Dynamics

Dot Product

• It is way of finding the scalar product of a vector.

• A dot product is written using a central dot: 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏, read as the dot product
of a and b.
• Formula of finding the dot product of two or more vectors are:

𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 = 𝑎 𝑏 cos 𝜃

𝑎∙𝑏=𝑎𝑥𝑏𝑥 +𝑎𝑦𝑏𝑦

If the angle between two vectors is less than 90, then the dot product would be positive.

If two vectors are perpendicular to one another, then the dot product would be zero.

If the angle between two vectors is greater than 90, then the dot product would be negative.
Work

•Work is scalar quantity, defined as the product of force and displacement that is along the
direction of the force.
• SI unit is Joule.
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑 cos 𝜃
 SYSTEM F d W

MKS kg.m/s^2 or Newton m kg.ms^2/s^2 or Nm or

(N) Joule (J)

CGS g.cms^2 or dynes cm g. cm^2/s^2 or

(dyne) dyne-cm or erg

FPS Slug./fts^2 or lbs. ft Feet.lb (ft-lb)

OTHER UNITS: Calories (cal)

To convert J to cal formula:

J • 1 cal / 4.184 J

ENERGY

In order for work to be done, force must cause an object to move. No work will be done unless
there is a change in energy that propels the movement of the object.
• When work is done, energy is transform from one type to another.
• SI unit of energy is also Joule (J).

● Potential Energy – is the energy associated with their position, nature and/ or
arrangement of objects.
● Kinetic Energy is the energy of a body by virtue of its motion.

TYPES OF POTENTIAL ENERGY

• Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE) – is the energy of a body by virtue of its position.
Object can stored energy by its position. Sometime called work against gravity.

𝐺𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔h 𝐺𝑃𝐸 = 𝑊h

𝐺𝑃𝐸 = 𝐹 h

Elastic Potential Energy (EPE) – is the potential energy stored by deforming an elastic
object.
𝐸𝑃𝐸 = 1𝑘𝑥2 2
• Consider a massless spring attached at one end and exert a force along x-axis to the opposite
side. A constant force needs to be exerted:
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥
where k = spring constant (k = 𝑾) 𝒙
x = displacement along x-axis
• Before stretching or compressing of the spring, initial displacement is 𝒙𝟏 = 𝟎, and after
stretching or compressing of the spring, displacement would be at 𝒙𝟐.
• Work done on the spring is 𝑊 = 1 𝑘𝑥2 − 1 𝑘𝑥2 2122
• Initial position and final position of the spring would stated as EPE.

𝐸𝑃𝐸 = ½ kx^2

WORK-ENERGY THEOREM

It states that regardless of the increase and decrease in KE, the change in energy equals
the amount of work done on the object.

Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with energy relationship,

transformations and exchanges. Primarily, two things are involved in energetics: the one in
the system and the one in the environment.

There are four laws governing thermodynamics, and the first law is called Law of
Conservation of Energy.

Law of Conservation of Energy

States that:
Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, although it can be transformed from one kind to
another.

Internal energy is the energy contained in a systemthat excludes KE and PE of the system. IE of
the system is related to temperature.

Conservative Force

A kind of force in which when work done is reversible or capable of being converted in a
two-way manner.

Example: Gravitational Force and Spring Force

The work done is reversible

•Work done is zero when initial and final position are identical.

•Work done is path-independent, and only dependent on initial and final positions.

•Work done is the difference between final and initial PE.

Non-Conservative Force

A kind of force in which when work done is not reversible or not capable of being converted
in a two-way manner.

Example: Frictional Force, Air Resistance and Tension

The work done is irreversible

•Work done cannot be expressed as the difference between final and initial PE.

POWER

• In physics, the term power means the rate of doing work. It is how fast the work is done and
measure the same work in a unit time.

•SI unit of power is watt (W).

CENTER OF MASS

➢ Center of Mass of a system is the location in space where a force that is applied to the
system will make it move without tendency to rotate.

On solving the center of mass of an object, the geometric center (physical center of the object)
must be first located.

FACTORS TO DETERMINE CENTER OF MASS

➢ The masses that constitutes objects of the system

➢ The location of the objects in arbitrary coordinate system.

1. Center of mass of a system with a uniform posistion

system that has uniform composition or also called homogeneous, has its geometric center
as its center of mass.

2. Center of mass of a system with two bodies

The center of mass, denoted as 𝑚𝑐, of the given system with three bodies is given as
𝑚 =(𝑥,𝑦) 𝑐𝑐𝑐
Where 𝑥𝑐 stands for the center of mass in x-direction.
and 𝑦 stands for the center of mass in y-direction.
3. Center of mass of a system with multiple bodies

IMPORTANCE OF CENTER OF MASS

When force is applied to the center of mass, the object as a system of particles moves in
the direction of force without rotating. No matter what the shape of the object, the center of
mass helps understand the mechanism of force and motion of that object.

IMPULSE-MOMENTUM THEOREM

It states that when a force acts on the body it produces a change in momentum.
𝑭𝒕=𝒎 (𝒗𝒇−𝒗𝒊)
COLLISION

It is an when two or more bodies collide or interact with each other.

