Work, Energy & Power

AP Physics C
What is Energy?
Beats me.
What exactly
is energy?

 Energy is the ability to cause change.

 Energy is the ability to do work.
There are many different Types of Energy.

 Energy is expressed
in JOULES (J)
 4.184 J = 1 calorie
 1J=1N*1m
 Energy can be
expressed more
specifically by using
the term WORK(W)
Work = The Scalar Dot Product between Force and Displacement. So
that means if you apply a force on an object and it covers a displacement
you have supplied ENERGY or done WORK on that object.
Scalar Dot Product?
A product is obviously a result of multiplying 2 numbers. A scalar is a
quantity with NO DIRECTION. So basically Work is found by
multiplying the Force times the displacement and the result is
ENERGY, which has no direction associated with it.

𝑊 = 𝐹Ԧ • Δ𝑥Ԧ → 𝐹∆
Ԧ 𝑥Ԧ cos 𝜃
F
A dot product is basically a constraint on
the formula. In this case it means that F and
x MUST be parallel. To ensure that they are
parallel we add the cosine function.

x
F
Work can be positive
If the applied force and the displacement are parallel, the cosine
function is not necessary.

𝑊 = 𝐹Ԧ • Δ𝑥Ԧ → 𝐹∆
Ԧ 𝑥Ԧ cos 𝜃
𝜃 = 0∘ ; cos 0 = 1
Ԧ 𝑥Ԧ
𝑊 = 𝐹∆

A 10 N force pushes a buggy forward for

5 meters. How much work is done?
FORCE

Displacement
𝑊 = 𝐹 ∙ ∆𝑥
𝑊 = (10 𝑁) ∙ (5 𝑚)
𝑊 = 50 𝐽
Work can be negative
If the applied force and the displacement are in opposite directions, the
cosine function is also not necessary IF YOU REMEMBER that this
means negative work is done.

𝑊 = 𝐹Ԧ • Δ𝑥Ԧ → 𝐹∆
Ԧ 𝑥Ԧ cos 𝜃

FORCE

Displacement

𝑊 = 𝐹Ԧ • Δ𝑥Ԧ → 𝐹∆
Ԧ 𝑥Ԧ cos 𝜃
𝜃 = 180∘ ; cos 180 = −1
Negative work means 𝑊 = −𝐹Ԧ𝑓 ∆𝑥Ԧ
energy is removed from
the system.
Work can be zero
If the applied force and the displacement are perpendicular, no work is
done. In this case, the applied force does not contribute to the motion in
any way.
𝑊 = 𝐹Ԧ • Δ𝑥Ԧ → 𝐹∆
Ԧ 𝑥Ԧ cos 𝜃

FORCE

Displacement

𝑊 = 𝐹Ԧ • Δ𝑥Ԧ → 𝐹∆
Ԧ 𝑥Ԧ cos 𝜃
𝜃 = 90∘ ; cos 90 = 0
𝑊 = 0𝐽
Forces Applied at an Angle
When the force is applied at an angle with respect to the displacement,
the cosine function must be used.

𝑊 = 𝐹Ԧ • Δ𝑥Ԧ → 𝐹∆
Ԧ 𝑥Ԧ cos 𝜃

In the figure above, we see the woman applying a force at an angle

theta. Only the HORIZONTAL COMPONENT actually causes the
box to move and thus imparts energy to the box. The vertical
component (Fsinθ) does NO work on the box because it is NOT
parallel to the displacement.
 The Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem
Up to this point we have learned Kinematics and Newton's Laws. Let 's
see what happens when we apply both to our new formula for work.

𝑣 2 − 𝑣2
𝑊 = 𝐹∥ ∙ 𝑥 = (𝑚𝑎) ∙ ∆𝑥 𝑜
𝑣 2 = 𝑣𝑜2 + 2𝑎∆𝑥 → 𝑎 =
2∆𝑥
𝑣 2 − 𝑣𝑜2
𝑊= 𝑚 ∙ ∆𝑥 Substitute in the kinematic
2∆𝑥 expression for acceleration

1 New Term
𝑊 = 𝑚(𝑣 2 − 𝑣𝑜2 ) Kinetic Energy (K)
2
1
1 1 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑣𝑜2
2 2
2 2
Initial Kinetic Energy
Final Kinetic Energy
The Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem
The Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem shows that if we impart work to
an object it will undergo a change in speed and thus a change in
KINETIC ENERGY. Since both WORK and KINETIC ENERGY
are expressed in JOULES, they are EQUIVALENT TERMS!
1 1
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑣𝑜2
2
2 2
𝑊 = 𝐾 − 𝐾𝑜

𝑊 = ∆𝐾

The net work done on an object is equal to the change in kinetic energy of
the object.
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∆𝐾
Example

Suppose the woman in the figure above applies a 50 N force to a 25-kg box at an
angle of 30 degrees above the horizontal. She manages to pull the box 5 meters.

a) Calculate the WORK done by the woman on the box

b) The speed of the box after 5 meters if the box started from rest.
1 1
𝑊 = 𝐹∆𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃) 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑣𝑜2
2 𝑣𝑜 = 0
2 2
𝑊 = (50 𝑁)(5 𝑚)𝑐𝑜𝑠(30) 2𝑊 2(216.5 𝐽)
𝑣= =
𝑚 25 𝑘𝑔
𝑊 = 216.5 J
𝑣 = 4.16 𝑚/𝑠
Lifting mass at a constant speed
Suppose you lift a mass upward at a constant speed, Dv = 0 & DK=0.
What does the work equal now?
𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝐹∆𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃)
𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝐹∆𝑦
𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 = (𝑚𝑔)∆𝑦
𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑚𝑔∆𝑦
Note that this is for an external
force, not the force of gravity.
We are now working in the “y”
dimension.
Since the Force and the
displacement are parallel, we don’t
need the Cosine function. Cos (0)=1
Since you are lifting at a constant
speed, your applied force equals the
force of gravity on the object you
F are lifting.
෍ 𝐹 = 𝐹 − 𝑚𝑔 = 0
𝑦
mg 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔
Gravitational Potential Energy
Since you are lifting, you are raising the object a certain “y” displacement or
height above the ground.

New Term
𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑚𝑔∆𝑦 Potential Energy (U)
𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑚𝑔𝑦 − 𝑚𝑔𝑦𝑜 or
𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔𝑦
𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑈 − 