Ch.7. Plane Linear Elasticity: Multimedia Course On Continuum Mechanics

CH.7.
PLANE LINEAR
ELASTICITY
Multimedia Course on Continuum Mechanics
Overview
 Plane Linear Elasticity Theory Lecture 1
 Plane Stress
 Simplifying Hypothesis
 Strain Field Lecture 2
 Constitutive Equation
 Displacement Field
 The Linear Elastic Problem in Plane Stress Lecture 3
 Examples
 Plane Strain
 Simplifying Hypothesis
 Strain Field
 Constitutive Equation Lecture 4
 Stress Field
 The Linear Elastic Problem in Plane Stress
 Examples
2
Overview (cont’d)
 The Plane Linear Elastic Problem
Lecture 5
 Governing Equations
 Representative Curves
 Isostatics or stress trajectories
 Isoclines
 Isobars Lecture 6
 Maximum shear lines
3
7.1 Plane Linear Elasticity Theory
Ch.7. Plane Linear Elasticity
4
Plane Linear Elasticity
 For some problems, one of the principal directions is known
a priori:
 Due to particular geometries, loading and boundary conditions
involved.
 The elastic problem can be solved independently for this direction.
 Setting the known direction as z, the elastic problem analysis is
reduced to the x-y plane PLANE ELASTICITY
 There are two main classes of plane linear elastic problems:

 Plane stress
REMARK
 Plane strain The isothermal case will not be studied here for the
sake of simplicity. Generalization of the results
obtained to thermo-elasticity is straight-forward.
7
7.2 Plane Stress
8
Hypothesis on the Stress Tensor
 Simplifying hypothesis of a plane stress linear elastic problem:
1. Only stresses “contained in the x-y plane” are not null
σ x τ xy 0
 
[σ ]xyz ≡ τ xy σ y 0
0 0 0 

2. The stress are independent of the z direction.
σ x = σ x ( x, y , t )
σ y = σ y ( x, y , t ) REMARK
τ xy = τ xy ( x, y, t ) The name “plane stress” arises
from the fact that all (not null)
stress are contained in the x-y
plane.
9
Geometry and Actions in Plane Stress
 These hypothesis are valid when:
 The thickness is much smaller than the typical dimension associated to the
plane of analysis: e << L
 The actions b ( x,t ) , u* ( x,t ) and t* ( x,t ) are contained in the plane of
analysis (in-plane actions) and independent of the third dimension, z.
 t* ( x,t ) is only non-zero on the
contour of the body’s thickness:
10
Strain Field in Plane Stress
 The strain field is obtained from the inverse Hooke’s Law:
2(1 + ν )
(σ x − νσ y )
1
εx = γ xy =
2ε xy = τ xy
ν 1 +ν E E
− Tr ( σ ) 1 +
ε= σ
E E
σ z =0
1
εy =
E
(σ y − νσ x ) γ xz =
2ε xz =
0
τ xz =0
ν
τ yz =0 − (σ x + σ y )
εz = γ yz =
2ε yz =
0
E
 As σ x = σ x ( x, y , t )
ε = ε ( x, y , t )
σ y = σ y ( x, y , t )
 And the strain tensor for plane stress is:

 1 
 εx γ xy 0
2
ν

ε ( x, y, t ) ≡  γ xy
1
εy 0

with ε z =
−
1 −ν
( εx +εy )
2 
 
 0 0 εz 
 
11
Constitutive equation in Plane Stress
 Operating on the result yields:
E
2(1 + ν ) =σx ε x + νε y 
1
εx =
E
(σ x − νσ y ) γ xy 2ε xy =
=
E
τ xy (1 − ν )
2
(σ y − νσ x )
1 E
εy = γ xz =
2ε xz = =σy ε y + νε x 
(1 − ν )
0 2
E
ν
− (σ x + σ y )
εz = γ yz =
2ε yz =
0 τ xy =
E
γ xz
E plane
2 (1 + ν )
=C stress
σ x  1 ν 0  ε x 
  E ν 1   
σ y  =  0  ε y 
τ  1 −ν
2
 1 −ν  γ 
 xy   xy 
 0 0
2 
= {σ} = {ε}
Constitutive equation
{σ} C stress ⋅ {ε}
plane
in plane stress =
(Voigt’s notation)
12
Displacement Field in Plane Stress
 The displacement field is obtained from the geometric equations,
ε ( x, t ) = ∇ S u ( x, t ) . These are split into:
 Those which do not affect the displacement u z :
∂u x
ε x ( x, y , t ) =
∂x
∂u y Integration u x = u x ( x, y , t )
ε y ( x, y , t ) =
∂y in . u y = u y ( x, y , t )
∂u x ∂u y
γ xy ( x, y=
, t ) 2ε= +
∂y ∂x
xy
 Those in which u z appears:

ν ∂uz
ε z ( x, y , t ) =
−
1 −ν
( ε x + ε y ) ( x, y , t ) =
∂z
⇒ uz ( x, y , z, t )
∂u x ( x, y ) ∂uz ∂uz 
γ xz ( x, y , t ) = 2ε xz =
∂z  ∂x
+ =
∂x
= 0 Contradiction !!!
 
=0 
 ⇒ uz ( z, t )
∂u y ( x, y ) ∂uz ∂uz
γ yz ( x, y , t ) = 2ε yz = + = = 0
 ∂ z  ∂y ∂y 
=0 
13
The Linear Elastic Problem in
Plane Stress
 The problem can be reduced to the two dimensions of the plane of
analysis.
 The unknowns are:
ε x  σ x 
u x 
u ( x, y , t ) ≡   {ε}( x, y, t ) ≡ ε y  {σ}( x, y, t ) ≡ σ y 
u y  γ  τ 
 xy   xy 
 The additional unknowns (with respect to the general problem) are either null,
or independently obtained, or irrelevant:
σ=
z τ=
xz τ=
yz γ=
xz γ=
yz 0 REMARK
This is an ideal elastic problem because it
ν
εz = −
1 −ν
(ε x + ε y ) cannot be exactly reproduced as a particular
case of the 3D elastic problem. There is no
u z ( x, y , z , t ) does not appear guarantee that the solution to u x ( x, y, t ) and
in the problem
u y ( x, y, t ) will allow obtaining the solution to
u z ( x, y, z , t ) for the additional geometric eqns.
14
Examples of Plane Stress Analysis
 3D problems which are typically assimilated to a plane stress state are
characterized by:
 One of the body’s dimensions is significantly smaller than the other two.
 The actions are contained in the plane formed by the two “large” dimensions.
Slab loaded on
Deep beam
the mean plane
15
7.3 Plane Strain
16
Hypothesis on the Displacement Field
 Simplifying hypothesis of a plane strain linear elastic problem:
1. The displacement field is
u x 
 
u = u y 
0
 
2. The displacement variables associated to the x-y plane are

independent of the z direction.
u x = u x ( x, y , t )
u y = u y ( x, y , t )
17
Geometry and Actions in Plane Strain
 These hypothesis are valid when:
 The body being studied is generated by moving the plane of analysis
along a generational line.
 The actions b ( x,t ) , u* ( x,t ) and t* ( x,t ) are contained in the plane
of analysis and independent of the third dimension, z.
 In the central section, considered as the “analysis section” the
following holds (approximately) true:
uz = 0
∂u x
=0
∂z
∂u y
=0
∂z
18
uz = 0
∂u x
Strain Field in Plane Strain

=0
∂z
∂u y
=0
∂z
 The strain field is obtained from the geometric equations:

