PHY 102

(Mechanics and Properties of Matter)

By
OGUNSEYE T. T.
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN
 WORK AND ENERGY
DEFINITION

Work is said to be done when a force F moves its point of

application through a displacement S.
Therefore, work done W is defined as the scalar product of
the force F and displacement S.
𝑊 = 𝐹 . 𝑆 = 𝐹 𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 (1)
where 𝜃 is the angle between 𝐹 and 𝑆 . The unit of work done
is Joule (J)
 The work done expressed in analytical form is
W  Fx S x  Fy S y  Fz S z (2)
When F is not constant over the displacement, the work
done is expressed as:

W   Fx dx  Fy dy  Fz dz  (3)
 Examples
1 A body moves through a distance 𝑆 = 5𝑖 + 2𝑗 – 3𝑘
from the origin 0,0,0 under the influence of a constant force
𝐹 = 4𝑖 + 3𝑗 – 2𝑘.
Determine the:

( a) work done
(b) angle between 𝐹 and 𝑆
 Solution
(a ) Work done, W = 𝐹 . 𝑆 = 4𝑖 + 3𝑗 − 2𝑘 . 5𝑖 + 2𝑗 − 3𝑘
𝑊 = 4 × 5 + 3 × 2 + −2 × −3 = 32𝐽
(b) 𝐹 = 42 + 32 + −2 2 = 29𝑁 = 5.4𝑁
𝑆 = 52 + 22 + −3 2
= 38𝑚 = 6.16𝑚
𝑊 32
𝑊 = 𝐹 𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = = = 0.9621
𝐹 𝑆 5.4 × 6.16
• 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 0.9621 = 15.8°
• 2. A force 𝑭 = 𝟔𝒊 − 𝟐𝒋 𝑵 acts on a particle that undergoes a
displacement ∆𝒓 = 𝟑𝒊 + 𝒋 𝒎. Calculate the:
(a) work done by the force on the particle
• (b) angle between 𝑭 and ∆𝒓
• Solution
• 𝑾 = 𝑭. ∆𝒓 = 𝑭𝒙 𝒙 + 𝑭𝒚 𝒚 = 𝟔. 𝟎 𝟑. 𝟎 + −𝟐 𝟏 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟎 𝑱
𝑭.∆𝒓 𝟏𝟔
• 𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 = 𝟑𝟔. 𝟗°
𝑭 ∆𝒓
𝟔.𝟎𝟐 + −𝟐.𝟎 𝟐 𝟑.𝟎𝟐 + 𝟏.𝟎𝟐
• 3. A Force 𝑭 = 𝟒𝒙𝒊 + 𝟑𝒚𝒋 𝑵 acts on an object as
the object moves in the x- direction from the origin to
𝒙 = 𝟓. 𝟎𝒎. Find the work done on the object by the
force.
• Solution
𝐱𝟐 𝟓
•𝐖 = 𝐱𝟏
𝐅. 𝐝𝐫 = 𝟎
𝟒𝐱 𝐢 + 𝟑𝐲 𝐣 𝐍 . 𝐝𝐱 𝐢 =
𝟓
𝟎
𝟒𝐱 𝐝𝐱 + 𝟎 = 𝟓𝟎𝐉
 ENERGY
Energy can be defined as the capacity to do work.
Some forms of energy are:
1. Mechanical energy 6. Thermal energy
2. Chemical energy
3. Light energy
4. Electric energy
5. Nuclear energy
• Mechanical energy is the energy possessed by a body
due to its virtue of position or due to its velocity.

• The mechanical energy of a body consists of kinetic

energy and potential energy.
 Potential energy
• The potential energy is the energy stored in the body by virtue of
its position or the state of strain.

• For example , the water stored in a reservoir, a wound spring,

compressed air, stretched rubber chord, etc possess potential
energy.

• Potential energy is given by the amount of work done by the

force acting on the body when the body moves from its given
position to some other position.
 Expression for the potential energy

• Fig. 1
 Let us consider a body of mass m which is at rest at a
height h above the ground as shown in Fig. 1. The work
done in raising the body from the ground to the height h is
stored in the body as its potential energy.

• Now, when the body falls to the ground, the same amount
of work can be got back from it. Therefore, in order to lift
the body vertically up , a force mg equal to the weight of
the body should be applied
 When the body is taken vertically up through a height h, then
work done W = Force x displacement
W = mg x h
This work done is stored as potential energy of the body

Ep  m g h (4)
• Potential energy is measured in joules.
 Kinetic Energy
• The kinetic energy of a body is the energy possessed by the body by virtue of
its motion. A falling body, a bullet fired from a rifle, a swinging pendulum, etc.
possess kinetic energy

• A body is capable of doing work if it moves, but in the process of doing work,
its velocity gradually decreases. The amount of work that can be done
depends both on the magnitude of the velocity and the mass of the body

• A heavy bullet will penetrate a wooden plank deeper than a light bullet of
equal size moving with equal velocity.
Expression for kinetic energy

Fig. 2
 Let us consider a body of mass m moving with a velocity v in a
straightline as shown in Fig.2. Suppose that it is acted upon by a
constant force F resisting its motion, which produces retardation a
Then, F = mass x retardation = - m a ( 5)
Let dx be the displacement of the body before it comes to rest.
But the retardation is

a 
dv

dv dx
v
dv
6
dt dx dt dx
 Substituting eqn. (6) in eqn. (5) gives:

F  mv
dv
7 
dx

• Hence, the work done in bringing the body to rest is given by

0
dv
W   F dx    m v
v
dx
dx

0
   m v dv 8
v
 0
v2  1
W   m    m v2 9
 2 v 2
This work done is equal to kinetic energy of the body.
Ek 
1
m v2 10 
2
 Principle of work –energy theorem
• It states that the work done by a force acting on the body during its
displacement is equal to the change in the kinetic energy of the body
during that displacement.

• When a body in motion is acted upon by a force F, its kinetic energy

will change by an amount which is equal to the work done by the
force.
• If a body has an initial velocity vi and the application of a force
increases or decreases it to a final value vf , then the change in its
kinetic energy is given by
 1 2 1 2
 K . E  m v f  m vi  W 11
2 2

• Examples
• 1. A 0.60kg particle has a speed of 2.0𝑚𝑠 −1 at point A and kinetic
energy of 7.50𝐽 at point B. What is (a) its kinetic energy at A? (b) Its
speed at B? (c) The total work done on the particle as it moves from
A to B?
 Solution
𝟏 𝟐
𝑲𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎 𝟐. 𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟎𝑱
𝟐
𝟏 𝟐𝑲𝑩 𝟐 ×𝟕.𝟓𝟎
𝒎𝒗𝑩 𝟐 = 𝑲 𝑩 ∴ 𝒗𝑩 = = = 𝟓. 𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝟐 𝒎 𝟎.𝟔𝟎
𝟏 𝟏
𝑾 = 𝑲𝑩 − 𝑲𝑨 = 𝒎 𝒗𝑩 𝟐 − 𝒗𝑨 𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎 𝟓𝟐 − 𝟐𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
• 𝑾 = 𝟔. 𝟑𝟎 𝐉
 −1
2. A 3.0kg object has a velocity 6.0𝑖 – 2.0𝑗 𝑚𝑠
(a) What is its kinetic energy at this time?
(b) Find the total work done on the object if its
velocity changes to 8.0𝑖 + 4.0𝑗 𝑚𝑠 −1 .
 Solution
𝑎 𝑣𝑖 = 6.0𝑖 – 2.0𝑗 𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑣𝑖 = 6.0 2 + −2.0 2 =
40𝑚𝑠 −1
1 2
1
𝐾𝑖 = 𝑚𝑣𝑖 = 3.0 40 = 60.0 𝐽
2 2
(b)𝑣𝑓 = 8.0𝑖 + 4.0𝑗 𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑣𝑓 = 8.0 2 + 4.0 2 =
80𝑚𝑠 −1
1 1
𝐾𝑓 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓 2 = 3.0 80 = 120 𝐽
2 2
𝑊 = 𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖 = 120 − 60 𝐽 = 60 𝐽
 Exercise
A 12.0N force with a fixed orientation does work on a
particle as the particle moves through the three- dimensional
displacement
𝑑 = 2.0𝑖 – 4.0𝑗 + 3.0𝑘 𝑚. What is the angle between
the force and the displacement if the change in the particle’s
kinetic energy is 30.0 𝐽 ? ( 62.3° )
•
Conservative Forces and Non-Conservative
Forces
If the work done by a force in moving a body between two positions
is independent of the path followed by the body, then such a force is
called a conservative force.
Examples are: force due to gravity, spring force and elastic force

