specific heat capacity =𝑠 volume, then
𝑉𝑖
• Temperature of the object =𝑇 𝑄 = 𝜇 𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝑇
• As this process occurs quasi-statically. from ideal gas
• Temperature of surroundings = 𝑇𝑂 • Let the change in internal energy be “dU”, then from
equation, we can write
• If the temperature falls by a small amount “dT” in time first law of thermodynamics,
𝑃𝑉= 𝜇𝑅𝑇
“dt”, then the amount of heat lost is, 𝑑𝑈 = 𝑄−𝑊 = 𝑄 𝜇𝑅𝑇
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑚 𝑠 𝑑𝑇 𝒅𝑼 = 𝝁 𝑪𝑽 𝒅𝑻 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑃=
𝑉
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑇 • Suppose the gas is heated at constant pressure and the • Put this in equation (1)
(𝑜𝑟) =𝑚𝑠 − − − − − (1) temperature increases by”dT”
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑉𝑓 𝑉𝑓
• From Newton’s law of cooling, • Let Q be the heat given, “dV” be the change in volume, 𝜇𝑅𝑇 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑄 “W” be the work done and “𝐶𝑃” be the molar specific 𝑊= ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = 𝜇 𝑅 𝑇 ∫
− ∝ 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑂 𝑉 𝑉
𝑑𝑡 heat capacity at constant pressure, then 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖
𝑉
𝑑𝑄 𝑄 = 𝜇 𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑇 𝑊= 𝜇𝑅𝑇 [log 𝑒 𝑉]𝑉𝑓
(𝑜𝑟) = − 𝑎 [𝑇 − 𝑇𝑂 ] − − − (2) 𝑖
𝑑𝑡 and 𝑊 = 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 𝑊 = 𝜇 𝑅 𝑇 [log 𝑒 𝑉𝑓 − log 𝑒 𝑉𝑖 ]
Where, a → positive constant • Then from first law of thermodynamics,
𝑽𝒇
• From equation (1) and (2) 𝑑𝑈 = 𝑄 − 𝑊 𝑾 = 𝝁 𝑹 𝑻 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒆 [ ]
𝑑𝑇 ∴ 𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑊 𝑽𝒊
− 𝑎 [𝑇 − 𝑇𝑂 ] = 𝑚 𝑠 • During isothermal expansion, 𝑉𝑓> 𝑉𝑖. So work done by
𝑑𝑡 𝝁 𝑪𝑷 𝒅𝑻 = 𝝁 𝑪𝑽 𝒅𝑻 + 𝑷 𝒅𝑽 − − − − − (1)
𝑑𝑇 𝑎 • For “𝜇” mole of gas, the equation of state is given by the gas is positive.
(𝑜𝑟) = − 𝑑𝑡 • During isothermal compression, 𝑉𝑓< 𝑉𝑖 So work done
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑂 𝑚𝑠 𝑃𝑉=𝜇𝑅𝑇
• Integrate on both sides and simplifying we get • Differentiate on both sides on the gas is negative.
𝑎
𝑷 𝒅𝑽 = 𝝁 𝑹 𝒅𝑻 • In PV - diagram, the work done during isothermal
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑂 = 𝑒 − 𝑚 𝑠 𝑡+ 𝑏1
𝑎 • Put this in equation (1) expansion or compression is equal to the area under
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑂 = 𝑒 − 𝑚 𝑠 𝑡 𝑒 𝑏1 𝜇 𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑇 = 𝜇 𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝑇 + 𝜇 𝑅 𝑑𝑇 the graph.
𝑎
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑂 = 𝑏2 𝑒 − 𝑚 𝑠 𝑡 𝐶𝑃 = 𝐶𝑉 + 𝑅
𝒂
𝑻 = 𝑻𝑶 + 𝒃𝟐 𝒆− 𝒎 𝒔 𝒕 𝑪𝑷 − 𝑪𝑽 = 𝑹 − − − − (𝟐)
Where 𝑒 = 𝑏2 −→ 𝑎 constant
𝑏1 • This is known as Meyer’s relation.
• Thus temperature of the • Here 𝑪𝑷 is equal to the sum of 𝑪𝑽 and R. So 𝑪𝑷 > 𝑪𝑽
object decreases
exponentially with increase
of time
• From the it is clear that the rate of cooling is high
initially and decreases with falling temperature.

VICTORY R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc ,M.Phil,B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS), GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI -608 502, CUDDALORE DISTRICT
 8 . 4 – WORKDONE IN ADIABATIC PROCESS 8 . 5 – WORKDONE IN ISOBARIC PROCESS 8 . 6 – HEAT ENGINE AND ITS EFFICIENCY

