KEY DEFINITIONS 🎀🎀

- Motion forces energy

Topic 1: Motion, forces, and energy

1.1 Physical quantities and measurement techniques

● Define scalar quantity: A scalar quantity is a quantity that has magnitude (size) only.
Examples of scalars: distance, speed, time, mass, energy and temperature
● Define vector quantity: A vector quantity is a quantity has magnitude and direction.
Examples of vectors: force, weight, velocity, acceleration, momentum, electric field
strength and gravitational field strength

1.2 Motion

● Define speed: Speed is the distance travelled per unit time

● Define acceleration: Acceleration is the change in velocity per unit time
● Define velocity: Velocity is the speed in a given direction
● Define Average speed: Average speed is defined as total distance / Total time
● Define Free-fall: An object is in free-fall when it is moving only under the influence of
the earth’s gravity.
● Define Acceleration of free fall: It is a value of the acceleration of free fall (g). On Earth,
this value of g for any object that is near the surface is approximately constant at
9.8m/s2. [ In IGCSE examinations, this value is taken to be 10m/s2]

1.3 Mass and weight:

● Define Mass: Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter in an object at rest relative to
the observer
● Define Weight: Weight is defined as a gravitational force on an object that has mass
● Define Gravitational field strength: Gravitational field strength is the force per unit mass

1.4 Density

● Define density: Density is defined as the mass per unit volume

1.5 Forces

● Define Spring constant: Spring constant is defined as the force per unit extension. Its
formula is: k=F/x
● Define Limit of proportionality: It is a point beyond which the spring crosses its elastic
limit and becomes permanently deformed.
● State Newtons second law: It states that, for a body of constant mass "m" and net force
"F", we can state that F = ma, where F ( net force) and a (acceleration)/ Both are vector
quantities.
● Define Circular motion: Circular motion is defined as the movement of an object along
the circumference of a circle or the rotation of an object along a circular path.
● Define Solid friction: Solid friction as the force between two surfaces that may impede
motion and produce heating.
● Define Drag force: It is a force acting in a direction that is opposite to the relative motion
of the object moving with respect to the surrounding fluid. Fluid refers to liquids and
gases
● Define Moment of a force: It is a measure of the turning effect of a force. Formula is
moment = force × perpendicular distance from the pivot. The SI unit of moment of a
force is Nm
● State the Principle of moments: For an object in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise
moments about a point is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments about the same
point and the net force acting on it is zero.
● Define Centre of gravity: It is a point at which the weight of a body or system is supposed
to be concentrated. In uniform gravity it is the same as the centre of mass.
● Define Momentum: Momentum=mass × velocity; recall and use the equation p = mv. The
SI unit of momentum is kgm/s
● Define Impulse: Impulse= force × change in time. [ it is the time for which force acts].
The Si unit of impulse is Newton-second (Ns)
● State the Principle of conservation of momentum: When 2 or more bodies interact
(collide) in an isolated system, the total momentum stays the same.
● Define Resultant force: A resultant force is the change in momentum per unit time. The
unit is Newtons (N)
● Define Kinetic energy: The energy possessed by an object, by virtue of its motion is
called as kinetic energy.
● Define Gravitational potential energy: When objects are placed in a gravitational field,
they possess certain energy relative to their position in this gravitational field. This
energy is called as the gravitational potential energy. Formula for the gravitational
potential energy= mgh; here m=mass of the object, g=gravitational field strength and h is
the height to which the object is raised.
● Define Chemical energy: The energy stored in the bonds of chemical compounds is called
as the chemical energy.
● Define Elastic (Strain energy): Strain energy is the energy stored in an object due to its
deformation.
 ● Define Electrostatic energy: It refers to the potential energy of a system of separated
electric charges
● Define Internal (Thermal) energy:The energy of a thermodynamic system is its internal
energy. It is the energy associated with the random, disordered motion of molecules
● State the Principle of conservation of energy: Principle of conservation of energy states
that " Energy can never be created nor destroyed. It can only be converted from one form
to another. The total amount of energy in a system stays the same.
● Define Work: Work is= Force x displacement. Here the displacement is in the direction of
the force. Unit of work is Joule.
● Define One Joule: One Joule refers to the work done by a force of 1 Newton, when it
displaces a body through 1m in the direction of the force applied.
● Define Solar cells [ Photovoltaic cells]: This refers to cells that are capable of converting
light energy to electrical energy through photovoltaic effect
● Define Solar panels: [ Photo-voltaic panel/Solar-electric panel]: It is a panel consisting of
many solar cells, designed to absorb sun’s rays for generating electricity or for heating
purposes.
● Define Wind energy: The energy of the naturally flowing air that is used to generate
electricity is called as wind energy.
● Define Renewable energy resources: This is the type of energy that comes from resources
that are easily replenished. Example: Energy from the sun, wind, etc.
● Define Non-renewable energy: This is the type of energy that comes from resources that
are easily not easily replenished. Example: Energy from fossil fuels
● Define Percentage Efficiency: Percentage efficiency= {[ Useful energy output] /Total
energy input]} x 100 or { [ Useful power output] /Total power input]} x 100
● Define Power: Power is defined as the work done per unit time of power is defined as the
energy transferred per unit time.SI unit power is Watts (W)
● Define Pressure: Pressure is defined as the force per unit area.SI unit of pressure if
Pascals (Pa). Formula for calculating pressure due to solids=Force/Area; While the
formula to calculate the pressure exerted due to liquids is=hpg. Where h is the height of
the liquid column, p is the density of the liquid and g is the gravitational field strength.