There are three types of collisions: Perfectly Elastic
Elastic Inelastic

PERFECTLY ELASTIC COLLISION

➢ The bodies stick together after interaction and moves with a common velocity
➢ Linear momentum is conserved.
➢ Kinetic Energy is not conserved. Kinetic energy goes to dissipated
forms like heat, sound and deformation of bodies ➢ The coefficient of restitution is zero (e=0)
m1v1+m2v2=𝑚1vA1+m2vA2

ELASTIC COLLISION

➢ The bodies does not stick together after collision

➢ Linear momentum is conserved.
➢ Kinetic Energy is conserved.
➢ The coefficient of restitution is one (e=1)
m1v𝐵1+m2v𝐵2=m1v𝐴1 +m2v𝐴2

For any collision between two bodies in which bodies move only along a straight line, the
coefficient of restitution is defined.

e=vA2-vA1/
vB1-vB2

where 𝑣𝐵1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝐵2 is the velocity before the impact and 𝑣A1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣A2 is the velocity after the
impact.

Gravity

In Earth, gravity is easily understood, since it is associated with weight. However, gravity is not
limited on Earth, it is universal.

•Any two objects in the universe exert this attractive force mutually on each other and that
attractive force is gravity.

Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation

•According to ULG, that there exists a gravitational force mutually exerted by two objects on
each other.

The law states that:

“Every two objects in the universe are attached to each other with a force that is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of
distance of the two objects.”

Mathematically:
G= Gravitational constant
m1= mass of object 1
m2= mass of object 2
d= distance between the centers of two objects

Gravitational Constant

In 1798, Lord Henry Cavendish, an English politician attempt to measure the mass on Earth
using torsion balance.

Torsion balance is a device that used to measure the gravitational acceleration objects
from the surface of Earth.

G= 6.67x10^11Nm^2/kg^2

WHY WEIGHT IS RELATED TO GRAVITY?

Every object in the universe is affected by the pull of the nearest heavenly body which is also
has the most significant mass. This implies that the greater the mass of the heavenly body, the
greater the gravitational pull it exerts.

GRAVITY AS ATTRACTIVE FORCE

•Gravity exist if any two objects in the universe exert this attractive force mutually on each other.

•One way to imagine gravity as an attractive force is a line for forces originating from each
object.

•The lines of force is called gravitational fields.

-an idealized representation of an interaction mechanism between objects of masses.
-Unit: Newton per kilogram N/kg

ESCAPE VELOCITY

•Escape velocity refers to the minimum speed of an object in order to escape the influence
of the heavenly bodies gravitational pull.

LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION

•Johannes Kepler, a 17th century German astronomer is best known for his three laws of
planetary motion. His mentor, Tycho Brahe also comes out with his own synthesis.

•The three laws are named as:

Law of Ellipses
Law of Equal Areas
Law of Harmonies/ Law of Periods

LAWS OF ELLIPSES

•An ellipse, in geometry, is closed type of conic section, wherein two focal points, such that
for all the points on the curve, the sum of two distances to the focal points is constant.

Law of Ellipses states that

The path of the planets about the Sun is elliptical in shape, with the center of the Sun
being located at one focus.

This only means that the planets travel in an elliptical orbit around the Sun.

The point where planet is closest to the Sun is called perihelion.

•The point where planet is farthest to the Sun is called aphelion.

LAW OF EQUAL AREAS

•Law of Equal Areas states that:

An imaginary line from the center of the Sun to the center of the planet will sweep out
equal areas in equal intervals of time.

This law illustrates how fast planets are orbiting the Sun. Every planet orbital speed varies
depending on their distance to the Sun. The closer it is, the faster its rate of speed is.

LAW OF EQUAL AREAS

•Consider an imaginary line were drawn from the center of the planet to the center of the sun,
that line would sweep out the same area in equal periods of time.

•For instance, if an imaginary line were drawn from the earth to the sun, then the area swept out
by the line in every 30-day month would be the same.

LAW OF HARMONIES

•Law of Harmonies, also known as Law of Periods, states that

The ratio of the squares of any two planetary periods is equal to the ratio of the cubes of
their average distances from the Sun.

This law implies that the period for a planet to orbit the Sun increases rapidly with the
radius of its orbit.

UNIT TO REMEMBER

An astronomical unit (au) is unit of length that describes the mean distance of Earth from
the Sun.

1 au = 1.50 x 108 km
1 au = 1.50 x 1011 m

RELATIONSHIP OF GRAVITY TO PLANETARY LAWS

•Newton's comparison of the acceleration of the moon to the acceleration of objects on earth
allowed him to establish that the moon is held in a circular orbit but does not necessarily
establish that gravity is the cause of the planet's orbits.

•Kepler suggested in his Law of Harmonies that the ratio of the period of orbit squared (T2) to
the mean radius of orbit cubed (R3) is the same value k = 2.97 x 10-19 s2/m3 for all the planets
that orbit the sun.

•Regardless of the planet’s mass, T2/R3 ratio would be the same value.

•Newton's universal law of gravitation predicts results that were consistent with known planetary
data and provided a theoretical explanation for Kepler's Law of Harmonies.

•So Newton’s assumption on the influence of gravity on planet’s orbit is correct.