∂u x ( x, y , t ) ∂uz
ε x ( x, y=
,t) εz
= = 0
∂x ∂z
∂u y ( x, y , t ) ∂u x ( x, y , t ) ∂uz
ε y ( x=
, y, t ) γ xz
= =
+ 0
∂y ∂z ∂x
∂u x ( x, y , t ) ∂u y ( x, y , t ) ∂u y ( x, y , t ) ∂u
γ xy ( x=
, y, t ) + γ yz
= =
+ z 0
∂y ∂x ∂z ∂y
 And the strain tensor for plane strain is:
 1 
 εx 2
γ xy 0
 
REMARK
ε ( x, y, t ) ≡  γ xy 0
1
εy
2  The name “plane strain” arises
 
 0 0 0 from the fact that all strain is
  contained in the x-y plane.
19
Stress Field in Plane Strain
 Introducing the strain tensor into Hooke’s Law
= (σ λTr ( ε ) 1 + 2Gε ) and
operating on the result yields:
σ x = λ (ε x + ε y ) + 2Gε x τ xy = G γ xy
σ y = λ (ε x + ε y ) + 2Gε y τ xz = G γ xz = 0
= ( λ + 2G ) ε y + λε x
σ z = λ (ε x + ε y ) = v (σ x + σ y ) τ yz = G γ yz = 0
ε x = ε x ( x, y , t )
 As ε y = ε y ( x, y , t )
σ = σ ( x, y , t )
ε z = ε z ( x, y , t )
γ xy = γ xy ( x, y , t )
σ x τ xy 0 
And the stress tensor
σ z ν (σ x + σ y )

σ ( x, y, t ) ≡ τ xy σ y 0  with=
for plane strain is:  0 0 σ z 
20
Constitutive equation in Plane Strain
 Introducing the values of the strain tensor into the constitutive equation
and operating on the result yields:
E (1 −ν )  ν 
σ x =( λ + 2G ) ε x + λε y = ε + εy
(1 +ν )(1 − 2ν )  1 −ν 
x
σ λ Tr ( ε ) 1 + 2 µ ε σ y =( λ + 2G ) ε y + λε x =
E (1 −ν ) 
ε +
ν
ε

(1 +ν )(1 − 2ν )  1 −ν 
y x
E
τ xy G=
= γ xy γ xy
2 (1 +ν )
plane
=C strain
 ν 
 1 0 
1 −ν
{σ} C strain ⋅ {ε}
plane
σ x    ε x  =
  E (1 − ν )  ν   
σ y  =  1 0  ε y 
τ  (1 +ν )(1 − 2ν ) 1 −ν  γ  Constitutive equation
 xy   0 1 − 2ν   xy  in plane strain
= {σ} 

0
2 (1 −ν )  = {ε} (Voigt’s notation)
21
The Lineal Elastic Problem in
Plane Strain (summary)
 The problem can be reduced to the two dimensions of the plane of
analysis.
 The unknowns are:
ε x  σ x 
u x 
u ( x, y , t ) ≡   {ε}( x, y, t ) ≡ ε y  {σ}( x, y, t ) ≡ σ y 
u y  γ  τ 
 xy   xy 
 The additional unknowns (with respect to the general problem) are either null
or obtained from the unknowns of the problem:
uz = 0
ε=
z γ=
xz γ=
yz τ=
xz τ=
yz 0
σ z ν (σ x + σ y )
=
22
Examples of Plane Strain Analysis
 3D problems which are typically assimilated to a plane strain state are
characterized by:
 The body is generated by translating a generational section with actions
contained in its plane along a line perpendicular to this plane.
 The plane strain hypothesis ( ε=
z γ=
xz γ=
yz 0 ) must be justifiable. This typically
occurs when:
1. One of the body’s dimensions is significantly larger than the other two.
Any section not close to the extremes can be considered a symmetry
plane and satisfies:
uz = 0
∂u x u x 
=0  
∂z u = u y 
∂u y 0
=0  
∂z
2. The displacement in z is blocked at the extreme sections.
23
Examples of Plane Strain Analysis
 3D problems which are typically assimilated to a plane strain state are:
Pressure pipe Continuous brake shoe
Solid with blocked z

Tunnel
displacements at the ends
24
7.4 The Plane Linear Elastic Problem
25
Plane problem
 A lineal elastic solid is subjected to body forces and prescribed
traction and displacement
Actions:

 t *
( x, y, t ) 
On Γσ : t = *
* x

 y
t ( x , y , t ) 
x ( x, y , t ) 

 u *

On Γu : u* =  * 
 y (
u x , y , t )
bx ( x, y, t ) 
On Ω: b=
( ) 
 y
b x , y , t 
 The Plane Linear Elastic problem is the set of equations that

allow obtaining the evolution through time of the corresponding
displacements u ( x, y, t ), strains ε ( x, y, t ) and stresses σ ( x, y, t ) .
26
Governing Equations
 The Plane Linear Elastic Problem is governed by the equations:
1. Cauchy’s Equation of Motion.
Linear Momentum Balance Equation.
∂ 2 u ( x, t )
∇ ⋅ σ ( x, t ) + ρ 0 b ( x, t ) =
ρ0
∂ t2
2D
∂σ x ∂τ xy ∂τ xz ∂ 2u x
+ + + ρ bx =
ρ 2
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂τ xy ∂σ y ∂τ yz ∂ 2u y
+ + + ρ by =
ρ 2
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂τ xz ∂τ yz ∂σ z ∂ 2u z
+ + + ρ bz =
ρ 2
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
27
Governing Equations
2. Constitutive Equation (Voigt’s notation).
Isotropic Linear Elastic Constitutive Equation.
σ ( x, t ) = C : ε
2D
{σ}= C ⋅ {ε}
σ x  εx  1 ν 0 
With {σ} ≡ σ y  , {ε} =  ε y  and C=
E 
2 
ν 1 0


τ  γ  1 −ν
 xy   xy   0 0 (1 −ν ) 2 
E
E=
PLANE E=E PLANE 1 −ν 2
STRESS ν =ν STRAIN ν
ν =
(1 −ν )
28
Governing Equations
3. Geometrical Equation.
Kinematic Compatibility.
1
ε ( x, t )= ∇ S u ( x, t )= (u ⊗ ∇ + ∇ ⊗ u )
2
2D
This is a PDE system of
∂u
εx = x 8 eqns -8 unknowns:
∂x
∂u u ( x,t ) 2 unknowns
εy = y
∂y ε ( x,t ) 3 unknowns
γ=
∂u x ∂u y
+
σ ( x,t ) 3 unknowns
∂y ∂x
xy
Which must be solved in
the  2 ×  + space.
29
Boundary Conditions
 Boundary conditions in space
 Affect the spatial arguments of the unknowns
 Are applied on the contour Γ of the solid,
which is divided into:
 Prescribed displacements on Γ u :
x ( x, y , t ) 

 u *
= u *

u = *
* x

 y
u = u *
y ( x , y , t ) 
 Prescribed stresses on Γσ : nx 

n= 
n y 

 t *
= t *
( x, y, t )  t*= σ ⋅ n with
t = * *
* x x

 y y (
t = t x , y , t )  σ x τ xy 
σ≡ 
τ xy σ y 
30
Boundary Conditions
 INTIAL CONDITIONS (boundary conditions in time)
 Affect the time argument of the unknowns.
 Generally, they are the known values at t = 0 :
 Initial displacements:
ux 
u ( x, =
y ,0 ) =  0
u
 y
 Initial velocity:
∂u ( x, y , t )  u x   v x 
≡ u ( x, y ,0 ) =
   =  = v 0 ( x, y )
∂t t =0
u
 y  y v
31
Unknowns
 The 8 unknowns to be solved in the problem are:
 1 
u x   εx γ xy
2  σ x τ xy 
u ( x, y , t ) =   ε ( x, y , t ) ≡   σ ( x, y , t ) ≡  
u y  1 γ εy  τ xy σ y 
 2 xy 
 Once these are obtained, the following are calculated explicitly:

