Beaconhouse School System

PHYSICS HANDOUT
NAME: ________________________ DATE: _________________

Topic: Momentum
Momentum
Product of the mass of a particle and its velocity is called momentum.
Momentum is a vector quantity; i.e., it has both magnitude and direction.
Mathematically
p=mv
Where p is momentum of the object,
m is the mass of the object and
v is the velocity with which the object is moving.
SI unit
Kilogram metre per second (kg m / s)
Factors effecting momentum
Mass of the object- more massive object will have more momentum as compared to less mass.
Velocity of the object- fast moving object will have more momentum than of slow moving object.
Impulse
Impulse is the product of force and time for which force acts.
Mathematically Impulse = F Δt
𝑣−𝑢
Impulse = FΔt = Δ(mv) Impulse = ma Δt = m ( ) Δt
Δt
SI unit Impulse = m Δv = Δmv
Newton second (N s)
Principle of the conservation of momentum
For a collision occurring between object 1 and object 2 in an isolated system, the total
momentum of the two objects before the collision is equal to the total momentum of the two
objects after the collision.
That is, the momentum lost by object 1 is equal to the momentum gained by object 2.
Mathematically
p1 + p2 = 0
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
m1 mass of object 1 in kg
m2 mass of object 2 in kg
u1 initial velocity of object 1 before collision in m / s
u2 initial velocity of object 2 before collision in m / s
v1 final velocity of object 1 after collision in m / s
v2 final velocity of object 2 after collision in m / s
Resultant force
Isaac Newton's second law of motion states that the time rate of change of momentum is equal
to the force acting on the particle.
Or
The change in momentum per unit time is called resultant force.
Mathematically
Resultant force = change in momentum / time taken
F = ∆p/∆t

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

 Beaconhouse School System
PHYSICS HANDOUT
NAME: ________________________ DATE: _________________

Topic: TURNING EFFECT OF FORCES

Turning Effect of Force or Torque or Moment
It is the product of the force and perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to the pivot or
point where the object will turn.
Formula
Moment of force = F x d
• Where F = force in Newton (N)
• d = perpendicular distance from pivot in metres (m)
• The S.I unit of moment is the Newton metre (Nm)
• It is a vector quantity and thus has both magnitude and direction.
• Its direction is either clockwise or anti-clockwise.

Daily example of Turning effect of forces:

 A worker applies a force to a spanner to rotate a nut.
 A person removes a bottle's cork by pushing down the bottle opener's lever.
 A force is applied to a door knob and the door swings open about its hinge.
 A driver can turn a steering wheel by applying a force on its rim.

Factors determining turning effect of forces:

The moment of force can be increased by:
 Applying higher force.
 Increasing the perpendicular distance from pivot / hinge/ point of rotation.

Direction of turning effect of forces:

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

What is the principle of Moments?
If an object is balanced, the total clockwise moment about a pivot is equal to the total anticlockwise
moment about that pivot. Or
When a body is in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments about a pivot is equal to the sum of
anticlockwise moments about the same pivot.
Total clockwise moments = Total anti-clockwise moments

Verification of Principle of Moments:

Balance a metre scale horizontally at its midpoint O’, by means of a wedge.
Now suspend some weights on both sides of the mid-point and adjust their distances in such a way that
scale again becomes horizontal.

Let F1 and F2 be the weights suspended and d1 and d2 are

respective lengths.
The weight F1 tends to turn the scale anti-clockwise while the
weight F2 tends to turn the scale clockwise.
Total anti-clockwise moments = F1 × d1
Total clockwise moments = F2 × d2
In equilibrium, when the scale is horizontal, it is found that:
Total anti-clockwise moments = Total clockwise moments
F1d1 = F2d2
This verifies the principle of moments.
Principle of moments with more than two forces
Total anti-clockwise moments = total clockwise moments
W1 x d1 + W 2 x d2 = W 3 x d3 +W 4 x d4

Conditions of equilibrium
For an object to be in equilibrium:
• All forces acting on it are balanced. i.e the resultant force is zero.
• The resultant moment about the pivot is zero. i.e The principle of moment must apply.

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

Centre of gravity
The centre of gravity (CG) of a body is an imaginary point where the whole weight of the body seems to
act in any orientation.
 The centre of gravity of a regular object is at the centre.
 The centre of gravity of an irregular object is determined using a plumb line.
 If a body is hanging freely at rest, its CG is always vertically below the pivot, thus the plumb line
method works. It can only be used for flat, irregular objects.

Experiment to determine centre of gravity of plane lamina using plumb line

Apparatus:
Retort stand, cork, plumb line, pin and lamina.
Figure:

Procedure:
1. On the lamina, make three holes near the edge of the lamina (P, Q & R).
2. Suspend the lamina through one of the holes as shown in the diagram.
3. Hang the plumb line on the pin.
4. When the plumb line is steady, make a dot on the position of the line at the edge of the lamina.
5. Repeat steps 2- 4 for the other two holes.
The point where the lines meet is the centre of mass of the body.

Stability
Stability is a measure of the body’s ability to maintain its original position.

The effect of the position of the centre of gravity on the stability of simple objects
To increase the stability of a body
 Its base area should be increased.
 The height of its centre of gravity should be decreased.