• Consider an ideal gas enclosed in a cylinder having • The work done by the gas is • Heat engine is a device which takes heat as input and
perfectly insulating walls and base fitted with 𝑉𝑓
converts this heat in to work by undergoing a cyclic
frictionless and insulating piston. 𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 − − − − − (1) process.
• Let its initial state be = 𝑃𝑖 , 𝑉𝑖 & 𝑇𝑖 and Set up :
𝑉𝑖
• Final state be = 𝑃𝑓, 𝑉𝑓 & 𝑇𝑓 • In isobaric process, pressure “P” is constant, hence
1. Hot reservoir (or) source
• The work done during this process be, 𝑉𝑓 2. Working substance
𝑉𝑓
𝑉𝑓 3. Cold reservoir (or) sink
𝑊 = 𝑃 ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑃 [𝑉]𝑉 = 𝑃 [𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖 ] − − − (2) Expression for efficiency of heat
𝑖
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 − − − − − (1)
𝑉𝑖 engine :
𝑉𝑖 • If 𝑉𝑓 < 𝑉𝑖 , then W is negative which implies work is • The heat engine works in a cyclic process. Hence
• As this process occurs quasi-statically. from ideal gas done on the gas. Δ𝑼=𝟎
equation, we can write
• If 𝑉𝑓 > 𝑉𝑖 , then W is positive which implies work is done • The efficiency of heat engine is defined as the ratio of
𝑃 𝑉 𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝐾) the work done W (output) to the heat absorbed 𝑸𝑯
𝐾 by the gas.
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑃 = 𝛾 • For isobaric process, we have ; 𝑃 𝑉𝑖 = 𝜇 𝑅𝑇𝑖 and (input) in one cyclic process.
𝑉 • Let the working substance absorb heat QH units from
• Put this in equation (1) 𝑃 𝑉𝑓 = 𝜇 𝑅𝑇𝑓
𝑉𝑓 𝑉𝑓 • Put this in above equation, we get the source and reject QL units to the sink after doing
𝐾 𝑉 −𝛾+1 𝑓
𝑉
𝑊 = 𝑃 [𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖 ] = 𝜇 𝑅 [𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 ] work W units, then
𝑊 = ∫ 𝛾 𝑑𝑉 = 𝐾 ∫ 𝑉 −𝛾 𝑑𝑉 = 𝐾 [ ] Input heat = Work done + ejected heat
𝑉 −𝛾 + 1 𝑉 𝑻𝒊
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑖 𝑾 = 𝝁 𝑹 𝑻𝒇 [𝟏 − ] 𝑄𝐻 = 𝑊 + 𝑄𝐿
𝐾 1 𝑻𝒇
𝑊= [𝑉
1−𝛾 1−𝛾
− 𝑉𝑖 ] = [𝐾 𝑉𝑓
1−𝛾 1−𝛾
− 𝐾 𝑉𝑖 ]• 𝑾 = 𝑸𝑯 − 𝑸𝑳 − − − − − (1)
1−𝛾 𝑓 1−𝛾 In PV - diagram, the area under the isobaric curve is • Then the efficiency of heat engine
1 𝛾 1−𝛾 𝛾 1−𝛾
equal to the work done in isobaric process. 𝑊 𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐿
𝑊 = [𝑃 𝑉 𝑉 − 𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖 ] • The first law of thermodynamics for isobaric process ; 𝜂= =
1−𝛾 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐻
1 Δ𝑼=𝑸+𝑾=𝑸+𝑷 Δ𝑽 𝑸𝑳
𝑊 = [𝑃 𝑉 − 𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 ] 𝜼= 𝟏− − − − − − (𝟐)
1−𝛾 𝑓 𝑓 𝑸𝑯
• But we have, 𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 = 𝜇 𝑅𝑇𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑓 𝑉𝑓 = 𝜇 𝑅𝑇𝑓 . • Since 𝑄𝐿 < 𝑄𝐻 , the efficiency (𝜼) always less than one
Thus equation (2) becomes
1 𝜇𝑅
𝑊 = [𝜇 𝑅𝑇𝑓 − 𝜇 𝑅𝑇𝑖 ] = [ 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑖 ]
1−𝛾 1−𝛾 𝑓
𝝁𝑹
𝑾 = [ 𝑻𝒊 − 𝑻𝒇 ]
𝜸−𝟏
• In adiabatic expansion, W is positive. So 𝑻𝒊>𝑻𝒇 and
hence the gas cools during adiabatic expansion.
• In adiabatic compression, W is negative. So 𝑻𝒊<𝑻𝒇 and
hence the temperature of the gas increases during
adiabatic expansion.
• The area under adiabatic curve gives the total work
done

VICTORY R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc ,M.Phil,B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS), GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI -608 502, CUDDALORE DISTRICT
 • Then the net work done (W) by the working substance • By applying adiabatic condition 𝑇 𝑉 𝛾−1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡,
8 . 7 – CARNOT IDEAL HEAT ENGINE AND
in one cycle, we get
CARNOT CYCLE
𝑊 = workdone by the substance− workdone on the substance 𝑇𝐻 𝑉2
𝛾−1
= 𝑇𝐿 𝑉3 𝛾−1
Carnot ideal heat engine: 𝑊 = 𝑊𝐴→𝐵 + 𝑊𝐵→𝐶 − 𝑊𝐶→𝐷 − 𝑊𝐷→𝐴 𝛾−1 𝛾−1
• A reversible heat engine operation in a cycle between 𝑊 = 𝑊𝐴→𝐵 − 𝑊𝐶→𝐷 [∵ 𝑊𝐵→𝐶 = 𝑊𝐷→𝐴 ] & 𝑇𝐻 𝑉1 = 𝑇𝐿 𝑉4
𝛾−1
two temperatures in a particular way is called a • Thus the net work done (W) by the working substance 𝑉2 𝑉3 𝛾−1
[ ] = [ ]
Carnot Engine. It has four main parts. They are, in one cycle is equal to the area enclosed by ABCD of the 𝑉1 𝑉4
(1) Source PV diagram. 𝑉2 𝑉3
(2) Sink: (𝑜𝑟) =
𝑉1 𝑉4
(3) Insulating stand • Put this in equation (2)
(4) Working substance 𝑄𝐿 𝑇𝐿
Carnot cycle : =
𝑄𝐻 𝑇𝐻
• The working substance is subjected to four successive • Put this in equation (1) , the efficiency becomes
reversible processes called Carnot’s cycle. 𝑸𝑳 𝑻𝑳
1) During isothermal expansion, the work done by 𝜼 =𝟏− = 𝟏−
𝑸𝑯 𝑻𝑯
the substance (gas) is Important Results :
𝑉2
𝑉2 • Here 𝑇𝐿 < 𝑇𝐻 . So 𝜼 <1. It implies that the efficiency
𝑄𝐻 = 𝑊𝐴→𝐵 = ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 = 𝜇 𝑅 𝑇𝐻 log 𝑒 [ ] cannot be 100%
𝑉1
𝑉1 • 𝜼 = 𝟏 (𝟏𝟎𝟎 %) only when 𝑇𝐿=0 𝐾 which is impossible
𝑾𝑨→𝑩 = 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆 𝑨𝑩 to attain practically
2) During adiabatic expansion, the work done by the • The efficiency of Carnot engine is independent of the
substance (gas) is working substance. It depends only on 𝑇𝐿 & 𝑇𝐻. The
𝑉3
𝜇𝑅 greater the difference between the two temperatures,
𝑊𝐵→𝐶 = ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 = [ 𝑇 − 𝑇𝐿 ] 8 . 9 – EFFICIENCY OF CARNOT ENGINE higher the efficiency,
𝛾−1 𝐻
𝑉2 • When 𝑇𝐿=𝑇𝐻 , then 𝜂=0. No engine can work having
𝑾𝑩→𝑪 = 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆 𝑩𝑪 • Efficiency is defined as the ratio of work done by the source and sink at the same temperature.
3) During isothermal compression, the work done on working substance in one cycle to the amount of heat • The entire cycle is reversible in the Carnot engine
the substance (gas) is extracted from the source. cycle. So Carnot engine is itself a reversible engine
𝑉4 • By definition, the efficiency is and has maximum efficiency.
𝑉4 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑊
𝑄𝐿 = 𝑊𝐶→𝐷 = ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 = 𝜇 𝑅 𝑇𝐿 log 𝑒 [ ] 𝜂= =
𝑉3 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑄𝐻
𝑉3
𝑉3 • From first law of thermodynamics, 𝑊= 𝑄𝐻−𝑄𝐿.
= − 𝜇 𝑅 𝑇𝐿 log 𝑒 [ ] Therefore, efficiency
𝑉4
𝑾 𝑸𝑯 − 𝑸𝑳 𝑸𝑳
𝑾𝑪→𝑫 = − 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆 𝑪𝑫 𝜼= = =𝟏− − − − (𝟏)
4) During adiabatic compression, the work done on 𝑸𝑯 𝑸𝑯 𝑸𝑯
the substance (gas) is • Applying isothermal conditions, we get
𝑉1 𝑉2
𝜇𝑅 𝑄𝐻 = 𝜇 𝑅 𝑇𝐻 log 𝑒 [ ]
𝑊𝐷→𝐴 = ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 = [ 𝑇 − 𝑇𝐿 ] 𝑉1
𝛾−1 𝐻 𝑉3
𝑉4 𝑄𝐿 = 𝜇 𝑅 𝑇𝐿 log 𝑒 [ ]
𝜇𝑅 𝑉4
𝑊𝐷→𝐴 = − [ 𝑇 − 𝑇𝐻 ] 𝑉3 𝑉
𝛾−1 𝐿 𝑄𝐿 𝜇 𝑅 𝑇𝐿 log 𝑒 [ ] 𝑇𝐿 log 𝑒 [ 3 ]
𝑉4 𝑉4
𝑾𝑫→𝑨 =− 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆 𝑫𝑨 = = − −(2)
𝑄𝐻 𝑉2 𝑉
𝜇 𝑅 𝑇𝐻 log 𝑒 [ ] 𝑇𝐻 log 𝑒 [ 2 ]
𝑉1 𝑉1

