Planetary Sciences:

Earth and Beyond

Lecture 2
Celestial Mechanics
Shape of Planetary bodies

GNR 649
Introduction
• Celestial mechanics is the branch of astronomy that deals with the motions
of objects in space.
• Orbital mechanics, also called flight mechanics, is the study of the motions
of artificial satellites and space vehicles moving under the influence of
forces such as gravity, atmospheric drag, thrust, etc.
• Orbital mechanics is a modern offshoot of celestial mechanics
• The motion of these objects is usually calculated from Newton’s laws of
motion and law of universal gravitation.
• Celestial mechanics treats more broadly the orbital dynamics of systems
under the influence of gravity, including both spacecraft and natural
astronomical bodies such as star systems, planets, moons, and comets.
• Orbital mechanics focuses on spacecraft trajectories, including orbital
maneuvers, orbital plane changes, and interplanetary transfers, and is used
by mission planners to predict the results of propulsive maneuvers.
Titius-Bode Rule
• The Titius-Bode rule generates a series of numbers that appear to match
the average distances of the planets from the Sun expressed in
astronomical units.
• The rule was published in 1772 by two German astronomers named Johann
Titius and Johann Bode. The procedure for generating this series of
numbers is:
1. Write a string of numbers starting with zero: 0, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, 192,
384, 768 …
2. Add 4 to each number and divide by 10
3. The result is: 0.4, 0.7, 1.0, 1.6, 2.8, 5.2, 10.0, 19.6, 38.8, and 77.2
• The Titius-Bode rule predicted the existence of a planet at a distance of
2.8AU from the Sun between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter
• At the time the rule was published, no such planet was known to exist in
this region of the solar system.
Titius-Bode Rule Planet Avg. Titius-
Observed Bode
radius radius
• When the asteroid Ceres was discovered (AU) (AU)
(January 1, 1801 by Giuseppe Piazza) at the Mercury 0.39 0.4
predicted distance from the Sun, the Titius-Bode Venus 0.72 0.7
rule appeared to be confirmed. Earth 1.00 1.0
• However, the solar distances of Uranus, Mars 1.52 1.6
Neptune, and Pluto, which were discovered later Ceres 2.77 2.8
deviate significantly from their predicted values. Jupiter 5.20 5.2
• The rule is not considered to be a valid Saturn 9.56 10
description of the spacing of planets in the solar Uranus 19.22 19.6
system anymore. Neptune 30.11 38.8
Pluto 39.54 77.2
Effective Potential Energy
• The total velocity of the mass m can be written as:
2
𝐿
𝑣 2 = 𝑣𝑟2 + 𝑣𝜃2 = 𝑣𝑟2 + 2 2
𝑚 𝑟
where, 𝐿 = 𝑚𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃/𝑑𝑡 is the angular momentum
• The potential energy associated with the two masses separated by a distance r is:
𝑀𝑚
𝐸𝑝 (𝑟) = −𝐺
𝑟
• The total energy of the body can be written as:
1 𝐿2
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣𝑟2 + 2
+ 𝐸𝑝 (𝑟)
2 2𝑚𝑟
• So, the effective potential energy is given as:
𝐿2 𝑀𝑚
𝐸𝑝,𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 2
−𝐺
2𝑚𝑟 𝑟
Orbit path
• In summary, according to the values of the total energy E, the
following types of orbits for the mass m about M (≫m) result
in the following:
𝐸 > 0, 𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑐
𝐸 = 0, 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑐
𝐸 < 0, 𝐸𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑒
𝑑𝐸𝑝,𝑒𝑓𝑓
= 0, 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟
𝑑𝑟
• For an ellipse, total energy and angular momentum for mass
m can be written as
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐸=−
2𝑎
𝐿 = 𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑎 1 − 𝑒 2
Kepler’s Laws
• First law: Elliptical path
𝑏 2
𝑒2 = 1 − 2
𝑎
• Second Law: Equal area in equal time
𝑑𝑆 1 2 𝑑𝜃 𝐿 1
= 𝑟 = = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 = 𝐺𝑀𝑎 1 − 𝑒 2
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2𝑚 2
• Third Law: The ratio of the cube of the semimajor axis of the orbit to the
square of its period is constant
𝑎3 𝐺(𝑀 + 𝑚)
2
=
𝑝 4𝜋 2
• For M>>m,
𝑎3 𝐺𝑀 −6 𝐴𝑈 3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 2
≈ ≈ 7.496 × 10
𝑝2 4𝜋 2
Two-body problem
• Let’s consider the motion of two bodies with masses m1 and m2 moving under the
action of their mutual gravitational attraction and an external force 𝐹Ԧ 𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2
(𝐹1 acting on m1 and 𝐹2 acting on m2)
• 𝑀 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 is the total mass of the system and 𝜇𝑚 = (𝑚1 𝑚2 )/(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) is
the reduced mass of the system, and 𝑟Ԧ = 𝑟1 − 𝑟2 is the position vector between
the masses
𝑑2 𝑅
𝐹Ԧ 𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑀 2
𝑑𝑡
𝑟Ԧ 𝑑 2 𝑟Ԧ
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2 3 = −𝜇𝑚
𝑟 𝑑𝑡 2
• The position of the center of mass of the system (CM)
is given by the vector
𝑚1 𝑟1 + 𝑚2 𝑟2
𝑅=
3 𝑀
𝑎 𝐺(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
2
=
𝑝 4𝜋 2
Three-body problem
• Adding a third body makes the problem difficult and the motion
equations not directly integral. In such cases, analytic solutions
cannot be found except for limiting situations.
• The problem is quite complex and the numerical resolution of the
motion equations is needed.
• We consider the case of two bodies with masses m1 and m2 moving