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

 Beaconhouse School System
PHYSICS HANDOUT
NAME: _________________________ DATE: _________________

Topic: WORK, ENERGY & POWER

Energy
Energy is the ability to perform work. Energy is Scalar physical quantity.
Unit of energy
The SI unit of energy is the joule (J), which is named in honour of James Prescott Joule.
Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is the energy of a body due to its motion.
Examples:
Wind, waves of the sea, free falling objects, etc.
Formula Radiation from the Sun is the main source
Ek of energy for all our energy resources
except geothermal, nuclear and tidal.
Where Ek = kinetic energy
m = mass of object
v = velocity of the object
Potential Energy
Potential Energy is the energy stored in an object. This form of energy is due to state, shape or position of
the body and measured by the amount of work done.
i. Gravitational potential energy.
 Gravitational potential energy is energy an object possesses because of its position in a gravitational
field.
 Gravitational potential energy is typically converted into kinetic energy (an object falling) before it is
converted into any other type of energy.
 Hydroelectric power is generated this way. As the water falls, it turns a turbine, which pushes
electrons around, creating an electric current.
Ep = mgh
Where Ep = Potential energy Note: Energy may be stored as kinetic,
m = mass of the object gravitational potential, chemical, elastic (strain),
g = gravitational field strength nuclear, electrostatic and internal (thermal).
h = height from ground
ii. Chemical energy.
 Chemical energy is the potential of a chemical substance to undergo a chemical reaction to
transform into other substances. Examples include batteries, food, gasoline, etc.
 A chemical bond can be thought of as an attractive force between atoms. Because of this, atoms
and molecules can have chemical potential energy.
iii. Nuclear energy.
 A fission reaction at a nuclear power plant provides enough energy to give electricity to large cities.
 The fusion reaction in the sun provides our planet with all of the energy it needs for living organisms
to survive.
 An uncontrolled fission reaction provides the destructive force of a nuclear bomb.
iv. Elastic potential energy, also called spring energy.
 Anything that can act like a spring or a rubber band can have elastic potential energy.
v. Electrical potential energy especially in a capacitor.
Other Types of Energy
Some other types of energy are given below:
 Chemical energy Elastic energy Nuclear energy Heat Energy
 Electric energy Mechanical energy Magnetic energy Thermal Energy
 Ionization energy Gravitational energy

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

Total energy
ET = Ek + Ep
Law/principle of conservation of energy
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can only be transformed from one kind to another.

Process of conversion of energy

Describe how useful energy may be obtained or electrical power generated from:
(a) Chemical energy stored in fossil fuels
Fossil fuels are crude oil, coal and natural gas.
Fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, are used
to produce electrical energy.
o This is done by burning the materials
when the energy is required,
o When coal is burned, energy is released
from its chemical store,
o This is used to boil
water creating steam,
o Steam is forced around the system and
this turns a turbine,
o The turbine turns coils in a magnetic
field in the generator. This
generates electricity.
o The electricity is transferred through a step-up transformer and is carried out of the
system by electrical lines.
o The steam within the turbine will cool and condense and then be pumped back into the
boiler to repeat the process.
Advantages
 The current systems of transport and electricity generation rely heavily on fossil fuels which are
generally readily available on a daily basis
 In the past fossil fuels have been reliable for large scale energy production although this is
changing as supplies deplete and prices rise
Disadvantages
 It takes millions of years for fossil fuels to form:
o This is why they are considered to be a non-renewable energy resource.
o The increasing demand for a decreasing supply causes prices to increase.
o Fossil fuels are predicted to completely run out within the next 200 years.
 Burning fossil fuels pollutes the atmosphere with harmful gases such as:
o Carbon dioxide which contributes to the greenhouse effect.
o Sulphur dioxide which produces acid rain.
o Both carbon and sulphur can be captured upon burning preventing it from being released into
the atmosphere but this is expensive to do.

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

(b) Chemical energy stored in Biofuels
Biofuels are made from plant matter; Energy from
sunlight is transferred to the chemical store of plants.
o Ethanol or methane can be produced and used in
place of fossil fuels; However, they have only half
the energy density of fossil fuels.
Advantages
 Biofuel is a renewable resource.
 Some vehicles can be powered by biofuel rather
than using fossil fuels.
 Biofuel is considered to be carbon neutral.
 No sulphur dioxide is produced.
Disadvantages
 Crops of biofuel producing plants must be grown
which takes time.
 Growing the crops takes a lot of land, and
takes resources needed for food production.
 Burning biofuels releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
 It is considered carbon neutral because plants take in carbon dioxide when they photosynthesise.
(c) Hydroelectric resources
 Dams
Hydroelectric power is a renewable energy source which harnesses the power of moving water to
produce electricity.
A hydroelectric dam converts the potential energy stored in a water reservoir behind a dam to
mechanical energy (kinetic energy). As the water flows down through the dam its kinetic energy is
used to turn a turbine. The generator converts the turbine’s mechanical energy into electricity.
Advantages
 Can respond to demand so is reliable and available.
 Can generate large scale amounts of electricity.
Disadvantages
 Need to flood valleys to build which destroys habitats, towns and villages.
 The pumping systems can release large amounts of greenhouse gases.

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

  Tides
Tidal energy is a form of power produced by the natural rise and fall of tides caused by the
gravitational interaction between Earth, the sun, and the moon. Tidal currents with sufficient energy for
harvesting occur when water passes through a constriction, causing the water to move faster.
Using specially engineered generators
in suitable locations, tidal energy can be
converted into useful forms of power,
including electricity.
Advantages
 No pollution
 Reliable and can produce a large
amount of electricity at short notice
 Renewable energy resource
 Small systems are being developed
to provide electricity for small islands
Disadvantages
 Expensive to build
 Damages fragile habitats
 Very few suitable locations
 The technology is not advanced
enough for large scale electricity
production.
 Waves
The energy of a wave depends on the amplitude and the frequency of it. The total mechanical energy
of the wave is the sum of its kinetic energy and potential energy.

(d) Solar energy

Most of our energy resources on the Earth come from the Sun:
a. The Sun heats up the atmosphere, creating wind and producing waves.
b. Water evaporated by the Sun falls as rain, filling up reservoirs.
c. Plants grown using sunlight form the basis for fuels – both biofuels and fossil fuels.
Some forms of energy, however, do not come from the Sun.
a. Geothermal – this comes from heat produced in the Earth’s core.
b. Nuclear – this comes from elements which make up a small proportion of the Earth’s
crust.
c. Tidal – this comes (mainly) from the gravitational attraction of the Moon.

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

 Solar Cells
 The energy from the Sun that falls on the Earth is transferred by radiation (Mostly visible
light and infrared radiation).
 The amount of energy transferred from the Sun to the Earth each hour is equal to the energy use
of the world for one year!
 Therefore, scientists are working hard to find methods of harnessing this energy
o Solar energy has a low energy density, which means large collecting devices are required.
o Collecting solar energy is expensive (due to the equipment required) and inefficient.
 Solar cells transfer energy from sunlight electrically producing a current, and therefore
generating electricity.
o Solar cells, sometimes called photovoltaic cells, are made of semiconducting materials.
o A number of cells connected together can supply electricity to homes, small-scale businesses,
communication devices and satellites.
o Energy generated from solar cells can be stored in batteries for later use.

Advantages
 Solar energy is a renewable resource.
 In many places on Earth sunlight is a reliable energy resource (this means that the sun shines
most of the time).
 Solar farms produce no greenhouse gases or pollution.
 Solar energy can be generated in remote places where they don't have electricity.
o For example to power solar street signs in rural areas.
Disadvantages
 Solar farms need to be large scale to produce large amounts of electricity.
o This is expensive to set up.
o People often don't like the appearance of large solar farms; this is known as visual pollution.
 In many places on Earth sunlight is not a reliable energy resource (there are not enough
sunshine-hours to justify the set-up costs).
(e) Nuclear fuels
Uranium 235 or plutonium 239 is used as fuel in reactors to
produce heat. This heat is used to make steam and steam is
driving the turbines. Turbines drive generators to produce
electrical power.
Advantages
 No pollution released into atmosphere
 Nuclear reactors are perfectly safe as long as they are
functioning properly
o Stringent checks must be routinely carried out and rigorous safety procedures followed
 Nuclear power stations can generate electricity reliably on a large scale which is available as
needed

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

 Disadvantages
 Uranium ore found in the ground is used for fission reactions and since there is a finite supply
(Nuclear power is a non-renewable resource).
 Nuclear fuels produce radioactive waste
 Radioactive waste needs to be stored for thousands of years
 Safe ways of storing radioactive waste is expensive
 If an accident occurs at a nuclear reactor, radioactive waste can leak out and spread over large
areas
(f) Geothermal resources
Radioactive elements deep in the Earth release energy as they decay, this geothermal energy heats
up the rocks, sometimes to a high temperature.
Water can be poured into shafts below the Earth's surface which is heated by the rocks and returned
via another shaft as steam or hot water.
Steam can be used to turn a turbine and generate electricity, and hot water can be used to heat
homes.

Advantages
 Renewable resource.
 Reliable source of energy.
 Geothermal power stations are usually small compared to nuclear or fossil fuel power stations.
Disadvantages
 Few suitable locations on Earth so small scale production of electricity.
 Can result in the release of greenhouse gases from underground.
 Expensive to build.
(g) Wind
Wind turns the propeller-like blades of a turbine around a rotor, which spins a generator, which creates
electricity.
Work
Work is defined as when a force applied to an object moves that object in the direction of applied force.
OR
Mechanical or electrical work done is equal to the energy transferred.
Work is scalar quantity.
For example, a force of 30 newtons (N) pushing an object 3 meters in the same direction of the force will
do 90 joules (J) of work.

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

 Formula of Work
Work = Force × Displacement = F × d = ∆E
= N m = Joule
Unit of Work
Newton meter is termed as Joule and it is the unit of Work.
Types of energy resources:
Energy is broadly classifies into two main groups:
1. Renewable
2. Non-renewable.
Renewable Energy
A renewable resource is a resource which can be used repeatedly and replaced naturally.
Or
Energy from a source that is not depleted when used.
The most popular renewable energy sources currently are:
 Solar energy.
 Wind energy.
 Hydro energy.
 Tidal energy.
 Geothermal energy.
 Biomass energy.
 Rain
Benefits of Renewable Energy
Environmental and economic benefits of using renewable energy include:
 Generating energy that produces no greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels and reduces some
types of air pollution.
 Diversifying energy supply and reducing dependence on imported fuels
 Creating economic development and jobs in manufacturing, installation, and more
Non-Renewable Energy
Energy from a source that is depleted when used.
Or
A non-renewable resource is a resource that does not renew itself at a sufficient rate.
Non-renewable sources are not environmental friendly and can have serious effect on our health. Non-
renewable sources exist in the form of fossil fuels, natural gas, oil and coal.
Example
Fossil fuels, natural gas, oil, coal and plastics.
Advantages Non-Renewable Energy:
 Non-renewable sources are cheap and easy to use. You can easily fill up your car tank and power
your motor vehicle.
 You can use small amount of nuclear energy to produce large amount of power.
 Non-renewable have little or no competition at all.
Fusion
Nuclear fusion is the process by which two or more atomic nuclei join together, or “fuse,” to form a single
heavier nucleus.
During this process, matter is not conserved because some of the mass of the fusing nuclei is converted
to energy, which is released.
Fission Energy is released by
Fission is the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two or more lighter nuclei. nuclear fusion in the Sun

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

Efficiency
The ratio of the useful work done by a machine, engine, device, etc, to the energy supplied to it, often
expressed as a percentage.

(%) x 100%

(%) x 100%
Power
Power is the rate of doing work.
Or
It is the amount of energy converted per unit time.
Formula of power

Unit of Power
As power doesn’t have any direction, it is a scalar quantity. The SI unit of power is Joules per Second
(J/s), which is termed as Watt.
Watt
Watt can be defined as the power taken to do one joule of work in one second. The unit Watt is dedicated
in honor of So James Watt, the developer of the steam engine.

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

 Beaconhouse School System
PHYSICS HANDOUT
NAME: __________________ DATE: _________________
Topic: PRESSURE
Pressure:
Force acting normally per unit area is called Pressure.
Pressure =
P 𝞪 F (By increasing force Pressure increases)
P𝞪 (By increasing base area pressure decreases)

SI unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa) that is equal to Nm-2.

Pascal: When a force of 1 N acts on an area of 1 m2 then the pressure is 1 Pa.
Other units are 1atm = 101325 Pa
Examples of Pressure
1. The area of the edge of a knife’s blade is extremely small. This creates a pressure high
enough for the blade to cut through a material.
2. Syringes are used to take blood for blood tests. The pressure of the liquid (blood) forces the
liquid to move into the syringe when its plunger is withdrawn.
3. When air is sucked out of a drinking straw, the air pressure inside if decreases and the
atmospheric pressure outside forces the liquid to go inside the straw.
4. Skis have a large area to reduce the pressure on the snow. This ensures that the skis do not
sink into the snow too far.
5. The pressure under the studs on the soles of football shoes is high enough for them to sink
into the ground, which gives extra grip.
6. A vacuum cleaner has a fan inside that creates a low pressure inside the device.
Consequently, air and dirt particles are sucked into the device.
7. High heel having more pressure as compared to flat shoes due to small base area.

Pressure due to a Liquid Column:

The amount of pressure in the SAME liquid column is DIFFERENT at DIFFERENT DEPTHS.
The greater the depth, the greater the weight of the liquid above it, the greater the pressure.
The pressure in a liquid is given by
Pressure =
In case of liquid: NOT REQUIRED
P = = ……………………………….. (i)
Density = mass / volume
As ρ = m /V
m = ρV …………………..Volume of liquid is given by A x h
= ρ Ah put in eq (i)
P=
P = ρ gh
Above equation shows that pressure in liquid depends upon
ρ (kgm-3) is density of liquid
g (N/kg) is gravitational field strength
h(m) is depth in liquid from the surface.

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

Cases of Liquid Pressure
1. With atmospheric pressure
p = p0 + ρgh
Total Pressure at bottom of liquid = atmospheric pressure + pressure due to liquid column In this case,
when the container is open, there is atmospheric pressure acting on the liquid as well.
2. Without atmospheric pressure
p = ρgh
Pressure at bottom = pressure due to liquid column only In this case, when the container is closed, air is
removed (vacuum), so there is no atmospheric pressure.
Factors affecting Pressure in a Liquid
Example: 1
Pressure from hole at bottom is more than above due to large depth.

Example: 2
When it is at equilibrium, pressure must be the same at any point along the same depth (h).
Note: pressure does not depend on the shape of the liquid column (container).

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

 Beaconhouse School System
PHYSICS HANDOUT
NAME: ________________________ DATE: _________________

Topic: KINETIC PARTICLE MODEL OF MATTER

Properties of solids, liquids and gases

States of matter Properties

1. Has definite volume and shape.
2. Normally hard and rigid.
Solid 3. Large force needed to change shape.
4. High density.
5. Incompressible.
1. Has definite volume but no definite shape.
2. High density.
Liquid
3. Incompressible.
4. Able to flow.
1. No definite volume and shape.
2. Low density.
Gas
3. Compressible.
4. Able to flow.

