Lecture Note1

2D problems of elasticity
AE51003/AE61009: Applied Elasticity and Plasticity

Prasun Jana
Assistant Professor, Aerospace Engineering
IIT Kharagpur

1 Two-dimensional formulation
Plane stress and plane strain represent the fundamental plane problem in elasticity.

1.1 Plane strain

Consider an infinitely long cylindrical (prismatic) body shown in Fig. 1. If the body forces
and the tractions on the lateral boundaries are independent of the z coordinate and have no
z component, Then we can take
u = u(x, y)

v = v(x, y)

w=0

This deformation is referred to as a state of plane strain in the x-y plane.

All cross-section R will have identical displacements, and thus the 3-D problem is reduced
to a 2-D formulation in region R in the x − y plane.

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This lecture note should be used for reading purposes only. Many texts of this note may not be original;
are taken directly from some reference materials.

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 Figure 1: Long cylindrical body representing plane strain conditions.

Strain-displacement relationship:
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
εx = , εy = , γxy = ( + )
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
εz = γxz = γyz = 0

Stress-strain relationship:

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εz = 0 ⇒ 0 = [σz − ν(σx + σy ] ⇒ σz = ν(σx + σy )
E
1 1 − ν2 ν(1 + ν)
εx = [σx − ν(σy + σz ] = σx − σy
E E E
1 − ν2 ν(1 + ν) τxy 2(1 + ν)
εy = σy − σx and γxy = = τxy
E E G E
For plane strain, the equilibrium equations

∂σx ∂τxy
+ + Fx = 0
∂x ∂y
∂τxy ∂σy
+ + Fy = 0
∂x ∂y

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Third equation vanishes identically.

Strain compatibility for plane strain

∂ 2 εx ∂ 2 εy ∂ 2 εxy ∂ 2 γxy
+ (= 2 ) =
∂y 2 ∂x2 ∂x∂y ∂x∂y

1.2 Plane stress

The second type of two-dimensional theory applies to domains bounded by two parallel planes
separated by a distance that is small in comparison to other dimensions in the problem.
Again, choosing the x,y-plane to describe the problem, the domain is bounded by two planes
z = ±h/2, as shown in Fig. 2. Here, the top and bottom planes are traction (or stress) free.
Thus,
σz = τxz = τyz = 0 on each face.

Figure 2: Thin elastic plate representing plane stress conditions..

As thickness is less, they will be approximately zero throughout the entire domain. Also, as
the region is thin in the z direction it can be argued that the other nonzero stress components

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will have little variation in the z-direction and the variation can be neglected. Thus, we can
take
σx = σx (x, y)

σy = σy (x, y)

τxy = τxy (x, y)

Stress-strain relationship:
1
εx = (σx − νσy )
E
1
εy = (σy − νσx )
E
τxy 2(1 + ν)
γxy = = τxy
G E
γyz = 0, γxz = 0

and
−ν
εz = (σx + σy )
E
Note that εz = 0 for plane strain but not for plane stress.

Equilibrium equations
∂σx ∂τxy
+ + Fx = 0
∂x ∂y
∂τxy ∂σy
+ + Fy = 0
∂x ∂y
Compatibility equations

∂ 2 εx ∂ 2 εy ∂ 2 γxy
+ =
∂y 2 ∂x2 ∂x∂y

1.3 Airy stress function

Let us assume φ = φ(x, y) such that
∂2φ
σx =
∂y 2
∂2φ
σy =
∂x2

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 ∂2φ
τxy = −
∂x∂y
This will satisfy the equilibrium equation of both plane strain and plane stress identically
with zero body force. Here, φ is called the Airy stress function

With equilibrium now satisfied, we focus on remaining field equation, That is, the compati-
bility equation.

∂ 2 εx ∂ 2 εy ∂ 2 γxy
+ =
∂y 2 ∂x2 ∂x∂y
For plane strain

∂ 2 εx 1 − ν 2 ∂ 2 σx ν(1 + ν) ∂ 2 σy 1 − ν 2 ∂ 4 φ ν(1 + ν) ∂ 4 φ
= − = −
∂y 2 E ∂y 2 E ∂y 2 E ∂y 4 E ∂x2 ∂y 2
∂ 2 εy 1 − ν 2 ∂ 2 σy ν(1 + ν) ∂ 2 σx 1 − ν 2 ∂ 4 φ ν(1 + ν) ∂ 4 φ
= − = −
∂x2 E ∂x2 E ∂x2 E ∂x4 E ∂x2 ∂y 2
∂ 2 γxy 2(1 + ν) ∂ 2 τxy 2(1 + ν) ∂ 4 φ
= =−
∂x∂y E ∂x∂y E ∂x2 ∂y 2
So,

1 − ν2 ∂4φ ∂4φ 2ν(1 + ν) 2(1 + ν) ∂ 4 φ

( )( 4 + 4 ) + (− + ) 2 2 =0
E ∂y ∂x E E ∂x ∂y
⇒
∂4φ ∂4φ ∂4φ
+ 2 + =0
∂x4 ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂y 4
⇒
∇4 φ = 0
Here, ∇4 = ∇2 ∇2 is called the biharmonic operator.