around their common CM and a third body (a test particle) with
negligible mass m ≪ m1, m2 (so that it does not affect the motion of
the two bodies or that of the CM)
• We will consider the orbital situation corresponding to the so-called
restricted three-body problem.
 Lagrangian points
• Lagrange found that there are five points of equilibrium for
the mass m in the plane of motion
• Test particle placed at rest would feel no net force in the
rotating frame when located in one of these points. The three
Lagrangian points L1, L2, and L3 are aligned with the masses m1
and m2. The other two (L4 and L5) form equilateral triangles
with m1 and m2.
• When m1 and m2 have at least 96% of the total mass of the
system, points L4 and L5 are stable (i.e., a test particle slightly
displaced from the point will oscillate back and forth around
it).
• However, points L1, L2, and L3 are unstable and if the test
particle is slightly displaced from this point, it will move away.
• For example, the L4 and L5 of Jupiter contain collections of
solid objects known as the Trojan asteroids which revolve
around the Sun in the same orbit as Jupiter and maintain a
constant distance in front of and behind Jupiter.
Orbital Perturbations
• The motion of the bodies in a planetary system is in fact much more
complex than previously discussed since we are dealing with the mutual
gravitational interaction among N-bodies
• In our solar system, the Sun dominates the planetary motion due to its
large mass and planet–Sun separation. The same is valid for most of the
planets and their satellites (one exception is that of minor planets Pluto
and Charon).
• Keplerian motions can therefore reasonably be assumed to represent in
first order the motions of planets and satellites.
• Gravitational action of other bodies on the Keplerian motions, although
low, perturb the orbits producing changes in the planet’s orbits
• Perihelion changes
• Changes in the semimajor axis length
• Change of orbital eccentricity and inclination
 Discovery of Neptune
• The planet Neptune was mathematically predicted before it was directly observed.
• Astronomers had detected a series of irregularities in Uranus’s orbit that could not be
entirely explained by Kepler’s and Newton’s laws
• In October, 1845, John Couch Adams, an English astronomer proposed an answer:
there is another massive planet out there. The gravitational tug of that planet
influences Uranus’ orbit. He predicted where and how big that planet must be.
• In 1846, Frenchman Urbain Le Verrier independently made the same mathematical
prediction as Adams. He sent his calculations to Johann Galle at the Berlin Observatory.
Galle received Le Verrier's letter on 23 September, 1846.
• Neptune was discovered just after midnight (24/09/1846), after less than an hour of
searching and less than 1 degree from the position Le Verrier had predicted.
• As it turns out, Galileo himself observed Neptune twice (24/12/1612, 28/1/1613) but
didn’t recognize that it wasn’t a star when it was in the same field of view for him as
Jupiter.
Photograph taken by NASA's Voyager 2 in 1989
Resonance
• When two (or more bodies) have an orbital configuration such that their
periods are commensurable (proportionate to), they are said to be in mean
motion resonance.
• Resonances are important in the study of planetary atmospheres and
surface activity as they can be involved in the production of a strong tidal
heating within the bodies
• Another important kind of resonance from the point of view of planetary
atmospheres occurs when the mean motion and the body’s rotation rate
are equal, a phenomenon known as synchronous rotation (tidal locking)
• Tidally locked body takes just as long to rotate around its own axis as it does to
revolve around its partner. Spin and orbit are coupled so their periods are in a 1:1
ratio. So, it always has the same face toward the object it is orbiting
• All the satellites with regular orbits are in a 1:1 spin–orbit coupling with its parent
planet
Tidal Force
• The gravitational force acting on a body due to another close object varies
from point to point due to the r−2 gravitational dependence and the
resulting differential force between the points is called the tidal force.
• Tides and their torques can deform the bodies, determining their
equilibrium shape.
• The Moon is presently retreating from the Earth at a rate of 4 cm year−1
while the Earth’s rotation rate is slowing down, as is evident from
geological records.
• Europa contains a sub-surface ocean and Io still has active volcanism due to
strong tidal heating caused by the Jupiter
• Tidal torques are also responsible for the observed synchronous spin–orbit
state of most satellites
Roche’s Limit
• When tidal forces are strong enough to overcome the cohesion forces, they
can disrupt the formation of a body as a unique entity or can break it apart
• There is a limit distance between two bodies that can destroy the smaller
one due to tides raised on it by the larger one, called the Roche limit (RL)
1/3
𝜌𝑝
𝑅𝐿 = 1.44𝑅𝑝
𝜌𝑠
where, 𝑅𝑝 and 𝜌𝑝 are the radius and density of primary body, and 𝜌𝑠 is the
density of the secondary body
• If the secondary body is a liquid, fully deformable object, the factor 1.44
must be replaced by 2.46
• Examples of the relevance of the Roche limit are the planetary rings of the
four giant planets, which lie within their planet’s Roche limit distance.
 Conjunctions and Oppositions