Terms for the changes in state between solids, liquids and gases

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

Properties of matter using the kinetic model of matter

Solids Liquids Gases

Molecular
structure

Arrangement
Regular and fixed Irregular and random Irregular and random
of particles
Motion of Vibrate about fixed Free to move about, sliding Move freely in random
particles position among one another. directions at high speed
No fixed shape, take the
Resulting in Fixed shapes No fixed shape
shape of container
Intermolecular Strong, but not as strong
Very strong Very weak
forces as in solids
Resulting in Fixed volume Fixed volume No fixed volume and shape
Distance
between Very close together Close together Very far apart
particles
High densities & High densities & Very low densities &
Resulting in
Incompressible Incompressible Compressible

Brownian motion
Brownian motion is the random motion of particles
suspended in a medium (a liquid or a gas).

Effects of temperature on molecular motion

The average kinetic energy of
gas molecules is directly
proportional to absolute
temperature. All the molecular
motion ceases if the
temperature is reduced to
absolute zero (−273°C = 0 K).
Air molecules have greater
speeds at higher temperature,
when the temperature
increases.
PRESSURE IN GASES
Using the kinetic model of gases, gases exert a pressure on the walls of its container.
 When a gas particle collides onto the wall of the container, a force is exerted on it.
 Numerous such collisions by the many molecules results in an average force exerted on the wall of
container.
 This force acting per unit area gives rise to pressure exerted by the gas molecules on the walls of the
container.

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

PRESSURE-TEMPERATURE (p- T) RELATIONSHIP OF A GAS
“The pressure (p) of a fixed mass of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature (T) if its
volume is constant”.
Mathematically
P𝞪T
P=kT
Assume that the volume and mass of the gas remains constant.
 When the temperature of the gas is raised, the particles have higher KE and moves faster.
 They collide with the walls of the container more vigorously and at higher frequency, resulting in
greater force exerted on the container wall.
 Since pressure p = F/A, a greater force F results in greater pressure.

VOLUME-TEMPERATURE (V-T) RELATIONSHIP OF A GAS

“The volume (V) of the gas increases directly proportionally with the increase in temperature (T),
while keeping the pressure (p) and the amount of gas (n)”.
Mathematically
V𝞪T
V=kT
If the pressure (p) and the amount of gas (n) are held constant:
 If the temperature of a gas is increased, the volume of the gas increases. (P, n Constant).
 If the temperature of a gas is decreased, the volume of the gas decreases. (P, n Constant).

PRESSURE-VOLUME (p-V) RELATIONSHIP OF A GAS

States that the volume (V) of a given amount of gas held
at constant temperature (T) varies inversely with the
applied pressure (p) when the temperature and mass are
constant.
Mathematically
p𝞪1/V
p = k/V
p1 V1 = p2 V2
Graphically
Using the kinetic model of gases, the pressure exerted by a fixed mass of gas increases when its volume
is reduced at constant temperature.
 When the volume is reduced, the number of particles per unit volume increases.
 Therefore, the gas particles collide more frequently with the walls, resulting in greater force exerted on
the container wall.
 Since pressure P = F/A, a greater force F results in greater pressure.
Conversion of temperatures between degree Celsius and Kelvin

TK = θoC + 273

Where Tk = temperature in Kelvin

θoC = temperature in degree celsius

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

 Beaconhouse School System
PHYSICS HANDOUT
NAME: _________________________ DATE: _________________

Topic: Thermal Properties & Temperature

Internal energy
The total energy stored inside a system by the particles that make up the system due to
their motion (kinetic energy) and positions (potential energy).
It has two components; internal kinetic energy (motion of the particles and temperature of the
substance) and internal potential energy (due to stretching or compression and amount of
bonds).
The internal energy of solids is least, in liquids it is more than solids and in gases it is most.
Thermal Expansion
Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in volume in response to temperature
alterations. When a substance is heated, its particles move more and thus maintain a greater
average separation. Shape, area, volume, and density in response to a change in temperature
are changed.
Thermal expansion happens in all three states i.e solids, liquids and gases.
When temperature is increased (at constant pressure);
o Solids will tend to expand the least (because the low energy molecules cannot overcome the
intermolecular forces of attraction holding them together).
o Gases expand the most (because the high energy molecules have enough energy to
completely overcome the intermolecular forces of attraction holding them together).
o Liquids fall in between the two (because the molecules have enough energy to partially
overcome the intermolecular forces of attraction holding them together).
Applications of thermal expansion:
o Thermometers rely on the expansion of liquids to measure temperature.
o Temperature-activated switches work when a bimetallic strip, consisting of two metals that
expand at different rates, bends by a predictable amount at a given temperature.
o Fitting the steel rim on a horse cart wheel.
o Hot air balloons.
o When a tightly closed glass jar with a metal lid is held over a flame, the lid thermally expands
more than the body, making it easier to undo the jar.
Consequences of thermal expansion:
o The expansion of solid materials can cause
them to buckle if they get too hot.
o This could include:
 Metal railway tracks
 Road surfaces
 Bridges
o Things that are prone to buckling in this way
have gaps built in; this creates space for the
expansion to happen without causing
damage.

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

Average kinetic Enegy:
Heating a system changes a substance's internal energy by increasing the kinetic energy of its
particles.
This increase in kinetic energy (and therefore internal energy) can:
o Cause the temperature of the system to increase
o Or, produce a change of state (solid to liquid or liquid to gas)
Specific Heat Capacity (c)
It is defined as the amount of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass
(e.g. 1 kg) of a substance by 1K or 1oC.
Note: When expansion happens,
The temperature of a system increases depends on:
it is the space taken up by the
o The mass of the substance heated,
molecules that increases. The
o The type of material,
molecules themselves remain
o The amount of thermal energy transferred in to the system.
Mathematically the same size.

( ) as
( ) (Rearranging the equation) If a substance has a low specific heat capacity, it
( ) heats up and cools down quickly (ie. it takes less
energy to change its temperature) and vice versa.
Where C = heat capacity (in J K-1 or J oC-1);
Q = thermal energy required (in J);
= change in temperature (in K or oC);
m = mass of the substance (in kg);
c = specific heat capacity (in J kg-1 oC-1 or J kg-1 K-1).
SI Unit of Specific Heat Capacity
Joule per kilogram per degree Celsius (J kg-1 oC-1) or Joule per kilogram per Kelvin (J kg-1 K-1).

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

Formula for Specific Heat Capacity of Solids

( )

Assuming all the energy provided by the heater is absorbed by the solid block,
( )
( )

Where I = electric current; V = voltage; t = time in seconds; m = mass of the solid;

= temperature change
Formula for Specific Heat Capacity of Liquids
Thermal energy supplied by the heater Q = IVt
Thermal energy absorbed by liquid = mlcl( )
Thermal energy absorbed by copper calorimeter = mccc( )
Assuming all the thermal energy supplied is absorbed by the liquid and calorimeter.
Thermal energy supplied = thermal energy absorbed by liquid + thermal energy absorbed by
calorimeter
IVt = mlcl( ) + mccc( )
cl = {IVt - mccc( )} ÷ { ml( )}
Melting
Change of state from solid into liquid when heated is
called melting. The temperature of the substance
doesn’t change during melting (the internal energy will
not rise).
The additional thermal energy goes into overcoming the
intermolecular forces between the molecules of the
solid ice, the solid water becomes liquid.
In a pure crystalline solid, this process occurs at a
fixed temperature called the melting point; an impure solid generally melts over a range of
temperatures below the melting point of the principal component.
The melting temperature for water at standard atmospheric pressure is 0 oC.
Boiling
It is the process in which a substance absorbs thermal energy to change from liquid state to
gaseous state, at a fixed temperature (boiling point).
The internal energy of the liquid remains constant.
The additional thermal energy goes into overcoming the intermolecular forces between the
molecules of water. The liquid water becomes water vapour (steam).
The boiling temperature for water at standard atmospheric pressure is 100 oC.

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

Heating curve

Solidification or Freezing
In this process, a substance changes from liquid state to solid state.
The particles lose kinetic energy and move more slowly
o They no longer have enough energy to overcome the intermolecular forces of attraction
between molecules
o The particles get closer together
o They only have enough energy to vibrate about their fixed position
The liquid has solidified into a solid with no change of temperature
A pure substance will solidify (or freeze) at a definite temperature.
Generally, this occurs when the temperature of a liquid is lowered below its freezing point.
Condensation
It is the change of state of a substance from a gas to a liquid, at a fixed temperature.
The particles lose kinetic energy and move more slowly
o They no longer have enough energy to overcome the intermolecular forces of attraction
between molecules
o The particles get closer together
o They only have enough energy to flow over one another
The gas has condensed into a liquid with no change of temperature
The temperature of boiling point and condensation is same for pure substance.
In condensation thermal energy is given out.

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

Cooling curve
The melting and boiling points of pure
water are known as fixed points
o Ice melts at 0 °C
o Pure water boils at 100 °C

Evaporation
The escape of more energetic particles from the surface of a liquid is known as evaporation.
Evaporation causes cooling effect of liquid.
Difference between boiling and evaporation
Boiling
Occurs at a particular temperature
Relatively fast
Takes place throughout the liquid
Bubbles are formed in the liquid
Temperature remains constant
External thermal energy source required
Evaporation
Occurs at any temperature
Relatively slow
Takes place only at the liquid surface
No bubbles are formed in the liquid
Temperature may change
External thermal energy source not required

How does evaporation occur?

 The molecules in liquid are always moving randomly at different speeds.
 At the surface, the liquid molecules that have enough energy to overcome the downward
attractive forces of the other liquid molecules and the atmospheric pressure escape into the
atmosphere.
 The less energetic molecules are left behind. The average kinetic energy of molecules in the
liquid decreases, and therefore the average temperature of the liquid decreases.

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

Factors affecting rate of evaporation
Temperature
Rising the temperature of the liquid will increase the rate of evaporation.
Pressure
Reducing the atmospheric pressure increases the rate of evaporation.
Humidity of the surrounding air
If there is a lot of water vapour present in the air, we say that the air is humid. The rate of
evaporation decreases with increase in humidity.
Movement of air
The rate of evaporation will be more when the surrounding air is moving as it takes away the
humid air.
Surface area of the liquid
The rate of evaporation increases when a larger area of liquid is exposed. Evaporation only takes
place on the surface only.
Boiling point of the liquid
Liquids with lower boiling point will evaporate faster because the bonds between the liquid
particles are weaker.
Applications of evaporation
 Our skin will feel cold, when applied perfume or perspiration evaporates.
 Person with high fever will be sponged with water; the evaporation of water will lower the body
temperature.
 The cooling of an object in contact with an evaporating liquid
 In refrigerators, condensation and evaporation principles are followed for cooling purpose.