The work done by the conservative forces depends only on the initial
and final positions of the body and not on the path taken
 W   F dr  0 12
The work done by a conservative force around a closed path is zero.
 Non- Conservative Forces
• Non- conservative force is the force which can perform some
resultant work along an arbitrary closed path of its point of
application.
• The work done by the non-conservative force depends on the path of
the displacement of the body.

W   F dr  0 13
• Examples are frictional force and viscous force.
 Law of Conservation of Energy
The law states that, if a body or system of bodies is in motion
under a conservative system of forces, the sum of its kinetic
energy and potential energy is constant provided there is no
dissipative forces like friction.
It means that the total energy of a closed system remains
constant.
A closed system is a system which does not exchange energy
with other systems.
 POWER
Power is the rate of doing work. If an amount of work ∆𝑤 is
done in a small interval of time ∆𝑡, then the power P is
∆𝑤
𝑃 = (14)
∆𝑡
−1
The unit of Power is 𝐽𝑠 which is also called Watt
𝑑𝑤 𝑑
Since 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑆 = 𝐹𝑆
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 For a constant force,
𝒅𝒘 𝒅𝒔
= 𝑭 = 𝑭. 𝑽 (15)
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝒔
𝑽 = = instantaneous velocity of displaced body.
𝒅𝒕
•
If 𝑭 acts at an angle 𝜽 to 𝒗, then
𝑷 = 𝑭𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 . 𝒗 or the scalar product of 𝑭 and 𝒗
Thus Power = 𝑭. 𝒗 (16)
 Example
The electric motor of a model train accelerates the train from rest to
0.620𝑚𝑠 −1 in 21.0𝑚𝑠 . The total mass of the train is 875𝑔. Find the
average power delivered to the train during the acceleration.

Solution
𝑊 𝐾𝑓 𝑚𝑣 2 0.875 0.620 2
Average power = = = = = 8.01𝑊
𝑡 𝑡 2𝑡 2 ×21 ×10−3
 PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR
MOMENTUM
The linear momentum of a particle or an object of mass 𝒎 moving with
velocity 𝒗 is defined as the product of the mass and velocity, 𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗

Linear momentum is a vector quantity. If a particle is moving in an

arbitrary direction, 𝒑 must have three components, 𝒑𝒙 , 𝒑𝒚 and 𝒑𝒛 given
by :
𝒑𝒙 = 𝒎𝒗𝒙 , 𝒑𝒚 = 𝒎𝒗𝒚 , 𝒑𝒛 = 𝒎𝒗𝒛
The law of conservation of momentum states that whenever two or more
particles in an isolated system interact, the total momentum of the system
remains constant.

Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision

 ELASTIC AND INELASTIC COLLISION
A collision is said to be elastic if kinetic energy before collision is equal
to kinetic energy after collision. We have an inelastic collision if kinetic
energy before collision is not equal to kinetic energy after collision.