ν
PLANE STRESS ε z =
− εx + εy
1 −ν
( )
σz ν σx +σ y
PLANE STRAIN = ( )
32
7.5 Representative Curves
33
Introduction
 Traditionally, plane stress states where graphically represented
with the aid of the following contour lines:
 Isostatics or stress trajectories
 Isoclines
 Isobars
 Maximum shear lines
 Others: isochromatics, isopatchs, etc.
34
Isostatics or Stress Trajectories
 System of curves which are tangent to the principal axes of stress
at each material point .
 They are the envelopes of the principal stress vector fields.
 There will exist two (orthogonal) families of curves at each point:
 Isostatics σ 1 , tangents to the largest principal stress.
 Isostatics σ 2 , tangents to the smallest principal stress.
REMARK
The principal stresses are orthogonal
to each other, therefore, so will the two
families of isostatics orthogonal to
each other.
35
Singular and Neutral Points
 Singular point: characterized by the stress state
σx =σy
τ xy = 0
 Neutral point: characterized by the stress state
σ=
x σ=
y τ=
xy 0
Mohr’s Circle of
REMARK
a singular point
In a singular point, all directions
are principal directions. Thus, in
singular points isostatics tend to
Mohr’s Circle of loose their regularity and can
a neutral point abruptly change direction.
36
Differential Equation of the Isostatics
 Consider the general equation of an isostatic curve: y = f ( x )
2τ xy 2 tg α
=
tg ( 2α ) =
σ x − σ y 1 − tg 2 α
dy
α
tg= = y′
dx
2τ xy 2 y′ σ x −σ y
= ( y′ ) + y′ − 1 =0
2
σ x −σ y 1 − ( y′ ) τ xy
2
φ ( x, y ) Known this function,

 Solving the 2nd order eq.: the eq. can be integrated
to obtain a family of
Differential equation y ' =
−
( σ x −σ y )  σ x −σ y 
± 
2
+ 1 curves of the type:

 2τ 

of the isostatics 2τ xy  xy  = y f ( x) + C
37
Isoclines
 Locus of the points along which the principal stresses are in the
same direction.
 The principal stress vectors in all points of an isocline are parallel to
each other, forming a constant angle θ with the x-axis.
 These curves can be directly found using photoelasticity methods.
38
Equation of the Isoclines
 To obtain the general equation of an isocline with angle θ , the
principal stress σ 1 must form an angle α = θ with the x-axis:
ϕ ( x, y )
2τ xy For each value of θ , the equation of
Algebraic equation
tg ( 2θ ) =
of the isoclines σ x −σ y the family of isoclines parameterized
in function of θ is obtained:
y = f ( x, θ )
REMARK
Once the family of isoclines is
known, the principal stress
directions in any point of the
medium can be obtained and,
thus, the isostatics calculated.
39
Maximum shear lines
 Envelopes of the maximum shear stress (in modulus) vector fields.
 They are the curves on which the shear stress modulus is a maximum.
 Two planes of maximum shear stress correspond to each material
point, τ max and τ min .
 These planes are easily determined using Mohr’s Circle.
REMARK
The two planes form a 45º
angle with the principal
stress directions and, thus,
are orthogonal to each
other. They form an angle
of 45º with the isostatics.
42
Equation of the maximum shear lines
 Consider the general equation of a slip line y = f ( x ), the relation
2τ xy π  π 1
tan 2α = and β= α + tan ( 2 β ) =
tan  2α −  = −
σ x −σ y 4  2 tan 2α
 Then,
1 σ x −σ y 2 tan β
tan ( 2 β ) =
− =
− =2
tan ( 2α ) 2τ xy 1 − tan β σ x −σ y 2 y′
− =2
tan (=
dy not
β ) = y′
2τ xy 1 − ( y′ )
dx
4τ xy
( y′ ) − y′ − 1 =0
2
σ x −σ y
43
Equation of the maximum shear lines
 Solving the 2nd order eq.: φ ( x, y ) Known this function,
the eq. can be integrated
Differential 2 to obtain a family of
2τ xy  2τ xy 
equation of the y'= ± 
 σ −σ   + 1 curves of the type:
slip lines σ x −σ y  x y 
=y f ( x) + C
44
Chapter 7
Plane Linear Elasticity
rs
ee
s gin
7.1 Introduction
t d le En
r
As seen in Chapter 6, from a mathematical point of view, the elastic problem
ba
ge ro or
eS m
consists in a system of PDEs that must be solved in the three dimensions of
ci
space and in the dimension associated with time R3 × R+ . However, in certain
f
ra
C d P cs
situations, the problem can be simplified so that it is reduced
to two dimensions
b
a
in space in addition to, obviously, the temporal dimension R2 × R+ . This sim-
i
an an n
plification is possible because, in certain cases, the geometry and boundary con-
y ha
ditions of the problem allow identifying an irrelevant direction (associated with

le
liv or ec
a direction of the problem) such that solutions independent of this dimension can
be posed a priori for this elastic problem.
M
.A
Consider a local coordinate system {x, y, z} in which the aforementioned ir-

m
relevant direction (assumed constant) coincides with the z-direction. Then, the
d
analysis is reduced to the x-y plane and, hence, the name plane elasticity used to
uu
e
denote such problems. In turn, these are typically divided into two large groups
X Th
er
tin
associated with two families of simplifying hypotheses, plane stress problems

and plane strain problems.
on
.O
For the sake of simplicity, the isothermal case will be considered here, even
C
though there is no intrinsic limitation to generalizing the results that will be

©
obtained to the thermoelastic case.
7.2 Plane Stress State

The plane stress state is characterized by the following simplifying hypotheses:
1) The stress state is of the type
⎡ ⎤
σx τxy 0
not ⎢ ⎥
σ ]xyz ≡ ⎢
[σ ⎣ τxy σy 0 ⎥
⎦. (7.1)
0 0 0
339
340 C HAPTER 7. P LANE L INEAR E LASTICITY
2) The non-zero stresses (that is, those associated with the x-y plane) do not
depend on the z-variable,
σx = σx (x, y,t) , σy = σy (x, y,t) and τxy = τxy (x, y,t) . (7.2)
To analyze under which conditions these hypotheses are reasonable, consider

a plane elastic medium whose dimensions and form associated with the x-y plane
(denoted as plane of analysis) are arbitrary and such that the third dimension (de-
noted as the thickness of the piece) is associated with the z-axis (see Figure 7.1).
Assume the following circumstances hold for this elastic medium:
rs
ee
a) The thickness e is much smaller than the typical dimension associated with
s gin
the plane of analysis x-y,
eL. (7.3)
t d le En
b) The actions (body forces b (x,t), prescribed displacements u∗ (x,t) and trac-
r
ba
ge ro or
tion vector t∗ (x,t) ) are contained within the plane of analysis x-y (its z-
eS m
ci
f
component is null) and, in addition, do not depend on the third dimension,
ra
C d P cs
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
b
a
bx (x, y,t) u∗x (x, y,t)
i
an an n
not ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
b≡⎢ ⎥, ⎢ u∗ (x, y,t) ⎥ ,
y ha
Γ ∗ not
≡
⎣ by (x, y,t) ⎦ u : u ⎣ y ⎦
le
liv or ec
0 −
M
.A
⎡ ⎤ (7.4)
tx∗ (x, y,t)
m

not ⎢ ∗ ⎥
d
Γσ = Γσ+ Γσ− Γσe : t∗ ≡ ⎢ t (x, y,t) ⎥.

uu
⎣y ⎦
e
X Th
−
er
tin
c) The traction vector t∗ (x,t) is only non-zero on the boundary of the piece’s
on
.O
thickness (boundary Γσe ), whilst on the lateral surfaces Γσ+ and Γσ− it is null
C
(see Figure 7.1).

©
⎡ ⎤
0
+
⎢ ⎥
− ∗ not ⎢ ⎥
Γσ Γσ : t ≡ ⎣ 0 ⎦ . (7.5)
0
X. Oliver and C. Agelet de Saracibar Continuum Mechanics for Engineers.Theory and Problems
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Plane Stress State 341
rs
ee
s gin
Figure 7.1: Example of a plane stress state.
t d le En
r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f
ra
Remark 7.1. The piece with the actions defined by (7.4) and (7.5) is
C d P cs
b
a
compatible with the plane stress state given by (7.1) and (7.2), and
i
an an n
schematized in Figure 7.21 . In effect, applying the boundary condi-

y ha
tions Γσ on the piece yields:

le
liv or ec
• Lateral surfaces Γσ+ and Γσ−

M
.A
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
0 σx τxy 0 0 0
m
not ⎢ ⎥ not ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
d
n≡⎣ 0 ⎦ , σ · n ≡ ⎣ τxy σy 0 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦ ,
uu
e
±1 ±1
X Th
0 0 0 0
er
tin
• Edge Γσe
on
.O
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
C
nx σx τxy 0 nx tx (x, y,t)

©
not ⎢ ⎥ not ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢
n ≡ ⎣ ny ⎦ , σ (x, y,t)·n ≡ ⎢ τ σ 0 ⎥ ⎣ ny ⎦ = ⎣ ty (x, y,t) ⎥
⎦,
⎣ xy y ⎦
0 0 0 0 0 0
which is compatible with the assumptions (7.4) and (7.5) .
1 The fact that all the non-null stresses are contained in the x-y plane is what gives rise to the
name plane stress.
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
rs
ee
Figure 7.2: Plane stress state.
s gin
t d le En
r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
7.2.1 Strain Field. Constitutive Equation
ci
f
ra
Consider now the linear elastic constitutive equation (6.24),
C d P cs
b
a
i
ν 1+ν ν 1
an an n
ε =− σ)1+
Tr (σ σ)1+
σ = − Tr (σ σ, (7.6)
y ha
E E E 2G
le
liv or ec
which, applied on the stress state in (7.1) and in engineering notation, provides
the strains (6.25)2
M
.A
m
1 1 1
d
εx = (σx − ν (σy + σz )) = (σx − νσy ) γxy = τxy ,

uu
e
E E G
X Th
er
tin
1 1 1 (7.7)
εy = (σy − ν (σx + σz )) = (σy − νσx ) γxz = τxz = 0 ,
E E G
on
.O
1 ν 1
C
εz = (σz − ν (σx + σy )) = − (σx + σy ) γyz = τyz = 0 ,

E E G
©
where the conditions σz = τxz = τyz = 0 have been taken into account. From (7.2)
and (7.7) it is concluded that the strains do not depend on the z-coordinate either
(εε = ε (x, y,t)). In addition, the strain εz in (7.7) can be solved as
ν
εz = − (εx + εy ) . (7.8)
1−ν
2 The engineering angular strains are defined as γxy = 2 εxy , γxz = 2 εxz and γyz = 2 εyz .
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Plane Stress State 343
In short, the strain tensor for the plane stress case results in
⎡ 1 ⎤
εx γxy 0
⎢ 2 ⎥ ν
not ⎢ ⎥
ε (x, y,t) ≡ ⎢ 1 γxy εy 0 ⎥ with εz = − (εx + εy ) (7.9)
⎣2 ⎦ 1−ν
0 0 εz
and replacing (7.8) in (7.7) leads, after certain algebraic operations, to
rs
ee
E E
σx = (εx + νεy ) , σy = (εy + νεx ) ,
s gin
1 − ν2 1 − ν2 (7.10)
E
t d le En
and τxy = γxy ,
2 (1 + ν)
r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
which can be rewritten as
ci
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
⎡ ⎤ f
ra
C d P cs
σx 1 ν
⎥ ⎢ εx ⎥
0
b
a
⎢ ⎥ ⎢
i
⎢σ ⎥= E ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
an an n
plane
⎣ y ⎦ 1 − ν2 ⎢ ν 1 0 ⎥ ⎣ εy ⎦ =⇒ σ } = C stress · {εε } .
{σ
⎣ ⎦
y ha
1−ν
τxy γxy
le
0 0
liv or ec
2
M
σ}
{σ {εε }
.A
plane
C stress
(7.11)
m
d
uu
e
X Th
er
7.2.2 Displacement Field

tin
The components of the geometric equation of the problem (6.3),

on
.O
1
C
ε (x,t) = ∇S u (x,t) = (u ⊗ ∇ + ∇ ⊗ u) , (7.12)

©
2
can be decomposed into two groups:
1) Those that do not affect the displacement uz (and are hypothetically inte-
grable in R2 for the x-y domain),
⎫
∂ ux ⎪
⎪
εx (x, y,t) = ⎪
⎪ integration
∂x ⎪
⎪
⎬ in R2 ux = ux (x, y,t)
∂ uy =⇒ . (7.13)
εy (x, y,t) = ⎪ uy = uy (x, y,t)
∂y ⎪
⎪
∂ ux ∂ uy ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎭
γxy (x, y,t) = 2εxy = +
∂y ∂x
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
2) Those in which the displacement uz intervenes,

∂ uz ν
εz (x, y,t) = =− (εx + εy ) ,
∂z 1−ν
∂ ux ∂ uz (7.14)
γxz (x, y,t) = 2εxz = + =0,
∂z ∂x
∂ uy ∂ uz
γyz (x, y,t) = 2εyz = + =0.
∂z ∂y
rs
Observation of (7.1) to (7.14) suggests considering an ideal elastic plane
ee
stress problem reduced to the two dimensions of the plane of analysis and char-
n
acterized by the unknowns
gi
t d le En
   
εx σx
u
u (x, y,t) ≡ x , {εε (x, y,t)} ≡  εy  and {σ
not not not
σ (x, y,t)} ≡  σy  , (7.15)
ar
ar s
uy
ge ro or
eS m
ib
γxy τxy
ac
f
C d P cs
b
in which the additional unknowns with respect to the general problem are either
i
null, or can be calculated in terms of those in (7.15), or do not intervene in the
an an n
y ha
reduced problem,
ν
le
σz = τxz = τyz = γxz = γyz = 0 , εz = − (εx + εy ) ,
liv or ec
1−ν (7.16)
M
.A
and uz (x, y, z,t) does not intervene in the problem.

m
d
uu
e
Remark 7.2. The plane stress problem is an ideal elastic problem

X Th
er
tin
since it cannot be exactly reproduced as a particular case of a three-

dimensional elastic problem. In effect, there is no guarantee that the
on
.O
solution of the reduced plane stress ux (x, y,t) and uy (x, y,t) will al-
low obtaining a solution uz (x, y, z,t) for the rest of components of
C
the geometric equation (7.14).
7.3 Plane Strain