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

Investigating Specific Heat Capacity
Aim of the Experiment
The aim of the experiment is to determine the specific heat capacity of a substance, by linking the
decrease of one energy store (or work done) to the increase in temperature and subsequent
increase in thermal energy stored.
Variables:
 Independent variable = Time, t
 Dependent variable = Temperature, θ
 Control variables:
o Material of the block
o Current supplied, I
o Potential difference supplied, V
Equipment List:

Resolution of measuring equipment:

o Thermometer = 1 °C
o Stopwatch = 0.01 s
o Voltmeter = 0.1 V
o Ammeter = 0.01 A

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

Method

Apparatus to investigate the specific heat capacity of the aluminium block

1. Start by assembling the apparatus, placing the heater into the top of the block
2. Measure the initial temperature of the aluminium block from the thermometer
3. Turn on the power supply and start the stopwatch
4. Whilst the power supply is on, the heater will heat up the block. Take several periodic
measurements, eg. every 1 minute of the voltage and current from the voltmeter and ammeter
respectively, calculating an average for each at the end of the experiment up to 10 minutes
5. Switch off the power supply, stop the stopwatch and leave the apparatus for about a minute.
The temperature will still rise before it cools
6. Monitor the thermometer and record the final temperature reached for the block

An example table of results might look like this:

Time / s Potential Difference /V Current /A Initial temperature /oC Final temperature /oC
60
120
180
240
300
360
420
480
540
600
Average

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

Analysis of Results
 The thermal energy supplied to the block can be calculated using the equation:
E = IVt
Where:
o E = thermal energy, in joules (J)
o I = current, in amperes (A)
o V = potential difference, in volts (V)
o t = time, in seconds (s)
 The change in thermal energy is defined by the equation:
ΔE = mcΔθ
Where:
o ΔE = change in thermal energy, in joules (J)
o m = mass, in kilograms (kg)
o c = specific heat capacity, in joules per kilogram per degree Celsius (J/kg °C)
o Δθ = change in temperature, in degrees Celsius (°C)
 Rearranging for the specific heat capacity, c:

 To calculate Δθ:
Δθ = final temperature – initial temperature
 To calculate ΔE:
ΔE = IVtf – IVti
Where:
o I = average current, in amperes (A)
o V = average potential difference (V)
o tf = final time, in seconds (s)
o ti = initial time, in seconds (s)
 These values are then substituted into the specific heat capacity equation to calculate the
specific heat capacity of the aluminium block
Evaluating the Experiment
Systematic Errors:
 Make sure the voltmeter and ammeter are initially set to zero, to avoid zero error
Random Errors:
 Not all the heat energy supplied from the heater will be transferred to the block, some will go
into the surroundings or heat up the thermometer
o This means the measured value of the specific heat capacity is likely to be higher than
what it actually is
o To reduce this effect, make sure the block is fully insulated
 A joulemeter could be used to calculate energy directly
o This would eliminate errors from the voltmeter, ammeter and the stopwatch
 Make sure the temperature value is read at eye level from the thermometer, to avoid parallax
error
 The experiment can also be repeated with a beaker of water of equal mass, the water should
heat up slower than the aluminium block

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

Safety Considerations
 Make sure never to touch the heater whilst it is on, otherwise, it could burn skin or set
something on fire
o Run any burns immediately under cold running water for at least 5 minutes
 Allow time for all the equipment, including the heater, wire and block to cool before packing
away the equipment
 Keep water away from all electrical equipment
 Wear eye protection if using a beaker of hot water

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

 Beaconhouse School System
PHYSICS HANDOUT
NAME: _________________________ DATE: _________________

Topic: Transfer of Thermal Energy

Heat
Heat is the transfer of thermal energy from one object to another because of a temperature difference.

Thermal energy: Total potential and kinetic energy in an object. It depends on mass, temperature, and
phase (state) of an object.

Thermal Equilibrium
Two physical systems are in thermal equilibrium if there is no net flow of thermal energy between them
when they are connected by a path permeable to heat.

Conductors Insulators
A conductor is a substance that Insulators restrict the flow of
Definition
permits electricity and heat. electricity and heat.
Free Conductors contain a large number Insulators do not contains free
electrons of free electrons. electrons.
Metals (Gold, silver, iron etc) are Non-metals, plastic, paper, glass, air,
Examples
good conductors. wood, wool, rubber, pure water etc.

Transfer of thermal energy

Heat energy always flows from a region of high temperature to a region of low temperature. It can flow
by conduction, convection or radiation i.e. from hot to cold.

Conduction
Conduction is the way in which energy is transferred from a hot body to a cooler one or from the hot part
of an object to a cooler part by microscopic collisions of particles and movement of electrons within a
body.
It is the result of particle motion: fast or vigorously moving particles bumping into less energetic particles
and making them move faster or vibrate more vigorously.

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

Convection
Energy can be carried from one place to another by wholesale movement of the medium: a warmer fluid
moves, displacing a colder fluid and thus transfers energy in convection currents.
When particles absorb heat they become less dense and leave their place and rises up, the space is filled
by the more dense particles.

Radiation
The process by which energy, in the form of electromagnetic radiation or infrared radiation, is emitted by a
heated surface in all directions and travels directly to its point of absorption at the speed of light; thermal
radiation does not require an intervening medium to carry it.

Affect of surface of an object on the absorption and emission of infra-red radiation

 An object with a matt (dull) surface will absorb and emit infra-red radiation at a faster rate than
an object with a shiny surface.
 An object with a dark (black) surface will absorb and emit infra-red radiation at a faster rate than
an object with a light surface (white).
Radiation is also reflected at the surface.
 Imagine a black (dull) surface and a silver coated (shiny) surface. Incident radiant energy ray hitting
the surface of each object. Black surface will absorb and emits more energy than silver coated
surface.

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

 Imagine a hot piece of metal which has a matt black surface and a shiny white surface.
A thermometer is placed at the same distance from both surfaces.

The thermometer next to the matt black surface shows a higher temperature because it emits
radiation at a faster rate.
Heat leaves the metal more quickly through the matt black surface than the shiny white surface.
 Part of the space shuttle is covered in matt black tiles. These help the craft to lose heat from
its surface when it re-enters the Earth's atmosphere on returning from space.
The space shuttle gets very hot in the Earth's atmosphere in the same way that meteors do.
 The rate of emission of radiation depends on the surface temperature and surface area of an object.
Increase in temperature and surface area of object will increase the rate of emission.
Everyday applications using ideas about conduction, convection and radiation:
a) Heating objects such as kitchen pans
Cooking utensils like kettles, saucepans, and boilers are usually made of aluminum or stainless steel
to increase the rate of conduction.
b) Heating a room by convection
 Air close to the radiator is heated.
 It expands, becomes less dense and rises.
 It is replaced by the cooler, denser air which surrounds it.
 This air is in turn heated, expands becomes less dense and rises.
 The process continues, a convection current is set up and heat is transferred through the air and
hence through the room.
c) Measuring temperature using an infrared thermometer
An infrared thermometer uses a lens system to focus radiation onto an infrared detector that converts
the energy absorbed into an electrical signal. The temperature inferred from the electrical signal is
corrected for the emissivity of the source.
d) using thermal insulation to maintain the temperature of a liquid and to reduce thermal energy
transfer in buildings
Trapped air is a natural insulator and because it is trapped, convection currents cannot be set up
easily. So, trapped air reduces heat loss by conduction and convection. Many insulating materials
incorporate trapped air.
There are several different ways to reduce heat loss:
 Simple ways to reduce heat loss include fitting carpets, curtains and draught excluders. It is even
possible to fit reflective foil behind radiators.
 Heat loss through windows can be reduced by using double glazing. These windows have dry,
trapped air between two panes of glass. This reduces heat loss by conduction and convection. Air
is a poor conductor and by trapping it between the panes, convection currents cannot be set up.

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.

  Heat loss through walls can be reduced using cavity wall insulation. This involves blowing
insulating material into the gap between the brick and the inside wall. Insulating materials are bad
conductors and so this reduces the heat loss by conduction. The material also prevents air
circulating inside the cavity, therefore reducing heat loss by convection.
 Heat loss through the roof can be reduced by laying loft insulation. Air is trapped between the
fibers of the insulation, reducing heat loss by conduction.

Important questions relelated to transfer of thermal energy.

1. Why is metal a better conductor of heat than non-metals?
 In metals, apart from transferring heat energy by the relatively slow process of mol ecular
collision, another faster process of free electron diffusion takes place.
 Metals contain free electrons that are mobile.
 When heated, these free electrons gains KE and will diffuse to the cooler end at high speeds.
 In the process, they will collide with atoms at the cooler end and transfer kinetic energy to them.
2. Explain why materials such as fiberglass, wool, polystyrene, fur are commonly used as heat
insulators?
 Fiberglass, wool, polystyrene and furs are poor conductors of heat because they are non -
metals.
 In addition, they contain trapped, still air, which is a poor thermal conductor as well.
3. Describe, in terms of density changes, heat convection in fluids.
 When a fluid is heated at the base, it will expand, become less dense and rise.
 The cooler fluid at the top being denser will sink.
 This continuous, cyclic movement of the fluid known as convection current will eventually heat
up the entire whole fluid evenly.
4. Explain why the heating element of a kettle should be positioned at the base?
 Heated liquid rises and cooler liquid will sink.
 Placing the heating element at the base allows convection current to set up, eventually heating
up the entire liquid.
5. Two cars, one white, one black are parked in the sun. After some time, one is much hotter to touch
than the other. Which car is it? Explain your answer.
 The black car feels hotter.
 This is because black surfaces are better absorbers of infrared radiation than white surfaces.
6. Two kettles, one silver, one white, contain water at 90 °C. After some time, one is cooler than the
other. Which kettle is it? Explain your answer.
 The black kettle feels cooler.
 This is because black surfaces are better emitters of infrared radiation than silvered surfaces.
7. Explain why heat loss from a cooking pan is reduced by fitting it with a lid?
 The lid prevents hot air from rising, hence reducing heat loss due to convection.
 It also reduces heat lost by evaporation (if a liquid is present in the pot).

Prepared By: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System (BMI-B), H-8/4, Islamabad.