A conjunction When the

occurs when a alignment of a
planet is positioned superior planet
on a straight line occurs on the same
between the Earth side of the Sun as
and Sun or its the Earth, that kind
extension on the of a conjunction is
other side of the referred to as an
Sun opposition
Orbital Periods
• The sidereal period of revolution of a planet (or any celestial object) is
the time that elapses during one revolution about the Sun with
respect to the stars (fixed).
• An alternative method of describing the revolution of planets is by
means of their synodic period, which is the time that elapses between
successive conjunctions with the Earth.
1 1 1
= ±
𝑃 𝐸 𝑆
where, P = sidereal period of a planet, E = sidereal period of the Earth,
S = synodic period of the planet
• +ve sign is used for inferior planets (Venus and Mercury) and –ve sign
is used for superior (or exterior) planets (Mars, Jupiter etc.)
Example
• The sidereal period of Jupiter (P) is 11.856 y
1 1 1
= −
11.856 1.0 𝑆
𝑆 = 1.092 𝑦 ≈ 398.9 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
• The synodic period of Jupiter is 398.9 days which is the time that elapses
between successive alignments of Jupiter, the Earth, and the Sun.
• The synodic period of revolution indicates the length of time between
successive alignments with the Earth when the distance between them is
either minimum or maximum
• For example, the Earth and Mars are in conjunction every 780 days (2.13
years) which defines the window of opportunity for travel from the Earth
to Mars and for the return to Earth.
Densities
• The density of matter depends not only on its chemical composition but
also on the temperature and pressure to which it is subjected.
• An increase in pressure causes the density of matter to rise while an
increase in temperature causes it to decrease.
• The minerals that make up the rocks of the mantle of the Earth recrystallize
under the influence of pressure to form new minerals that have smaller
volumes and greater densities than the minerals that are stable at the
surface of the Earth.
• The pressure exerted by the weight of the overlying mantle and crust
causes the density of iron in the core of the Earth to rise to more than 12
g/cm3 compared to only 7.87 g/cm3 at 20 °C at the surface of the Earth.
Densities
• Consequently, the bulk density of the Earth 5.52 g/cm3 calculated from its mass
and its volume is higher than its so-called uncompressed density 4.2 g/cm3, which
has been corrected for the compression of the mantle and core.
• Although the uncompressed densities are more representative of the internal
structure and chemical composition of planets, the bulk densities of the planets
are based on direct observations of their masses and volumes.
• The bulk densities of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are all less than 1.64
g/cm3 and vary only from 0.69 g/cm3 (Saturn) to 1.638 g/cm3 (Neptune).
• The low bulk densities arise from the thick atmospheres composed of hydrogen
(H) and helium (He) that surround the comparatively small cores of rocky material
of these planets.
• Pluto has density of about 2.0 g/cm3 indicates that it has a core, which is
presumed to be composed of rocky material having a density of about 3.0 g/cm3
“ I much prefer the sharpest criticism of a
single intelligent man to the thoughtless
approval of the masses.

– Johannes Kepler
”
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