VICTORY R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc ,M.Phil,B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS), GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI -608 502, CUDDALORE DISTRICT
 8 . 10 – ENTROPY AND 2ND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 9 . 1 – PRESSURE EXERTED BY THE GAS 9 . 2 – KINETIC INTERPRETATION OF
TEMPERATURE
𝑄
• The quantity [𝑇 ] is called entropy and it is a very • Consider a mono atomic gas of “N” molecules each of
• Pressure exerted by the gas molecules
mass “m” in a cubical container of side "𝑙"
important thermodynamic property of a system and 1 𝑁
it is also a state variable. • As the molecules collides with each other and with the 𝑃 = 𝑚 ̅̅̅
𝑣2
walls, their momentum changes. 3 𝑉
𝑄 1
• [ 𝑇𝐻 ] is the entropy received by the Carnot engine • Hence the change in momentum of the molecule along (𝑜𝑟) 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁 𝑚 ̅̅̅
𝑣2
𝐻 3
𝑄𝐿 x - axis = − 𝑚 𝑣𝑥 − 𝑚 𝑣𝑥 = − 2 𝑚 𝑣𝑥 • From the ideal gas equation, 𝑃 𝑉 =𝑁 𝑘 𝑇
from source and [ ] is the entropy given out by the • According to law of conservation of momentum, the
𝑇𝐿 • Comparing these two equations,
Carnot engine to the sink change in momentum of wall = + 2 𝑚 𝑣𝑥 1
• For reversible engines (Carnot engine) both • Let area of the wall be “A” and number of molecules per 𝑁𝑘𝑇 = 𝑁 𝑚 ̅̅̅𝑣2
𝑁 3
entropies should be same, so the change in entropy of unit volume be n (= ) , then number of molecules 1
the Carnot engine in one cycle is zero.
𝑉 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑘𝑇 = 𝑚 ̅̅̅
𝑣2
hitting the right side wall in time t 3
• But practical engines like petrol or diesel engines are 𝑛 𝑛 3
• Divide by [ ] on both sides,
𝑄𝐿 𝑄𝐻 𝑁𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑋 𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑣𝑥 ∆𝑡 − − − − (1) 2
not reversible, and hence > 2 2 3 3 1
𝑇𝐿 𝑇𝐻 • In the same interval of time t, the total momentum 𝑘𝑇 = 𝑋 𝑚 ̅̅̅
𝑣2
• Thus for all the natural process (irreversible process) transferred by the molecules, 2 2 3
3 1
the entropy always increases. 𝑛 𝑘𝑇 = 𝑚 ̅̅̅
𝑣2
∆𝑝 = 𝑁𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑋 2 𝑚 𝑣𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑣𝑥 ∆𝑡 𝑋 2 𝑚 𝑣𝑥 2 2
• For reversible process entropy will not change. 2 • Here RHS represents average kinetic energy (𝐾𝐸 ̅̅̅̅ )
2
• Entropy determines the direction in which the ∆𝑝 = 𝐴 𝑣𝑥 𝑚 𝑛 ∆𝑡 − − − − − (2)
• From Newton’s second law, the change in momentum of a molecule, Hence
natural process should occur. ̅̅̅̅
∈ = 𝑲𝑬
• Heat always flows from state of higher temperature in a small interval of time gives rise to force. Thus
𝟑
to lower temperature, because entropy increased ∆𝑝 𝐴 𝑣𝑥2 𝑚 𝑛 ∆𝑡 = 𝒌𝑻 −−−−−−
𝐹= = = 𝐴 𝑚 𝑛 𝑣𝑥2 𝟐
when heat flows from hot object to cold object. ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 − − (𝟏)
• If heat were to flow from a cold to hot object, entropy • By definition, pressure exerted by the molecules on the
• The above equation implies that, the temperature
will decrease leading to violation of second law of wall of area “A” is,
of a gas is a measure of the average translational
thermodynamics. 𝐹 𝐴 𝑣𝑥2 𝑚 𝑛
𝑃= = = 𝑚 𝑛 𝑣𝑥2 − − − (3) kinetic energy per molecule of the gas
• Entropy is also called ‘measure of disorder’. All the 𝐴 𝐴 • The average kinetic energy of a molecule is directly
natural process occur such that the disorder • Since all molecules moves in random motion, they do
proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas
should always increases. no have same speed. So we can replace the term 𝑣𝑥2 by
(∈ ∝ 𝑻)
• A drop of ink has less disorder (low entropy) and the average ̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑥2 and we get,
• Also, average kinetic energy of a molecule is
when it diffused in to water it spreads it leads to more 𝑃 = 𝑚 𝑛 ̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑥2 − − − − (4)
1 ̅̅̅ independent of its mass.
disorder and its entropy increases. The diffused ink • But. ̅̅̅
𝑣𝑥 = ̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣̅𝑧 . Hence 𝑣𝑥 = 2 𝑣 2
3 • The internal kinetic energy of the gas is
can never become a drop again • Put this in equation (4) 1 𝟑
1 𝟏 𝑵 𝑈 = 𝑁 ∈ = 𝑵 [ 𝑚 ̅̅̅ 𝑣2] = 𝑵𝒌𝑻
𝑃 = 𝑛 𝑚 ̅̅̅ 𝑣2 = 𝒎 ̅̅̅
𝒗𝟐 2 𝟐
3 𝟑 𝑽 • Thus the internal energy depends only on absolute
• The pressure exerted by the molecules depends on temperature and is independent of pressure and
(i) Number density (n) volume
(ii) Mass of the molecule (m)
(iii) Mean square speed (𝑣 ̅̅̅2 )

VICTORY R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc ,M.Phil,B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS), GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI -608 502, CUDDALORE DISTRICT
 9 . 3 – LAW OF EQUIPARTITION OF ENERGY 9 . 4 – RATIO OF TWO SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITIES OF 9 . 5 – MEAN FREE PATH OF THE GAS
MONO, DI AND TRI ATOMIC MOLECULES
Law of equipartition of Energy: • The average distance travelled by the molecule
Application of law of equipartition energy in specific
• According to kinetic theory, the average kinetic between collisions is called mean free path based on
heat of a gas :
energy of system of molecules in thermal equilibrium kinetic theory.
• Meyer’s relation 𝑪𝑷 − 𝑪𝑷 = 𝑹 connects the two
at temperature T is uniformly distributed to all • Consider a system of molecules each with diameter “d”
specific heats for one mole of an ideal gas.
degrees of freedom (x or y or z), so that each degree and assume that only one molecule is in motion.
• Equipartition law of energy is used to calculate the
of freedom will get
𝟏
𝒌 𝑻 of energy. This is called 𝑪 • Number of molecules/volume =n
𝟐 value of 𝐶𝑃 and 𝐶 𝑉 and the ratio between them 𝜸 = 𝑷 Average speed of molecule =𝑣
equipartition of energy. 𝑪𝑽

Average Kinetic energy of mono , di and tri atomic Here γ is called adiabatic exponent. Distance travelled in time “t” =𝑣𝑡
molecules : 1) Mono atomic molecules : In this time “t” the molecule to move in imaginary
1) For mono atomic molecule, 𝒇 = 𝟑 . So the average 𝒅𝑼 𝑪𝑷 cylinder of volume = 𝜋𝑑 2 𝑣𝑡
𝑼 = 𝑲𝑬 × 𝑵𝑨 𝑪𝑽 = 𝑪𝑷 = 𝑪𝑽 + 𝑹 𝜸= The number of molecules in this imaginary cylinder,
kinetic energy is , 𝒅𝒕 𝑪𝑽
𝟏 𝟑 3 3 5 5 = 𝜋𝑑 2 𝑣𝑡𝑛
[𝑲𝑬]𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒐 = 𝟑 𝑿 𝒌 𝑻 = 𝒌 𝑻 𝑈= 𝑅𝑇 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅 𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅 𝛾= = 1.67 • That molecule collides with any molecule and the
𝟐 𝟐 2 2 2 3
2) For di atomic molecule, at low temperature, 𝒇 = 𝟓 . So number of collisions is equal to the number of
the average kinetic energy 2) Di atomic molecules : molecules in the volume of the imaginary cylinder.
𝟏 𝟓 𝒅𝑼 𝑪𝑷 • Thus the mean free path (𝜆) is given by
[𝑲𝑬𝒍𝒐𝒘 ]𝒅𝒊𝒂 = 𝟓 𝑿 𝒌 𝑻 = 𝒌 𝑻 𝑼 = 𝑲𝑬 × 𝑵𝑨 𝑪𝑽 = 𝑪𝑷 = 𝑪𝑽 + 𝑹 𝜸= 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑
𝟐 𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝑪𝑽 𝜆=
For di atomic molecule, at high temperature, 𝒇 = 𝟕 . At low temperature 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
So the average kinetic energy 5 5 7 7
𝒗𝒕 𝟏
𝟏 𝟕 𝝀 = = − − − − − (𝟏)
𝑈= 𝑅𝑇 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅 𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅 𝛾= = 1.40 𝟐
𝝅𝒅 𝒗𝒕𝒏 𝝅 𝒅𝟐 𝒏
[𝑲𝑬𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉 ] = 𝟕 𝑿 𝒌 𝑻 = 𝒌 𝑻 2 2 2 5
𝒅𝒊𝒂 𝟐 𝟐 • The average relative speed of one molecule with
3) For Linear tri atomic molecule, 𝒇 = 𝟕 . So the average At high temperature
respect to other molecules has to be taken in to account
7 7 9 9
kinetic energy is 𝑈= 𝑅𝑇 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅 𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅 𝛾= = 1.28 • Hence the correct expression for mean free path,
𝟏 𝟕 2 2 2 7 𝟏
[𝑲𝑬𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 ]𝒕𝒓𝒊 = 𝟕 𝑿 𝒌 𝑻 = 𝒌 𝑻 𝝀 = − − − − − (𝟐)
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝝅 𝒅 𝒏 √𝟐
For Non - Linear tri atomic molecule, 𝒇 = 𝟔 . So the 3) Tri atomic molecules : 𝟏
average kinetic energy is 𝒅𝑼 𝑪𝑷 • Thus, 𝝀 ∝
𝒏
. It implies that, when number density
𝑼 = 𝑲𝑬 × 𝑵𝑨 𝑪𝑽 = 𝑪𝑷 = 𝑪𝑽 + 𝑹 𝜸=
𝟏 𝒅𝒕 𝑪𝑽 increases, the molecular collisions also increases, so it
[𝑲𝑬𝒏𝒐𝒏−𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 ]𝒕𝒓𝒊 = 𝟔 𝑿 𝒌 𝑻 = 𝟑 𝒌 𝑻
𝟐 For linear tri atomic molecule decreases mean free path.
7 7 9 9 • The above equation is rewritten as
𝑈= 𝑅𝑇 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅 𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅 𝛾 = = 1.28 𝑚
2 2 2 7 𝜆 = [∵ 𝑚 𝑛 = 𝜌]
For Non - linear tri atomic molecule 𝜋 𝑑 2 𝑚 𝑛 √2
𝒎
4 𝝀 = − − − − − − − (3)
𝑈 = 3𝑅𝑇 𝐶𝑉 = 3 𝑅 𝐶𝑃 = 4 𝑅 𝛾 = = 1.33 𝟐
𝝅 𝒅 𝝆 √𝟐
3 𝑁
• But, 𝑃 𝑉 = 𝑁 𝑘 𝑇 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑃 = 𝑘 𝑇 = 𝑛 𝑘 𝑇
𝑉
𝑃
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑛 =
𝑘𝑇
• Substituting this, we get,
𝒌𝑻
𝝀 = − − − − − − − (𝟒)
𝟐
𝝅 𝒅 𝑷 √𝟐
.

VICTORY R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc ,M.Phil,B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS), GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI -608 502, CUDDALORE DISTRICT
 10 . 1 – HORIZONTANL OSCILLATIONS OF A SPRING 10 . 2 – VERTICAL OSCILLATIONS OF A SPRING 10 . 3 – EFFECTIVE SPRING CONSTANT OF THE
SPRINGS CONNECTED IN SERIES
• Consider a system
containing mass “m”
attached to a mass less
spring with spring
constant “k” placed on
a smooth horizontal
surface.
• Suppose the mass is
• Let two springs of spring constants “𝑘1 ” and “𝑘2 ” are
displaced through a • Consider a system containing mass “m” attached to a connected in series.
distance “x” towards mass less spring with spring constant “k” which is • Let “𝑘𝑠 ” be the effective spring constant in series.
right from its suspended freely from the ceiling.
equilibrium position • Let “F” be the applied force towards right , then the
• Length of the spring before loading = L and Elongation springs stretch different lengths. Let it be 𝑥1 and 𝑥2
and then released, It
of spring due to mass = 𝑙 • The net displacement of the mass “m” : 𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2
will oscillate back and
• Let “𝐹1” be the restoring force, then • From Hooke’s law
forth about its mean
𝐹1 ∝ 𝑙 (𝑜𝑟) 𝐹1 = −𝑘 𝑙 − − − (1) 𝐹 = − 𝑘𝑠 (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 )
position.
• At equilibrium, 𝐹1 + 𝐹𝑔 = 0 (𝑜𝑟) − 𝑘 𝑙 + 𝑚 𝑔 = 0 𝐹
• Let “F” be the restoring force due to stretching of the (𝑜𝑟) 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = − − − − − − − (1)
𝑚 𝑙
spring, then 𝑚𝑔 =𝑘𝑙 (𝑜𝑟) = − − − (2) 𝑘𝑠
𝐹 ∝ 𝑥 (𝑜𝑟) 𝐹 = −𝑘 𝑥 − − − − (1) 𝑘 𝑔 • Also, 𝐹 = − 𝑘1 𝑥1 = − 𝑘2 𝑥2
• From Newton’s second law, • If the mass is further displaced downward through a Put this in equation (1)
𝑑2 𝑥 small distance “𝑦” and then released, it will oscillate up 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
𝐹=𝑚 − − − − (2) and down. Let “ 𝐹2” be the new restoring force, then − − = −
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘𝑠
• From equation (1) and (2) 𝐹2 = −𝑘 (𝑙 + 𝑦) = −𝑘 𝑙 − 𝑘 𝑦
1 1 1 𝑘1 + 𝑘2
𝑑2𝑥 • Then the total force., 𝐹 = 𝐹2 + 𝑚 𝑔 = + =
𝑚 = −𝑘𝑥 𝐹 = −𝑘 𝑙 − 𝑘 𝑦 + 𝑚 𝑔 𝑘𝑠 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘1 𝑘2
𝑑𝑡 2 𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐
2 • But, 𝑚 𝑔 =𝑘 𝑙 . ∴ 𝐹 =− 𝑘 𝑦 ∴ 𝒌𝒔 =
𝑑 𝑥 𝑘 𝒌𝟏 + 𝒌𝟐
2
= − 𝑥 • From Newton’s second law,
𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑑2𝑦 • If “n” springs are connected in series, the effective
𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝒌 𝑚 = −𝑘𝑦 spring constant is
+ 𝒙 =𝟎 − − − − (3) 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑛
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒎 2
𝑑 𝑦 𝑘 1 1 1 1 1 1
• This is similar to differential equation of SHM = − 𝑦 = + + + …+ = ∑
𝒅𝟐 𝒙
⃗
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑘𝑠 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3 𝑘𝑛 𝑘𝑖
[ + 𝝎𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗𝒙 = 𝟎 ], then 𝟐
𝒅 𝒚 𝒌 𝑖=1
𝒅𝒕𝟐 + 𝒚=𝟎 − − − − − − − (5) • If 𝑘1 = 𝑘2 = 𝑘3 ……= 𝑘𝑛=𝑘, then
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒎 1 1 1 1 𝑛
𝑘 𝑘 • This is similar to differential equation of SHM = + + + … (𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠) =
𝜔2 = (𝑜𝑟) 𝜔=√ 𝑘𝑠 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
m m 𝒅𝟐 𝒙
⃗
[ + 𝝎𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗𝒙 = 𝟎 ], then 𝒌
𝒅𝒕𝟐
• Then the time period is 𝒌𝒔 =
𝒏
𝟐𝝅 𝐦 𝑘 𝒌 • Hence the effective spring constant reduces by the
𝑻= = 𝟐𝝅√ 𝜔2 = (𝒐𝒓) 𝝎=√
𝝎 𝐤 m 𝐦 factor “n”
• Its frequency, • Then the time period is • Thus for springs in series connection, the effective
𝟏 𝟏 𝒌 spring constant is lesser than the individual spring
√ 𝟐𝝅 𝐦 𝒍
𝒇= = 𝑻= = 𝟐𝝅√ = 𝟐𝝅√ constants.
𝑻 𝟐𝝅 𝐦 𝝎 𝐤 𝐠

VICTORY R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc ,M.Phil,B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS), GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI -608 502, CUDDALORE DISTRICT
 10 . 4 – EFFECTIVE SPRING CONSTANT OF THE 10 .5 – SIMPLE PENDULUM 10 .6 – ENERGY IN SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
SPRINGS CONNECTED IN PARALLEL
Expression for potential energy (U):
• For SHM, byHooke’ s law, ⃗⃗⃗𝑭 = − 𝒌 ⃗⃗𝒓
𝟏
𝑼(𝒙) = 𝒎 𝝎𝟐 𝒙𝟐
𝟐
𝟏
𝑼(𝒕) = 𝒎 𝝎𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝝎𝒕
𝟐
Expression for kinetic energy (KE) :
• Let two springs of spring constants “𝑘1 ” and “𝑘2 ” are • The kinetic energy is given by,
connected in parallel. • Resolving the gravitational force in to its components.
1 1 𝑑𝑥 2
• Let “𝑘𝑃 ” be the effective spring constant in parallel. (1) Normal component ; 𝐹𝑎𝑠=𝑚 𝑔 cos𝜃 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑥2 = 𝑚 [ ]
(2) Tangential component ;𝐹𝑝𝑠=𝑚 𝑔 sin𝜃 2 2 𝑑𝑡
• Let “F” be the applied force towards right , then both 𝟏
the springs stretch by same displacements. Let it be • Then the centripetal force along the string, 𝑲𝑬(𝒙) = 𝒎 𝝎 𝟐 [𝑨𝟐
− 𝒙 𝟐]

𝑚 𝑣2 𝟐
“𝑥” 𝑇 − 𝑚 𝑔 cos 𝜃 = − − − − (1) 𝟏
• From Hooke’s law, 𝐹 = − 𝑘𝑃 𝑙 𝑲𝑬(𝒕) = 𝒎 𝑨𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝝎𝒕
𝟐
• But 𝐹1 = − 𝑘1 𝑥 and 𝐹2 = − 𝑘2 𝑥 , therefore net • The restoring force is Expression for total energy (E) :
force is 𝐹 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 𝑑2𝑠 𝑑2 𝑠 • It is the sum of potential and kinetic energy and it is
𝑚 2
= − 𝑚 𝑔 sin 𝜃 (𝑜𝑟) = − 𝑔 sin 𝜃
− 𝑘𝑃 𝑥 = − 𝑘1 𝑥 − 𝑘2 𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 given by,
𝑑2 𝑠 𝑑2 𝜃 𝑬 = 𝑲𝑬(𝒙) + 𝑼(𝒙)
𝒌𝑷 = 𝒌𝟏 + 𝒌𝟐 • From the figure , 𝑠=𝑙 𝜃 . Hence =𝑙
• If “n” springs are connected in paralle, the effective 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝟏
• Therefore, 𝑬= 𝒎 𝝎𝟐 𝑨𝟐 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
spring constant is 𝟐
𝒏 𝑑2𝜃 𝑑2𝜃 𝑔 • Alternatively, we have
𝑙 2
= − 𝑔 sin 𝜃 (𝑜𝑟) 2
= − sin 𝜃
𝒌𝑷 = 𝒌𝟏 + 𝒌𝟐 + 𝒌𝟐 + … + 𝒌𝒏 = ∑ 𝒌𝒊 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑙 𝑬 = 𝑲𝑬(𝒕) + 𝑼(𝒕)
𝒊=𝟏
• If θ is small, then sin 𝜃= 𝜃 𝟏
𝑑2𝜃 𝑔 𝑬 = 𝒎 𝝎𝟐 𝑨𝟐 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
• If 𝑘1 = 𝑘2 = 𝑘3 ……= 𝑘𝑛=𝑘, then 𝟐
2
= − 𝜃
𝑘𝑃 = 𝑘 + 𝑘 + 𝑘 + … … .. (𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠) 𝑑𝑡 𝑙
𝒌𝑷 = 𝒏 𝒌 𝒅𝟐 𝜽 𝒈
(𝑜𝑟) + 𝜽 =𝟎
• (i.e.) the effective spring constant increases by the 𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒍
factor “n” • This is similar to differential equation of SHM .
• Thus for springs in parallel connection, the effective 𝒅𝟐 𝒙
⃗
. [ 𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗𝒙 = 𝟎 ]. So the motion of simple
spring constant is greater than individual spring 𝒅𝒕
• Thus the amplitude of simple harmonic oscillator can
constant. pendulum is a simple harmonic. Then
be expressed in terms of total energy.
𝑔 𝑔 𝟐𝑬 𝟐𝑬
𝜔2 = (𝑜𝑟) 𝜔=√ 𝑨𝟐 = =
𝑙 l 𝒎 𝝎𝟐 𝒌
• Thus the time period is given by
𝟐𝑬 𝟐𝑬
𝟐𝝅 𝒍 (𝒐𝒓) 𝑨= √ =√
𝑻= = 𝟐𝝅√ 𝒎 𝝎𝟐 𝒌
𝝎 𝒈
The frequency is given by,
𝟏 𝟏 𝒈
𝒇= = √
𝑻 𝟐𝝅 𝒍

VICTORY R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc ,M.Phil,B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS), GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI -608 502, CUDDALORE DISTRICT
 11 . 1 – VELOCITY OF TRANSVERSE WAVES IN 11 . 2 – VELOCITY OF LONGITUDINAL WAVES IN 11 . 3 – NEWTON’S FORMULA FOR VELOCITY OF
STRING AN ELASTIC MEDIUM SOUND AND LAPLACE CORRECTION
Newton’s formula :
• Sir Isaac Newton assumed that, when sound
propagates in air, takes place isothermal in nature.
• For isothermal process, the gas obeys Boyle’s law (i.e.)
𝑷 𝑽=𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
• Differentiate and simplifying, we get
𝑉 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃
𝑃=− =− = 𝐵𝑇
• Let “𝑢” be the velocity of the piston and “𝑣” be the 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
( )
velocity of the elastic wave. 𝑉
• In time interval "∆𝑡" the distance moved by the piston • where, 𝐵𝑇 → Isothermal bulk modulus of air
= ∆𝑑 = 𝑢 𝑡 • The speed of sound,
• Let “𝜇 ” be the mass per unit length (i.e.) linear mass The distance moved by the elastic disturbance 𝑩𝑻 𝑷
density, then mass of this segment, 𝑑𝑚 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑙 = Δ𝑥 =𝑣 ∆𝑡 𝒗𝑻 = √ = √
𝝆 𝝆
• Consider this segment as an arc of radius “R” with • The mass of the air moved in time “Δ𝑡”
𝐴𝐵 𝑑𝑙 ∆𝑚 = 𝜌 𝑉 = 𝜌 𝐴 ∆𝑥 = 𝜌 𝐴 𝑣 ∆𝑡 • At NTP, , 𝑃 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 1.013 𝑋 105 𝑁 𝑚−2
centre “O”, then 2 𝜃 = =
𝐴𝑂 𝑅 • Then the momentum imparted due to motion of piston 𝜌 = 1.293 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−3
• The centripetal acceleration supplied by the tension in with velocity “u” is ∆𝑝 = ∆𝑚 𝑢 = 𝜌 𝐴 𝑣 ∆𝑡 𝑢 • Hence the speed of sound in air; 𝑣𝑇 ≈ 𝟐𝟖𝟎 𝒎 𝒔−𝟏
𝑣2
the string is, 𝑎𝑐𝑝 = • But the change in momentum (i.e.) impulse is • But the speed of sound in air at 0°C is experimentally
𝑅
• Then the centripetal force is 𝐼 = ∆𝑝 observed as 𝟑 𝟑𝟑𝟐 𝒎 𝒔−𝟏
(𝑑𝑚) 𝑣 2 (𝜇 𝑑𝑙) 𝑣 2 [∆𝑃 𝐴] ∆𝑡 = 𝜌 𝐴 𝑣 ∆𝑡 𝑢 • It is about 16% more than the theoretical value.
𝐹𝑐𝑝 = (𝑑𝑚) 𝑎𝑐𝑝 = = ∆𝑃 = 𝜌 𝑣 𝑢 − − − − − − (1) Laplace correction :
𝑅 𝑅
• The tension “T” can be resolved in two components. • But when sound wave travels through air, there occur • Laplace assuming when sound propagates in air is
(1) Horizontal components - 𝑇cos𝜃 & 𝑇cos𝜃 pressure - volume change . Let “B” be the bulk modulus adiabatic in nature.
(2) Vertical components - 𝑇 s𝑖𝑛𝜃 & 𝑇s𝑖𝑛𝜃 of the medium, then • For adiabatic process, the gas obeys Poisson’s law (i.e.)
∆𝑃 𝑉 ∆𝑃 [𝐴 ∆𝑥] ∆𝑃 𝑣 𝑡 ∆𝑃 𝑣 [𝜌 𝑣 𝑢] 𝑷 𝑽𝜸 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
• The horizontal components are equal in magnitude but 𝐵= = = = =
opposite in direction, therefore cancel each other. ∆𝑉 ∆𝑉 [𝐴 ∆𝑑] 𝑢 𝑡 𝑢 • Differentiate and simplifying, we get
𝑉 𝑉 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃
• The vertical components are in same direction and 𝑃𝛾 =− =− = 𝐵𝐴
hence they add up. So the net radial force, 𝐵 𝐵 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
∴ 2
𝑣 = (𝑜𝑟) 𝑣 =√ ( )
𝐹𝑅 = 𝑇 s𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑇 s𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 2 𝑇 sin 𝜃 𝜌 𝜌 𝑉
• If 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙, sin𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 • where, 𝐵𝐴→ Adiabatic bulk modulus of air
𝑑𝑙 • In general, if “E” be the modulus of elasticity of the • The speed of sound in air is,
∴ 𝐹𝑅 = 𝑇 2 𝜃 = 𝑇 medium, then the velocity of longitudinal waves is
𝑅 𝑩𝑨 𝑷𝛾
• Under equilibrium 𝑬 𝒗𝑨 = √
𝝆
= √
𝝆
= 𝒗𝑻 √ 𝛾
𝑑𝑙 (𝜇 𝑑𝑙) 𝑣 2 𝒗 =√
𝝆
𝑇 = • Here, 𝛾 = 𝑃
𝐶
𝑅 𝑅 𝐶𝑉
𝑇 = 𝜇 𝑣2 • For air, 𝛾=1.47 .Hence speed of sound in air is,
𝑇
𝑣2 = 𝑣𝐴 = 280 √1.47 = 𝟑𝟑𝟏. 𝟑 𝒎 𝒔−𝟏
𝜇
• This value is very much closer to the experimental
𝑻 value.
𝒗= √
𝝁

VICTORY R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc ,M.Phil,B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS), GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI -608 502, CUDDALORE DISTRICT
 11 . 4 – INTERFERENCE OF SOUND WAVES 11 . 5 – STATIONARY WAVES FORMATION 11 . 6 – SONOMETER
Interference : Stationary waves : • Sono means sound related and sonometer implies
• It is the phenomenon in which two waves • Two waves of same amplitude, same velocity and same sound related measurements.
superimpose to form a resultant wave of greater, frequency superimpose in opposite direction, the
lower or the same amplitude. resulting pattern is called standing waves or stationary
Theory : waves.
• Consider two harmonic waves Theory :
𝑦1 = 𝐴1 sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) • Consider two harmonic progressive waves,
𝑦2 = 𝐴2 sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) 𝑦1 = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
Where 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 → amplitude of the waves 𝑦2 = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡)
• From superposition principle, • From superposition principle, the resultant
𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 displacement,
𝑦 = 𝐴1 sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) + 𝐴2 sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) Working :
𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) + 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡) • A transverse stationary wave is produced so that nodes
• On simplifying, we get • By solving , we get
𝒚 = 𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕 + 𝜽) are formed at the knife edges and anti - nodes are
𝒚 (𝒙, 𝒕) = 𝟐 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒌𝒙 = 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕 formed in between them.
Where , 𝐴 sin 𝜃 = 𝐴2 sin 𝜑 • where, 𝑨 = 2 𝐴 sin𝑘𝑥 → Amplitude of vibrating • Length of vibrating string =𝑙
𝐴 cos 𝜃 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 cos 𝜑 segment Diameter of the string =𝑑
• Squaring and then add, we get • This represents a stationary wave or standing wave, Tension on the string = 𝑇 = 𝑀𝑔
𝑨𝟐 = 𝑨𝟏𝟐 + 𝑨𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 which means that this wave does not move either Mass per unit length of the sting (i.e.)linear mass
• Since intensity is the square of the amplitude, forward or backward. 𝑚
[𝐼 = 𝑨𝟐 ] we have resultant intensity 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
density = 𝜇 =
• If sin𝑘𝑥=1 (or) 𝑘𝑥 = , , , … then amplitude in this 𝐿
I = 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 + 𝟐 √𝐈𝟏 𝐈𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛗 2 2 2 • Let “𝜌” be the density of the material, then =𝜌=
position is maximum and it is known as antinode. 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
Constructive interference : 𝟐𝒎+𝟏 𝝀 𝑉
=
𝐿𝐴
= 𝜋𝑑2
• When two waves are in phase with each other then The mth anti nodal position is 𝒙𝒎 = [ ]𝟐 𝐿(
4
)
𝟐
𝜆
the resultant amplitude and intensity becomes • If sin𝑘𝑥=0 (or) 𝑘𝑥 = 0, 𝜋, 2𝜋, 3𝜋, … then amplitude in • The distance between to consecutive nodes is , then
2
maximum. Thus for constructive interference, this position is zero and it is known as node. 𝜆
𝜑 = 0, 2𝜋, 4𝜋, 6𝜋, … = 2𝑛𝜋 𝝀 𝑙= (𝑜𝑟) 𝜆 = 2 𝑙
The nth nodal position is 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒏 2
• Then resultant amplitude and resultant intensity 𝟐
𝑨𝒎𝒂𝒔 = 𝐀𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐 • The distance between two successive anti-nodes or • Then the frequency of vibrating element is
𝝀 𝑣 1 𝑇
Imax = 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 + 𝟐 √𝐈𝟏 𝐈𝟐 = [𝐀𝟏 + 𝐴2 ]𝟐 nodes can be computed by 𝑓= = √
𝟐 𝜆 2𝑙 𝜇
Destructive interference :
• When two waves are out of phase with each other • Here, 𝜇 =
𝑚
= 𝜌 (
𝜋𝑑 2
), then
then resultant amplitude and intensity becomes 𝐿 4