With similar procedure, we can see that compatibility for plane stress also reduce to

∇4 φ = 0.

Therefore, the plane problem of elasticity has been reduced to a single equation in terms of
the Airy stress function φ.

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1.4 Equivalence between plane strain and stress problem
Note that each theory had similar equilibrium and compatibility equation. However, it is
observed that the only difference being in the stress-strain relation.
Thus, from a mathematical perspective, plane strain solution simply looks like plane stress
solution for a material with different elastic constants and vice versa.

′ ′
E ν
A plane stress problem can be converted to plane strain by making E = 2 and ν = 1−ν ′
(1−ν ′ )
and then dropping the primes.

1.5 Two-dimensional problem solution

Inverse solution approach
Assume a form of the solution to the biharmonic equation (∇4 φ = 0) and then try to
determine which problem may be solved by this solution.
Assumed solution form for the airy stress function is taken to be a general polynomial.
X
∞ X
∞
φ(x, y) = Amn xm y n
m=0 n=0

Note⇒

• m+n 6 1 do not contribute to the stresses, so two (lower order terms) may be dropped.

• Terms with m + n 6 3 automatically satisfy ∇4 φ = 0.

• For m + n < 3 terms,the constants Amn must be related.

(m+2)(m+1)m(m−1)Am+2,n−2 +2m(m−1)n(n−1)Amn +(n+2)(n+1)n(n−1)Am−2,n+2 = 0

1.5.1 Pure bending of a beam

Beam subjected to equal end moments. See Fig. 3.

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 Figure 3: Beam under equal end moments.

Boundary Conditions:
σy (x, ±c) = 0
τxy (x, ±c) = τxy (±l, y) = 0
Z c
σx (±l, y)dy = 0 (1)
Z c
−c

σx (±l, y)ydy = −M
−c

Note that the exact point wise loading on the ends is not considered here. Only the statically
equivalent effect is considered.
Choose,
φ = A03 y 3 (Automatically satisfy∇4 φ = 0).
∂2φ
σx = = 6A03 y (linear in y)
∂y 2
σy = τxy = 0
This stress field satisfies (1),(2)and (3) boundary conditions.
Bc (4) gives
M
A03 = −
4c3
So,
σx = − 3M
2c3
y, σy = τxy = 0

This is the final stress field for this particular problem.

Displacements

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Assuming plane stress,
∂u 1 3M
= εx = (σx − νσy ) = − y
∂x E 2Ec3
3M
u=− xy + f (y)
2Ec3
∂v 1 ν3m
= εy = (σy − νσx ) = y
∂y E 2Ec3
3Mν 2
v= y + g(x)
4Ec3
Where f , g are arbitrary function of integration.
Using the shear strain-displacement relation
∂u ∂v 3M ′
+ =0⇒− 3
x + f (y) + g ′ (x) = 0
∂y ∂x 2EC
3M ′ ′
− 3
x + g (x) = −f (y) = constant = w0
2Ec
Upon integration,
f (y) = −w0 y + u0
3Mx2
g(x) = + w0 x + v0
4Ec3
u0 , v0 and w0 are arbitrary constants of integration and represent rigid-body motion terms.

Now let us consider end boundary conditions of the beam. For a simply supported beam →

v(±l, 0) = 0

u(−l, 0) = 0
2
This leads to, u0 , w0 and v0 = − 3M l
4Ec3

3M
u=− xy
2Ec3
3Mx2 3Mν 3 3Ml2
v= + y −
4Ec3 4Ec3 4Ec3
Noting
2c3
I= (Assuming unit thickness)
3
M
σx = − y, σy = τxy = 0
I
Mxy M
u=− ,v = [νy 2 + x2 − l2 ]
EI 2EI
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Strength of material solution: Euler-Bernoulli beam theory
My
σx = − , σy = τxy = 0
I
Neutral plane deflection
u(x, 0) = 0
M
v(x, 0) = (x2 − l2 )
2EI
Comparing these two, we see that they are identical.

1.5.2 Bending of End-loaded cantilever Beam.

Consider the problem of bending of a cantilever beam subjected to end load (see Fig. 4).