- Thermal Physics

2.1 Kinetic particle model of matter

● Define Brownian motion: It is the random movement of larger particles, due to their
collision with faster moving, smaller particles.
 ● Define Absolute scale of temperature: A temperature scale, whose 00C is equivalent to
-273.15 °C (absolute zero) and whose 373.150C is equivalent to 1000C.
● Define Absolute zero: Absolute zero is the temperature at which a thermodynamic
system has the lowest energy. This temperature corresponds to -273.150C on a Celsius
temperature scale.
● State Boyle's law: For a fixed mass of a gas at constant temperature, the volume varies
inversely as the pressure. Hence pv=constant; where p=pressure on the gas and v=volume
of the gas.

2.2 Thermal properties and temperature

● Define Thermal expansion: Thermal expansion is the expansion of an object under the
influence of heat
● Define Specific heat capacity:It is the amount of heat energy , needed to raise the
temperature of unit mas of a substance through 10C
● Define Melting point: It is the temperature at which a solid changes into a liquid
● Define Boiling point: It is the temperature at which a liquid changes into a gas, without a
rise in temperature.
● Define Evaporation: It is the temperature at which a liquid changes into a gas, over a
range of temperatures

2.3 Transfer of thermal energy

- Define Good thermal conductors (bad thermal insulators): Substances that allow the heat
energy to flow through them easily are called as good thermal conductors.
- Define Bad thermal conductors ( good thermal insulators):Substances that do not allow
the heat energy to flow through them easily are called as good thermal insulators.
- Define Conduction:Conduction is the the transfer of energy through the movement of
particles that are touching each other.
- Define Convection:Convection is a process of heat transfer involving density differences
within molecules of the same fluid , in which the warmer and less dense portions rise up,
while the more dense and the heavier ones sink down.
- Define Radiation:Radiation refers to the process of transmission or emission of energy in
the form of waves that can travel through vacuum, meaning they do not require any
medium.

- Waves
3.1 General properties of waves

● Define Wave motion: Wave motion is the transfer of energy from one place to another,
without transferring matter.
● Define Wavefront: Wavefront is the imaginary line joining all the crests on a wave.
● Define Wavelength: Wavelength is the distance between two consecutive crests, two
consecutive troughs or between any two points in phase.
● Define Frequency:Frequency is defined as the number of vibrations passing trough a
point per unit time.
● Define Transverse wave: A transverse wave ia a wave in which the direction of
vibration is at right angles to the direction of propagation . Examples include:
electromagnetic radiation, water waves and seismic S-waves (secondary) can be
modelled as transverse.
● Define Longitudinal wave: For a longitudinal wave, the direction of vibration is parallel
to the direction of propagation . Examples include: sound waves and seismic P-waves
(primary) .
● Define Refraction: It is the bending of light when light changes media.
● Define Reflection: It is the bouncing back of waves after hitting a surface.
● Define Diffraction: Diffraction is the spreading of waves around obstacles.
● Define Angle of incidence: It is the angle between the incident ray and the normal.
● Define Angle of refection: It is the angle between the reflected ray and the normal.
● Define Normal:A normal is a perpendicular line drawn to a surface , at the exact point
where the incident ray hits the surface
● Define Plane mirror: A plane mirror is a mirror with a flat reflecting surface.
● Define Critical angle: Critical angle is that angle of incidence , for which the angle of
refraction is 900.
● Define optical fibre: An optical fibre is a fibre that is made of silica or plastic , with a
diameter just slightly greater than a human hair. It is by nature flexible and transparent .
● Refractive index: Refractive index is a measure of the bending of light ray when light
changes media. It is the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to its velocity in a
specified medium.
● Total internal reflection: Total internal reflection is when all light rays are only totally
internally reflected. This happens when the angle of incidence is greater than the critical
angle.
● Converging lens: A converging lens is a lens that allows all the parallel rays of light
passing through it, to converge at a point.
● Diverging lens: A diverging lens is a lens that causes the parallel rays of light incident on
it to diverge and for a virtual image.
● Thin lens: A thin lens is a lens that has a negligible thickness in comparison to the radii
of curvature of the lens surfaces.
● Virtual image: A virtual image is an image formed by rays of light that do not actually
meet to form that image. A virtual image is formed when diverging rays are extrapolated
backwards and does not form a visible projection on a screen
● Real image:A real image is an image formed by rays of light actually meeting at a point
to form that image.
● Dispersion of light: The splitting of white light into its constituent colours when it is
incident on a prism is called as dispersion of light.
● Spectrum: A band of colours formed as a result of dispersion is called as a spectrum.
● Monochromatic light: The visible light of a single frequency is described as
monochromatic.
● Electromagnetic spectrum: An electromagnetic spectrum consists of a range of all types
of electromagnetic radiations.
● Compressions : These are high pressure regions on a pressure wave( longitudinal wave)
● Rarefactions: These are low pressure regions on a pressure wave( longitudinal wave).