minimum (even zero). Thus for destructive 1 𝑇

interference, 𝜑 = 𝜋, 3𝜋, 5𝜋, … = (2𝑛 − 1) 𝜋 𝑓=
2𝑙√ 𝜋𝑑 2
𝜌( )
• Then resultant amplitude and resultant intensity 4
𝑨𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝐀𝟏 − 𝑨𝟐
Im𝑖𝑛 = 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 − 𝟐 √𝐈𝟏 𝐈𝟐 = [𝐀𝟏 − 𝐴2 ]𝟐 𝟏 𝑻
𝒇= √
𝒍𝒅 𝝆𝝅

VICTORY R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc ,M.Phil,B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS), GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI -608 502, CUDDALORE DISTRICT
 11 . 7 – FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY,
11 . 8 – CLOSED ORGAN PIPE 11 . 9 – OPEN ORGAN PIPE
HARMONICS AND OVERTONES

• Since, the amplitude must vanish at the boundaries,

therefore, the displacement at the boundary must
satisfy the following conditions
𝑦 (𝑥 = 0, 𝑡) = 0
& 𝑦 (𝑥 = 𝐿, 𝑡) = 0
We know that, the distance between two successive • It is a pipe with both ends open (e.g.) Flute
𝜆𝑛 • It is a pipe with one end closed and the other end open.
nodes is (e.g.) Clarinet • The incoming wave from both open ends superpose
2 results stationary waves;
• If there are “n” number of nodes formed between two • Thus the incoming wave from open end and reflected
wave at closed end are superpose results stationary • Here anti-nodes are formed at open ends and nodes are
boundaries, then
𝜆𝑛 2𝐿 waves. between them.
𝐿=𝑛 [ ] (𝑜𝑟) 𝜆𝑛 = • Here node is formed at closed end and anti-node is • At fundamental mode of vibration,
2 𝑛 𝜆1
• Therefore not all wavelengths are allowed. formed at open end. 𝐿= (𝑜𝑟) 𝜆1 = 24 𝐿
• For n = 1 (first mode) ; 𝜆1 = 2 𝐿 • At fundamental mode, 2
𝑣 𝑣
𝜆1 ∴ 𝑓1 = =
𝑣 𝑣 1 𝑇 𝐿= (𝑜𝑟) 𝜆1 = 4 𝐿 𝜆1 2𝐿
∴ 𝑓1 = = = √ 4 • It is fundamental frequency or first harmonic
𝜆1 2𝐿 2𝐿 𝜇 𝑣 𝑣
∴ 𝑓1 = = • During second mode,
• For n=2 (second mode) ; 𝜆2 =
2𝐿 𝜆1 4𝐿
2 𝜆2 2𝐿
𝑣 𝑣
2 It is the fundamental frequency (i.e) first harmonic 𝐿= (𝑜𝑟) 𝜆1 =
∴ 𝑓2 = = 2 [ ] = 2 𝑓1 • During second mode, 2 2
𝜆2 2𝐿 𝑣 𝑣
2𝐿
3 𝜆2 4𝐿 ∴ 𝑓2 = = 2 [ ] = 2 𝑓1
• For n=3 (third mode) ; 𝜆3 = 𝐿= (𝑜𝑟) 𝜆1 = 𝜆2 2𝐿
3 4 3 It is first overtone or second harmonic
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
∴ 𝑓3 = = 3 [ ] = 3 𝑓1 ∴ 𝑓2 = = 3 [ ] = 3 𝑓1 • During third mode,
𝜆3 2𝐿 𝜆2 4𝐿
3 𝜆3 2𝐿
• In general, for nth mode, the frequency is, 𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑓1 It is first overtone or third harmonic 𝐿= (𝑜𝑟) 𝜆1 =
• The lowest natural frequency (n = 1) is called • During third mode, 2 3
𝑣 𝑣
fundamental frequency. 5 𝜆3 4𝐿 ∴ 𝑓3 = = 3 [ ] = 3 𝑓1
𝐿= (𝑜𝑟) 𝜆1 = 𝜆3 2𝐿
• The second natural frequency (n=2) is called first over 4 5 It is second overtone or third harmonic
𝑣 𝑣
tone. ∴ 𝑓3 = = 5 [ ] = 5 𝑓1 • In general, for nth mode of vibration ; : 𝒇𝒏 = 𝒏 𝒇𝟏
• The third natural frequency (n=3) is called second over 𝜆3 4𝐿
It is second overtone or fifth harmonic • Thus the frequencies of harmonics are in the ratio
tone.
• In general, for nth mode of vibration : 𝒇𝒏 = (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏) 𝒇𝟏 𝑓1 ∶ 𝑓2 ∶ 𝑓3 ∶ 𝑓4 ∶ … . = 1 ∶ 2 ∶ 3 ∶ 4 ∶ … …
• Therefore, the nth natural frequency 𝒇𝒏=𝒏 𝒇𝟏
• Thus the frequencies of harmonics are in the ratio • Thus the open organ pipe has all the harmonics.
• If natural frequencies are written as integral multiple
of fundamental frequencies, then the frequencies are 𝑓1 ∶ 𝑓2 ∶ 𝑓3 ∶ 𝑓4 ∶ … . = 1 ∶ 3 ∶ 5 ∶ 7 ∶ … …
called harmonics. • Thus the closed organ pipe has only odd harmonics

VICTORY R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc ,M.Phil,B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS), GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI -608 502, CUDDALORE DISTRICT