The strain state is characterized by the simplifying hypotheses
   
ux ux (x, y,t)
not
u ≡  uy  =  uy (x, y,t)  . (7.17)
uz 0
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Plane Strain 345
Again, it is illustrative to analyze in which situations these hypotheses are plau-

sible. Consider, for example, an elastic medium whose geometry and actions
can be generated from a bidimensional section (associated with the x-y plane
and with the actions b (x,t), u∗ (x,t) and t∗ (x,t) contained in this plane) that
is translated along a straight generatrix perpendicular to said section and, thus,
associated with the z-axis (see Figure 7.3).
The actions of the problem can then be characterized by
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ∗ ⎤ ⎡ ∗ ⎤
bx (x, y,t) ux (x, y,t) tx (x, y,t)
not ⎢ ⎥ not ⎢ ⎥ not ⎢ ⎥
b ≡ ⎣ by (x, y,t) ⎦ , Γu : u∗ ≡ ⎣ u∗y (x, y,t) ⎦ and Γσ : t∗ ≡ ⎣ ty∗ (x, y,t) ⎦ . (7.18)
rs
0 0 0
ee
s gin
In the central section (which is a plane of symmetry with respect to the z-axis)
the conditions
t d le En
∂ ux ∂ uy
uz = 0 , =0 =0
r
and (7.19)
ba
∂z ∂z
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f
ra
are satisfied and, thus, the displacement field in this central section is of the form
C d P cs
b
a
⎡ ⎤
i
ux (x, y,t)
an an n
not ⎢ ⎥
y ha
u (x, y,t) ≡ ⎣ uy (x, y,t) ⎦ . (7.20)

le
liv or ec
0
M
.A
m
d
uu
e
X Th
er
tin
on
.O
C
Figure 7.3: Example of a plane strain state.
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
7.3.1 Strain and Stress Fields

The strain field corresponding with the displacement field characteristic of a
plane strain state (7.20) is
∂ ux ∂ uz
εx (x, y,t) = , εz (x, y,t) = =0,
∂x ∂z
∂ uy ∂ ux ∂ uz
εy (x, y,t) = , γxz (x, y,t) = + =0, (7.21)
∂y ∂z ∂x
∂ ux ∂ uy ∂ u y ∂ uz
rs
γxy (x, y,t) = + , γyz (x, y,t) = + =0.
∂y ∂x ∂z ∂y
ee
s gin
Therefore, the structure of the strain tensor is3
t d le En
⎡ 1 ⎤
εx γxy 0
r
⎢ 2 ⎥
ba
ge ro or
not ⎢ ⎥
eS m
ε (x, y,t) ≡ ⎢ 1 γxy εy 0 ⎥ . (7.22)
ci
⎣2 ⎦
f
ra
C d P cs
b
a
0 0 0
i
an an n
y ha
le
Consider now the lineal elastic constitutive equation (6.20)
liv or ec
M
.A
σ = λ Tr (εε ) 1 + 2μεε = λ Tr (εε ) 1 + 2Gεε , (7.23)

m
which, applied to the strain field (7.21), produces the stresses

d
uu
e
X Th
er
σx = λ (εx + εy ) + 2μεx = (λ + 2G) εx + λ εy , τxy = G γxy ,

tin
σy = λ (εx + εy ) + 2μεy = (λ + 2G) εy + λ εx , τxz = G γxz = 0 ,

on
(7.24)
.O
C
σz = λ (εx + εy ) , τyz = G γyz = 0 .

©
Considering (7.21) and (7.24), one concludes that stresses do not depend on the
σ = σ (x, y,t)). On the other hand, the stress σz in (7.24)
z-coordinate either (σ
can be solved as
λ
σz = (σx + σy ) = ν (σx + σy ) (7.25)
2 (λ + μ)
3 By analogy with the plane stress case, the fact that all non-null strains are contained in the
x-y plane gives rise to the name plane strain.
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Plane Strain 347
and the stress tensor for the plane strain case results in
⎡ ⎤
σx τxy 0
not ⎢ ⎥
σ (x, y,t) ≡ ⎢ ⎣ τxy σy 0 ⎥⎦ with σz = −ν (σx + σy ) , (7.26)
0 0 σz
where the non-null components of the stress tensor (7.26) are
rs

ee
E (1 − ν) ν
σx = (λ + 2G) εx + λ εy = εx + εy ,
s gin
(1 + ν) (1 − 2ν) 1−ν

t d le En
E (1 − ν) ν (7.27)
σy = (λ + 2G) εy + λ εx = εy + εx ,
(1 + ν) (1 − 2ν) 1−ν
r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
E
and τxy = G γxy = f
γxy .
ra
2 (1 + ν)
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
Equation (7.27) can be rewritten in matrix form as

y ha
⎡ ν ⎤
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
le
liv or ec
1 0
σx ⎢ 1−ν ⎥ εx
⎢ ⎥ (1 − ν) ⎢ ν ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
M
.A
⎢ σy ⎥ = E ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ εy ⎥ ⇒
1 0
⎣ ⎦ (1 + ν) (1 − 2ν) ⎢ 1 − ν ⎥ ⎣ ⎦
⎣ 1 − 2ν ⎦
m
τxy γxy
d
0 0
2 (1 − ν)
uu

e
(7.28)
X Th
σ}
{σ {εε }
er
tin
plane
C strain
on
.O
C
plane
σ } = C strain · {εε } .
{σ
©
Similarly to the plane stress problem, (7.20), (7.21) and (7.26) suggest con-
sidering an elastic plane strain problem reduced to the two dimensions of the
plane of analysis x-y and characterized by the unknowns
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
εx σx
not ux not ⎢ ⎥ not ⎢ ⎥
u (x, y,t) ≡ σ (x, y,t)} ≡ ⎣ σy ⎦ ,
, {εε (x, y,t)} ≡ ⎣ εy ⎦ and {σ (7.29)
uy
γxy τxy
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
rs
ee
s gin
Figure 7.4: The plane linear elastic problem.
t d le En
r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
in which the additional unknowns with respect to the general problem are either
ci
f
null or can be calculated in terms of those in (7.29),
ra
C d P cs
b
a
uz = 0 , εz = γxz = γyz = τxz = τyz = 0 and σz = ν (σx + σy ) . (7.30)
i
an an n
y ha
le
liv or ec
7.4 The Plane Linear Elastic Problem

M
.A
In view of the equations in Sections 7.2 and 7.3, the linear elastic problem for
m
the plane stress and plane strain problems is characterized as follows (see Fig-
uu
e
ure 7.4).
X Th
er
tin
Equations 4
on
.O
a) Cauchy’s equation
C
∂ σx ∂ τxy ∂ 2 ux
+ + ρbx = ρ 2
∂x ∂y ∂t (7.31)
∂ τxy ∂ σy ∂ 2 uy
+ + ρby = ρ 2
∂x ∂y ∂t
4 The equation corresponding to the z-component either does not intervene (plane stress), or
is identically null (plane strain).
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
The Plane Linear Elastic Problem 349
b) Constitutive equation
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
σx εx
not ⎢ ⎥ not ⎢ ⎥
σ } ≡ ⎣ σy ⎦ ,
{σ {εε } ≡ ⎣ εy ⎦ ; σ } = C · {εε } ,
{σ (7.32)
τxy γxy
where the constitutive matrix C can be written in a general form, from (7.11)
and (7.28), as