Figure 4: Bending of an end-loaded cantilever.

Bxy 3
The appropriate stress function, φ = Axy + 6
Hence,
∂2φ
σx = = Bxy
∂2y
∂2φ
σy = 2 = 0
∂ x
∂2φ By 2
τxy = − = −A −
∂x∂y 2

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BC:
b
τxy (x, ± ) = 0
2
Z b
2
− τxy dxdy = P
− 2b

(See sign convention for τxy , This is because it is on the neagtive x face).
BC:
Bb2
BC(i) results in → A = −
8
12P
BC(ii) results in → B = 3
b
Since,

12p b2 3P
A = −( 3
) =−
b 8 2b

Therefore,

3P 2P
xy + 3 xy 3
φ=−
2b b
12P xy Px
σx = − 3
=− y
b I
σy = 0
12P P
τxy = − 3 (b2 − 4y 2) = − (b2 − 4y 2 )
8b 8I
b3
With, I = 12 , second moment of area of the beam cross-section.

This solution is exact subject to the following conditions:

• The shear force P is distributed in the same manner as the shear stress is dis-
tributed (Eq.(1)).

• The distribution of shear and direct stress at the built-in end is the same as in
Eq.(1).

• All sections of the beam, including the built-in end, are free to distort.

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In practice none of these conditions is satisfied.But by virtue of st.Venent’s principle, We
may assume that the solution is exact for regions of the beam away from the built-in end
and the applied load.
Now,
∂u σx P xy
= εx = =−
∂x E EI
∂v νσx νP xy
= εy = − =
∂y E EI
∂u ∂v τxy P
+ = γxy = =− (b2 − 4y 2 )
∂y ∂x G 8IG
From these equations and applying the displacement boundary conditions→

u(l, 0) = 0

v(l, 0) = 0
∂v
Neglecting transverse effect, ∂x
(l, 0) = 0 (slope of neutral plane is zero).

P x2 y νP y 3 P y 3 P l2 P b2
u=− − + +( − )y
2EI 6EI 6IG 2EI 8IG
νP xy 2 P x3 P l2 x P l3
v= + − +
2EI 6EI 2EI 3EI
The deflection curve of the neutral plane is

P x3 P l2 x P l3
(v)y=0 = − +
6EI 2EI 3EI
and at the tip (x=0)⇒

P l3
vtip =
3EI
We see that the expression matches exactly with that of the strength of material solution.
However, if we include the shear effect→

P
γxy = − (b2 − 4y 2)
8IG

Note that γxy is independent of x i.e. constant throughout the beam length.
At y = 0 (neutral plane)

P b2
γxy = − ,
8IG
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which amounts to rotation of the neutral plane as shown in Fig. 5.

Figure 5: Rotation of neutral plane due to shear in end-loaded cantilever.

The deflection of the neutral plane due to this shear strain at any section is

P b2
(l − x)
8IG
So,

P x3 P l2 x P l3 P b2
(v)y=0 = − + + (l − x)
6EI 2EI 3EI 8IG
Thus, the above equation includes the shear effect.

Now check the distorted shape of the beam cross-section. At the built end, x = l, (assumed
free to more)
νP y 3 P y 3 P b2 y
u= + −
6EI 6IG 8IG
Therefore, ‘plane section remain plane’ does not hold when the shear load is present.

However, for a long, slender beam, bending stresses are much greater than shear stresses
and the effect of the shear stress can be ignored.

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Figure 6: (a) Distortion of cross section due to shear; (b) effect on distortion of rotation due
to shear.

1.6 Exercises
1. A sample, made of an isotropic material, is subjected to a test under plane stress condi-
tions (specified by σz = τxz = τyz = 0) using a special loading frame that maintains an
in-plane loading constraint σx = 2σy . Determine the slope of the stress-strain response
σx vs. εx for this.

2. Consider a beam carrying a uniformly distributed transverse load w along its top
surface (see Fig. 7). Assuming plane stress condition and using Airy’s stress function
approach, develop a elasticity solution for this problem. Compare this solution with
the corresponding strength of material solution and comment on the limitations of the
strength of material theory.

3. Show that the Airys stress function

3P N
φ= (xy − (xy 3 )/(3c2 )) + y 2
4c 4c
solves the following cantilever beam problem (shown in Fig. 8). Use pointwise boundary
condition on y = ±c and only resultant effects at the ends (x = 0 and L). For the case
with N = 0, compare the elasticity stress field with the corresponding results from
strength of material theory.

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Figure 7: a beam carrying a uniformly distributed transverse load w along its top surface.

Figure 8: cantilever beam under end loads.

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