- Electricity
- Define Magnetic poles: Magnetic poles are the regions on the ends of a magnet , where
there are the magnetic field lines that either emerge from it, or are directed towards it.
- Define Magnets: Magnets are materials that can produce their own magnetic fields and
hence are able to attract magnetic substances towards them.
- Define Magnetic materials: Magnetic materials are substances that get attracted towards
a magnet
- Define Domains: Magnetic domains are regions within a magnetic material in which the
magnetisation is present in a uniform direction
- Domain: A domain is a region inside of a material where groups of magnetic moments
naturally align in the same direction.
- Define induced magnetism: When a magnetic substance is brought close to a magnet, it
stays attracted to the magnet as long as it is not pulled away from the magnet's magnetic
field. So, we say that the magnetism is induced in the magnetic material as long as it is in
the magnets magnetic field.
- Define Temporary magnets: Temporary magnets are made up of soft ion and stay
magnetised for some time.
- Define Permanent magnets:Permanent magnets retain their magnetic properties even in
the absence of an inducing field or current
 - Define Electromagnets: Electromagnets are magnets in which their magnetic field is
produced due to an electric current. They usually have iron cores and lose their
magnetism when the electric current through them is stopped.
- Define Magnetic field:It is the region around a magnetic material within which the force
of magnetism acts on magnetic materials.
- Define Bar magnets: Bar magnets that are rectangular in shape and have permanent
magnetic properties and are made from the ferromagnetic substances
- Define Magnetic field lines: Magnetic field lines are imaginary lines around the magnet
and their direction is always from the North to South pole of the magnet These are more
concentrated towards the poles and never overlap each other
- Define Compass: A compass has a magnetic needle that always points in the
North-South direction. The red painted part of it indicates North. Hence is used to find
direction while navigating or even to find the direction of magnetic field lines , if placed
near a permanent magnet.
- Define Iron filings:These are small shavings of a ferromagnetic material

4.2 Electrical quantities

● Define Electric charge: An electric charge is a basic physical property that causes objects
to feel attracted or repelled towards each other
● Define Positive charge: A positive charge exists when the number of protons exceeds the
number of electrons .
● Electric Field:An electric field as a region in which an electric charge experiences a
force
● Define Negative charge: A negative charge exists when the number of protons is less
than the number of electrons .
● Define Electrostatic charge: Electrostatic charge is a charge that is developed on
ungrounded or insulating surfaces, as a result of either a deficiency or an excess of
electrons .
● Define A point charge: A point charge is a hypothetical charge located at a single point in
space .It only exists in theory and cannot be measured.
● Define A conducting sphere:A conducting sphere is a sphere that has the charge present
only on its surface
● Define Electrical conductors: Electrical conductors are substances or material that allow
electricity to flow through them .
● Define Electrical insulators:Electrical conductors are substances or material that do not
allow electricity to flow through them .
 ● Define Electric current: An Electrical current is defined as the rate at which the charge
flows.
● Define Conventional current: Conventional current assumes that current flows out of the
positive terminal, through the circuit and into the negative terminal of the source.
● Define Ammeter:It is an instrument to measure the electric current
● Define Direct current: Direct current is the one-directional flow of electric charge
● Define Alternating current: An alternating current is an electric current that periodically
reverses it's direction and changes it's magnitude continuously with time
● Define Electromotive force: It is the electrical work done by a source in moving a unit
charge around a complete circuit
● Define Potential difference: It is the work done by a unit charge passing through a
component
● Define Electrical power: It is the rate at which electrical energy is transferred by an
electric circuit.
● Define Kilowatt-hour (kWh): It is a unit of energy and this term tells us that one
kilowatt (1 kW) of power is spent in one hour (1 h) of time