Ē = E
rs
⎡ ⎤ Plane stress
ee
1 ν̄ 0 ν̄ = ν
⎢ ⎥ ⎧
s gin
not Ē ⎢ ⎥
C≡ ⎢ ν̄ 1 0 ⎥ ⎪
⎪ E (7.33)
1 − ν̄ 2 ⎣ ⎨ Ē =
1 − ν̄ ⎦
t d le En
0 0 Plane strain 1−ν 2
⎪
⎩ ν̄ = ν
⎪
2
r
ba
ge ro or
1−ν
eS m
ci
f
ra
c) Geometric equation
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
∂ ux ∂ uy ∂ ux ∂ uy
y ha
εx = , εy = , γxy = + (7.34)
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
le
liv or ec
M
.A
d) Boundary conditions in space

m
d
uu

e
u∗x (x, y,t) tx∗ (x, y,t)

X Th
er
Γu : u∗ ≡ Γσ : t∗ ≡
tin
not not
,
u∗y (x, y,t) ty∗ (x, y,t)
on
.O
(7.35)

C
σx τxy nx
©
t∗ = σ · n ,
not not
σ≡ , n≡
τxy σy ny
e) Initial conditions

.
u (x, y,t) =0, u (x, y,t) = v0 (x, y) (7.36)
t=0 t=0
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Unknowns
⎡ ⎤
1
not ux not ⎢
εx γxy ⎥ σ τ
x xy
u (x, y,t) ≡ , ε (x, y,t) ≡ ⎣ 1 2 ⎦, σ (x, y,t) not
≡ (7.37)
uy γxy εy τ xy σy
2
Equations (7.31) to (7.37) define a system of 8 PDEs with 8 unknowns that

must be solved in the reduced space-time domain R2 × R+ . Once the problem
is solved, the following can be explicitly calculated:
rs
ee
ν
Plane stress → εz = (εx + εy )
1−ν
s gin
(7.38)
Plane strain → σz = ν (σx + σy )
t d le En
r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
7.5 Problems Typically Assimilated to Plane Elasticity
ci
f
ra
C d P cs
b
a
7.5.1 Plane Stress
i
an an n
The stress and strain states produced in solids that have a dimension consider-
y ha
ably inferior to the other two (which constitute the plane of analysis x-y) and
le
liv or ec
whose actions are contained in said plane are typically assimilated to a plane
stress state. The slab loaded on its mean plane and the deep beam of Figure 7.5
M
.A
are classic examples of structures that can be analyzed as being in a plane stress
m
state. As a particular case, the problems of simple and complex bending in beams
d
uu
considered in strength of materials can also be assimilated to plane stress prob-

e
lems.
X Th
er
tin
on
.O
C
Figure 7.5: Slab loaded on its mean plane (left) and deep beam (right).
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Problems Typically Assimilated to Plane Elasticity 351
7.5.2 Plane Strain

The solids whose geometry can be obtained by translation of a plane section
with actions contained in its plane (plane of analysis x-y) along a generatrix line
perpendicular to said section are typically assimilated to plane strain states. In
addition, the plane strain hypothesis εz = γxz = γyz = 0 must be justifiable. In
general, this situation occurs in two circumstances:
1) The dimension of the piece in the z-direction is very large (for the purposes
of analysis, it is assumed to be infinite). In this case, any central transversal
section (not close to the extremes) can be considered a symmetry plane and,
rs
thus, satisfies the conditions
ee
∂ ux ∂ uy
uz = 0 , = 0 and =0, (7.39)
s gin
∂z ∂z
which result in the initial condition of the plane strain state (7.17),
t d le En
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
ux ux (x, y,t)
r
ba
not ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
ge ro or
eS m
u ≡ ⎣ uy ⎦ = ⎣ uy (x, y,t) ⎦ . (7.40)
ci
f
ra
uz 0
C d P cs
b
a
i
Examples of this case are a pipe under internal (and/or external) pressure
an an n
y ha
(see Figure 7.6), a tunnel (see Figure 7.7) and a strip foundation (see Fig-
ure 7.8).
le
liv or ec
M
.A
m
d
uu
e
X Th
er
tin
on
.O
C
Figure 7.6: Pressure tube.
2) The length of the piece in the longitudinal direction is reduced, but the dis-
placements in the z-direction are impeded by the boundary conditions at the
end sections (see Figure 7.9).
In this case, the plane strain hypothesis (7.17) can be assumed for all the
transversal sections of the piece.
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
rs
ee
Figure 7.7: Tunnel.
s gin
t d le En
r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f
ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha
le
liv or ec
M
.A
m
d
uu
e
Figure 7.8: Strip foundation.

X Th
er
tin
on
.O
C
Figure 7.9: Solid with impeded z-displacements.
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Representative Curves of Plane Elasticity 353
7.6 Representative Curves of Plane Elasticity

There is an important tradition in engineering of graphically representing the
distribution of plane elasticity. To this aim, certain families of curves are used,
whose plotting on the plane of analysis provides useful information of said stress
state.
7.6.1 Isostatics or stress trajectories
rs
Definition 7.1. The isostatics or stress trajectories are the envelopes
ee
of the vector field determined by the principal stresses.
s gin
t d le En
Considering the definition of the envelope of a vector field, isostatics are, at each
r
point, tangent to the two principal directions and, thus, there exist two families
ba
ge ro or
eS m
of isostatics:
ci
f
− Isostatics σ1 , tangent to the direction of the largest principal stress.
ra
C d P cs
− Isostatics σ2 , tangent to the direction of the smallest principal stress.
b
a
i
an an n
In addition, since the principal stress directions are orthogonal to each other,
y ha
both families of curves are also be orthogonal. The isostatic lines provide infor-
le
mation on the mode in which the flux of principal stresses occurs on the plane
liv or ec
of analysis.
M
.A
As an example, Figure 7.10 shows the distribution of isostatics on a supported

beam with uniformly distributed loading.
m
d
uu
e
X Th
er
Definition 7.2. A singular point is a point characterized by the stress

tin
state
σx = σy and τxy = 0
on
.O
and its Mohr’s circle is a point on the axis σ (see Figure 7.11).
C
A neutral point is a singular point characterized by the stress state

σx = σy = τxy = 0
and its Mohr’s circle is the origin of the σ − τ space (see Fig-
ure 7.11).
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Figure 7.10: Isostatics or stress trajectories on a beam.
rs
ee
s gin
t d le En
r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
Figure 7.11: Singular and neutral points.
ci
f
ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha
Remark 7.3. All directions in a singular point are principal stress di-
le
rections (the pole is the Mohr’s circle itself, see Figure 7.11). Conse-
liv or ec
quently, the isostatics tend to loose their regularity in singular points

M
.A
and can brusquely change their direction.

m
d
uu
e
X Th
er
tin
7.6.1.1 Differential Equation of the Isostatics

on
.O
Consider the general equation of an isostatic line y = f (x) and the value of the
angle formed by the principal stress direction σ1 with respect to the horizontal
C
direction (see Figure 7.12),

©
⎫
2τxy 2 tan α ⎪⎪
⎪
tan (2α) = = ⎬
σx − σy 1 − tan2 α ⇒ 2τxy = 2y ⇒
dy not ⎪
⎪ σx − σy 1 − (y )2
tan α = =y ⎪
⎭ (7.41)
dx
σx − σy
(y )2 + y −1 = 0
τxy
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Figure 7.12: Determination of the differential equation of the isostatics.
rs
ee
and solving the second-order equation (7.41) for y , the differential equation of
s gin
the isostatics is obtained.
t d le En

Differential σx − σy 2
r
σ − σ
ba
x y
ge ro or
→ y =− ± +1
eS m
equation (7.42)
2τxy 2τxy
ci
of the isostatics f
ra
C d P cs
ϕ (x, y)
b
a
i
an an n
y ha
If the function ϕ (x, y) in (7.42) is known, this equation can be integrated to

le
obtain the algebraic equation of the family of isostatics,
liv or ec
M
.A
y = f (x) +C . (7.43)
m
The double sign in (7.42) leads to two differential equations corresponding to

d
uu
the two families of isostatics.

e
X Th
er
tin
Example 7.1 – A rectangular plate is subjected to the following stress states.

on
.O
σx = −x3 ; σy = 2x3 − 3xy2 ; τxy = 3x2 y ; τxz = τyz = σz = 0

C
Obtain and plot the singular points and distribution of isostatics.
Solution
The singular points are defined by σx = σy and τxy = 0 . Then,
⎧
⎪
⎪ σx = −x3 = 0
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ x = 0 =⇒ ∀y
σy = 2x3 − 3xy2 = 0
τxy = 3x y = 0 =⇒
2

⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ σx = −x3
⎪
⎩ y = 0 =⇒ =⇒ x = 0
σy = 2x3 − 3xy2 = 2x3
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Therefore, the locus of singular points is the straight line x = 0. These singu-
lar points are, in addition, neutral points (σx = σy = 0).
The isostatics are obtained from (7.42),
2
dy σx − σy σx − σy
y = =− ± +1 ,
dx 2τxy 2τxy
which, for the given data of this problem, results in

⎧
⎪
rs
⎪
⎪ dy x
⎨ = x2 − y2 = C1
ee
dx y =⇒ integrating =⇒ .
⎪ xy = C2
s gin
⎪
⎪ dy −y
⎩ =
dx x
t d le En
Therefore, the isostatics are two families of equilateral hyperboles orthogo-
r
ba
ge ro or
nal to each other.
eS m
ci
f
On the line of singular points x = 0 (which divides the plate in two regions)
ra
C d P cs
the isostatics will brusquely change their slope. To identify the family of
b
a
isostatics σ1 , consider a point in each region:
i
an an n
y ha
− Point (1, 0): σx = σ2 = −1; σy = σ1 = +2; τxy = 0

le
(isostatic σ1 in the y-direction)
liv or ec
− Point (−1, 0): σx = σ1 = +1; σy = σ2 = −2; τxy = 0

M
.A
(isostatic σ1 in the x-direction)

m
Finally, the distribution of isostatics is as follows:

uu
e
X Th
er
tin
on
.O
C
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
7.6.2 Isoclines
Definition 7.3. Isoclines are the locus of the points in the plane of
analysis along which the principal stress directions form a certain
angle with the x-axis.
It follows from its definition that in all the points of a same isocline the principal
rs
stress directions are parallel to each other, forming a constant angle θ (which
ee
characterizes the isocline) with the x-axis (see Figure 7.13).
s gin
7.6.2.1 Equation of the Isoclines
t d le En
The equation y = f (x) of the isocline with an angle θ is obtained by establishing
that the principal stress direction σ1 forms an angle α = θ with the horizontal
r
ba
ge ro or
direction, that is,
eS m
ci
f
ra
C d P cs
b
a
Algebraic equation 2τxy
i
tan (2θ ) =
an an n
of the isoclines σx − σy (7.44)

y ha

le
ϕ (x, y)
liv or ec
M
.A
This algebraic equation allows isolating, for each value of θ ,

m
y = f (x, θ ) , (7.45)
uu
e
X Th
er
tin
which constitutes the equation of the family of isoclines parametrized in terms

of the angle θ .
on
.O
C
Figure 7.13: Isocline.
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Remark 7.4. Determining the family of isoclines allows knowing, at

each point in the medium, the direction of the principal stresses and,
thus, the obtainment of the isostatics can be sought. Given that iso-
clines can be determined by means of experimental methods (meth-
ods based on photoelasticity) they provide, indirectly, a method for
the experimental determination of the isostatics.
rs
ee
7.6.3 Isobars
s gin
t d le En
Definition 7.4. Isobars are the locus of points in the plane of analy-
r
ba
sis with the same value of principal stress σ1 (or σ2 ).
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f
ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
Two families of isobars will cross at each point of the plane of analysis: one
an an n
corresponding to σ1 and another to σ2 . Note that the isobars depend on the value
y ha
of σ1 , but not on its direction (see Figure 7.14).

le
liv or ec
M
.A
7.6.3.1 Equation of the Isobars

m
The equation that provides the value of the principal stresses (see Chapter 4) im-
d
plicitly defines the algebraic equation of the two families of isobars y = f1 (x, c1 )
uu
e
and y = f2 (x, c2 ),
X Th
er
tin
⎧
⎪
⎪ 2
on
.O
⎪
⎪ σ + σ σ − σ
⎪
⎪ σ1 =
x y
+
x y
+ τxy
2 = const. = c
⎪
⎪ 1
C
⎪ 2 2
⎪
Algebraic ⎪
©
⎪
⎨
equation ϕ1 (x, y)
(7.46)
of the ⎪⎪
isobars ⎪⎪
⎪ σx + σ y σx − σy 2
⎪
⎪ σ2 = − + τxy
2 = const. = c
⎪
⎪ 2 2
2
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩
ϕ2 (x, y)
which leads to
y = f1 (x, c1 )
(7.47)
y = f2 (x, c2 )
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Figure 7.14: Isobars.
rs
ee
s gin
7.6.4 Maximum Shear Stress or Slip Lines
t d le En
r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
Definition 7.5. Maximum shear stress lines or slip lines are the en-
ci
f
velopes of the directions that, at each point, correspond with the
ra
C d P cs
b
maximum value (in modulus) of the shear (or tangent) stress.
a
i
an an n
y ha
le
liv or ec
M
.A
Remark 7.5. At each point of the plane of analysis there are two
planes on which the shear stresses reach the same maximum value
m
(in module) but that have opposite directions, τmax and τmin . These
d
uu
planes can be determined by means of the Mohr’s circle and form

e
X Th
a 45◦ angle with the principal stress directions (see Figure 7.15).
er
tin
Therefore, their envelopes (maximum shear stress lines) are two

families of curves orthogonal to each other that form a 45◦ angle
on
.O
with the isostatics.

C
7.6.4.1 Differential Equation of the Maximum Shear Lines

Consider β is the angle formed by the direction of τmax with the horizontal
direction (see Figure 7.16). In accordance with Remark 7.55 ,
π π! 1
β =α− =⇒ tan (2β ) = tan 2α − =− , (7.48)
4 2 tan (2α)
5 Here, the trigonometric expression tan (θ − π/2) = − cot θ = −1/tan θ is used.
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
rs
ee
Figure 7.15: Maximum shear stress planes.
s gin
t d le En
where α is the angle formed by the principal stress direction σ1 with the
r
ba
horizontal direction. Consequently, considering the general equation of a slip
ge ro or
eS m
line, y = f (x), the expression (7.48) and the relation tan (2α) = 2τxy / (σx − σy )
ci
f
ra
yields
C d P cs
⎫
b
a
1 σx − σy 2 tan β ⎪
i
tan (2β ) = − = = ⎬
an an n
tan (2α) 2τxy 1 − tan2 β =⇒

y ha
dy not ⎪
⎭
tan β = =y
le
liv or ec
dx (7.49)
M
.A
σx − σy 2y 4τxy
=⇒ (y )2 − y − 1 = 0.
m
− =
d
2τxy 1 − (y )2 σx − σy
uu
e
X Th
Solving the second-order equation in (7.49) for y provides the differential equa-
er
tin
tion of the maximum shear stress lines.

on
.O

C
Differential 2
2τ 2τxy
©
equation of the xy
y =− ± +1 (7.50)
max. shear stress σx − σy σx − σy
or slip lines
ϕ (x, y)
If the function ϕ (x, y) in (7.50) is known, this differential equation can be in-
tegrated and the algebraic equation of the two families of orthogonal curves
(corresponding to the double sign in (7.50)) is obtained.
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Figure 7.16: Maximum shear stress or slip lines.
rs
ee
s gin
t d le En
r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f
ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha
le
liv or ec
M
.A
m
d
uu
e
X Th
er
tin
on
.O
C
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
rs
ee
s gin
t d le En
r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f
ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha
le
liv or ec
M
.A
m
d
uu
e
X Th
er
tin
on
.O
C
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Problems and Exercises 363
P ROBLEMS
Problem 7.1 – Justify whether the following statements are true or false.
a) If a plane stress state has a singular point, all the isoclines cross this
point.
b) If a plane stress state is uniform, all the slip lines are parallel to each
rs
other.
ee
s gin
Solution
t d le En
a) A singular point is defined as:
r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f
ra
"
C d P cs
The stress state is
b
a
σ1 = σ2 represented by a point.
i
an an n
τ =0
y ha
le
liv or ec
M
.A
Therefore, all directions are principal stress directions and, given an angle θ
which can take any value, the principal stress direction will form an angle θ
m
with the x-axis. Then, an isocline of angle θ will cross said point and, since this
uu
e
holds true for any value of θ , all the isoclines will cross this point. Therefore,
X Th
er
tin
the statement is true.

on
.O
b) A uniform stress state implies that the Mohr’s circle is equal in all points of
the medium, therefore, the planes of maximum shear stress will be the same in
C
all points. Then, the maximum shear stress lines (or slip lines) will be parallel to
©
each other. In conclusion, the statement is true.
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Problem 7.2 – A rectangular plate is subjected to the following plane stress

states.
1) σx = 0 ; σy = b > 0 ; τxy = 0
2) σx = 0 ; σy = 0 ; τxy = m y , m > 0
Plot for each state the isostatics and the slip lines, and indicate the singular
points.
rs
ee
s gin
Solution
t d le En
1) The Mohr’s circle for the stress state σx = 0 ; σy = b > 0 ; τxy = 0 is:
r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f
ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha
le
liv or ec
M
.A
m
d
uu
e
X Th
er
tin
on
.O
C
Then, the isostatics are:

©
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
And the slip lines are:
rs
There do not exist singular points for this stress state.
ee
s gin
t d le En
2) The Mohr’s circle for the stress state σx = 0 ; σy = 0 ; τxy = m y , m > 0 is:
r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f
ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha
le
liv or ec
M
.A
m
d
uu
e
X Th
er
tin
on
.O
C
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
Then, the isostatics and singular points are:
And the slip lines are:
rs
ee
s gin
t d le En
r
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f
ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
an an n
y ha
le
liv or ec
M
.A
m
d
uu
e
X Th
er
tin
on
.O
C
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961
E XERCISES
7.1 – A rectangular plate is subjected to the following plane strain state:
σx = σy
τxy = ax
σy = b
rs
(a > 0 , b > 0)
ee
Plot the isostatics and the slip lines, and indicate the singular points.
s gin
t d le En
7.2 – Plot the isostatics in the transversal section of the cylindrical shell shown
r
below. Assume a field of the form:
ba
ge ro or
eS m
ci
f
ra
C d P cs
b
a
i
⎧
an an n
⎪ B
y ha
⎨ ur = Ar + r ;
⎪ A > 0, B > 0
le
liv or ec
⎪ uθ = 0
⎪
⎩
M
.A
uz = 0
m
d
uu
e
X Th
er
tin
on
.O
C
doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25821.20961

Ch.7. Plane Linear Elasticity: Multimedia Course On Continuum Mechanics

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Ch.7. Plane Linear Elasticity: Multimedia Course On Continuum Mechanics

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CH.7.

 There are two main classes of plane linear elastic problems:

2. The stress are independent of the z direction.

 And the strain tensor for plane stress is:

 Those in which u z appears:

2. The displacement variables associated to the x-y plane are

Strain Field in Plane Strain

 The strain field is obtained from the geometric equations:

Pressure pipe Continuous brake shoe

Solid with blocked z

 The Plane Linear Elastic problem is the set of equations that

 Prescribed stresses on Γσ : nx 

 Once these are obtained, the following are calculated explicitly:

φ ( x, y ) Known this function,

+ 1 curves of the type:

 These curves can be directly found using photoelasticity methods.

ditions of the problem allow identifying an irrelevant direction (associated with

Consider a local coordinate system {x, y, z} in which the aforementioned ir-

associated with two families of simplifying hypotheses, plane stress problems

though there is no intrinsic limitation to generalizing the results that will be

obtained to the thermoelastic case.

7.2 Plane Stress State

To analyze under which conditions these hypotheses are reasonable, consider

Γσ = Γσ+ Γσ− Γσe : t∗ ≡ ⎢ t (x, y,t) ⎥.

(see Figure 7.1).

schematized in Figure 7.21 . In effect, applying the boundary condi-

tions Γσ on the piece yields:

• Lateral surfaces Γσ+ and Γσ−

nx σx τxy 0 nx tx (x, y,t)

which is compatible with the assumptions (7.4) and (7.5) .

εx = (σx − ν (σy + σz )) = (σx − νσy ) γxy = τxy ,

εz = (σz − ν (σx + σy )) = − (σx + σy ) γyz = τyz = 0 ,

and replacing (7.8) in (7.7) leads, after certain algebraic operations, to

7.2.2 Displacement Field

The components of the geometric equation of the problem (6.3),

ε (x,t) = ∇S u (x,t) = (u ⊗ ∇ + ∇ ⊗ u) , (7.12)

2) Those in which the displacement uz intervenes,

and uz (x, y, z,t) does not intervene in the problem.

Remark 7.2. The plane stress problem is an ideal elastic problem

since it cannot be exactly reproduced as a particular case of a three-

the geometric equation (7.14).

7.3 Plane Strain

Again, it is illustrative to analyze in which situations these hypotheses are plau-

u (x, y,t) ≡ ⎣ uy (x, y,t) ⎦ . (7.20)

Figure 7.3: Example of a plane strain state.

7.3.1 Strain and Stress Fields

σ = λ Tr (εε ) 1 + 2μεε = λ Tr (εε ) 1 + 2Gεε , (7.23)

which, applied to the strain ﬁeld (7.21), produces the stresses

σx = λ (εx + εy ) + 2μεx = (λ + 2G) εx + λ εy , τxy = G γxy ,

σy = λ (εx + εy ) + 2μεy = (λ + 2G) εy + λ εx , τxz = G γxz = 0 ,

σz = λ (εx + εy ) , τyz = G γyz = 0 .

where the non-null components of the stress tensor (7.26) are

Equation (7.27) can be rewritten in matrix form as

7.4 The Plane Linear Elastic Problem

d) Boundary conditions in space

u∗x (x, y,t) tx∗ (x, y,t)

Equations (7.31) to (7.37) deﬁne a system of 8 PDEs with 8 unknowns that

considered in strength of materials can also be assimilated to plane stress prob-

7.5.2 Plane Strain

Figure 7.6: Pressure tube.

Figure 7.8: Strip foundation.

Figure 7.9: Solid with impeded z-displacements.

7.6 Representative Curves of Plane Elasticity