The energy difference in inelastic collision does not imply a violation of

conservation of energy principle. The energy difference has been
transformed into other forms of energy such as sound and heat energy.
Fig 3: TWO MASSES SCATTERING AFTER
COLLISION
Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision

𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅ ( Along x- axis )

Before collision, momentum along the y-axis = 0

After collision, 𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 − 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏∅

𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅ ------------- ( 1 )

𝟎 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 − 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏∅ --------------- ( 2 )

From equation (2), 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏∅ = 𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽

𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∅ =
𝒎 𝟐 𝒗𝟐
Fig. 4: SCATTERING AFTER COLLISION
 COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION

Conservation of momentum: 𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 (3)

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Conservation of energy: 𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐 𝟐
𝟐
= 𝒎𝟏 𝒗 𝟏 𝟐 +
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟏
𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 (4)
𝟐
From equation ( 3 )
𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 − 𝒗𝟏 = 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐 − 𝒖𝟐 ------------- ( 5 )

From equation ( 4 )
𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 𝟐 − 𝒗𝟏 𝟐 = 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 − 𝒖𝟐 𝟐 ------- ( 6 )

By re-writing equation ( 6 )
𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 − 𝒗𝟏 𝒖𝟏 + 𝒗𝟏 = 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐 − 𝒖𝟐 𝒗𝟐 + 𝒖𝟐 ------------ ( 7 )
By dividing equation (7) by equation (5) gives:

𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 −𝒗𝟏 𝒖𝟏 + 𝒗𝟏 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐 − 𝒖𝟐 𝒗𝟐 + 𝒖𝟐
= -------------- (8)
𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 − 𝒗𝟏 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐 − 𝒖𝟐

𝒖𝟏 + 𝒗𝟏 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝒗𝟐 ------------------ (9)

𝒖𝟏 − 𝒖𝟐 = 𝒗𝟐 − 𝒗𝟏 -------------------- (10)
 𝒗𝟐 − 𝒗𝟏
= 𝒆 ------------- ( 11 )
𝒖𝟏 − 𝒖𝟐

‘e’ is called the coefficient of restitution.

The coefficient of restitution is defined as the ratio of velocity of

separation to velocity of approach.
 In an elastic collision, the velocity of approach is equal to the velocity of
separation.
Therefore,
e = 1 means elastic scattering
1 > e > 0 means inelastic scattering
e = 0 means coalition
It can be shown that when two masses 𝒎𝟏 and 𝒎𝟐 collide and their initial
velocities are 𝒖𝟏 and 𝒖𝟐 respectively, the loss of kinetic energy due to the
impact is
𝟏 𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐 𝟐
∆ 𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝒖𝟏 − 𝒖𝟐 𝟏 − 𝒆𝟐 ------------- (12)
𝟐 𝒎𝟏 +𝒎𝟐

If ∆ 𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝟎, then, e = 1 ( Elastic collision )

 Example
An object of mass 𝟑. 𝟎𝒌𝒈, moving with an initial velocity of 𝟓. 𝟎𝒊 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 ,
collides with and sticks to an object of mass 𝟐. 𝟎𝒌𝒈 with an initial
velocity of – 𝟑. 𝟎𝒋 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 . Find the final velocity of the composite object.
 solution
𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟏𝒊 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐𝒊 = 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝒇

𝟑. 𝟎 𝟓. 𝟎𝒊 – 𝟐. 𝟎 𝟑. 𝟎𝒋 = 𝟓. 𝟎𝒗𝒇

𝒗𝒇 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝒊 – 𝟏. 𝟐𝟎𝒋 𝒎𝒔−𝟏
 Exercise

1. A 3.0kg particle has a velocity of 𝟑. 𝟎𝒊 – 𝟒. 𝟎𝒋 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 .

(a) Find its x and y components of momentum
(b) Find the magnitude and direction of its momentum.
2. A 12.0N force with a fixed orientation does work on a particle as the
particle moves through the three- dimensional displacement
𝒅 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝒊 – 𝟒. 𝟎𝒋 + 𝟑. 𝟎𝒌 𝒎. What is the angle between the force and
the displacement if the change in the particle’s kinetic energy is 𝟑𝟎. 𝟎 𝑱 ?
( 𝟔𝟐. 𝟑° )
3. A single force acts on a 3.0 kg particle-like object whose position is
given by 𝒙 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝒕 – 𝟒. 𝟎𝒕𝟐 + 𝟏. 𝟎𝒕𝟑 , with x in metres and t in seconds.
Find the work done on the object by the force from 𝒕 = 𝟎 to 𝒕 = 𝟒. 𝟎𝒔