- Space Physics

1 Earth and the Solar System

● Define Rotation of Earth:The circular movement of the Earth about its own axis is called
as the rotation of the Earth.
● Define Average orbital speed: It is defined using the equation: v = 2??r /T where r is the
average radius of the orbit and T is the orbital period
● Define Solar system:Solar system is a single term that includes eight planets and their
moons in orbit round the sun. Also included in the solar system are the smaller bodies
such as the comets., asteroids, and the meteoroids.
● Define Orbital distance:Orbital distance is the term that tells us the time taken by one
object to revolve around the other.
● Define Orbital duration[ Orbital time}: Orbital duration is the time taken by one object to
completely orbit around the other.
● Define gravitational field strength: Gravitational field strength is a term that indicates the
amount of gravitational force that is exerted per unit mass at a particular point.It has a
symbol "g"
 ● Define Interstellar clouds of gas and dust: It is a cloud comprising of dust, plasma and
gases present in all the galaxies, including our own.
● Define accretion disc: These are structures that surround the celestial objects such as the
stars and the black holes.These structures are made of gas, plasma and dust
● Define Planetary data:It refers to the data that gives us information on the different
planets based on researches and explorations

6.2 Stars and the Universe

● Define Stars:Stars are massive , self-luminous celestial objects, made of Hydrogen and
Helium
● Define Proto stars: A protostar is a young star. .It is formed as a result of accretion in the
nebula.
● Define Stable stars:In every star, there is the gas pressure that exerts an outward force
from the centre and at the same time , there is gravity that is pulling the atoms of
Hydrogen and Helium inwards. When the outward pushing force balances the
gravitational force, we call the star as a stable tar.Example of a stable star is the Sun.
● Define Sun:The Sun is a very bright, luminous, celestial and a stable star, situated in the
spiral arm of the Milky Way galaxy and at the centre of the Solar System.
● Define Galaxy:The word galaxy encompasses billions of stars along with their solar
systems,gas and dust held by their gravity. There are more than a hundred billion galaxies
in the universe.
● Define Milky way:Milky way is a spiral galaxy that includes our solar system. It has
billions of stars, including our Sun.
● Define Universe:Universe refers to the space, time and matter and all the laws that
govern them.
● Define Light-year: One light-year is the distance traveled in (the vacuum of) space by
light in one year.
● Define Red giants:These are massive , luminous stars with a very low surface
temperature and a high volume , with a reddish-orange hue, in their final stage of stellar
evolution and that have exhausted their supply of Hydrogen in their core.Examples:
Aldebaran (Alpha Tauri) and Mira (Omicron Ceti).
● Define Red supergiants: Red supergiants are aging giant stars with a minimum of 15
solar masses. [solar mass refers to the mass of the sun, when used as a unit of mass. One
solar mass is equal to 1.989 x 1030 kg ]
● Define Supernova: Supernova is a powerful and luminous stellar explosion, that happens
when a star has reached the end of its life.Example: Kepler's Supernova
● Define Nebula:Nebula is a Latin word for fog or cloud.It consists of interstellar clouds
consisting of Helium, Cosmic Dust, ionised gases, hydrogen as well as molecular clouds.
[There are in all 5 different types of Nebulae, namely;emission nebulae, reflection
nebulae, dark nebulae, planetary nebulae, and supernova remnants.
● Define Black hole:A black hole is a region in the space, in which the effect of gravity is
so strong, that it lets nothing escape out f it, not even light.The region appears to be black
and circular.[ There are approximately 100 billion super massive black holes]
● Define Redshift:Redshift is a phenomenon in which the spectrum of an astronomical
object gets displaced towards the longer( red) wavelength.
● Define Cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR): Cosmic microwave
background radiation (CMBR) is the leftover of the cosmic radiation after the big bang.
● Define Hubble constant Ho: Hubble constant is the ratio of the speed at which the galaxy
is moving away from the Earth to its distance from the Earth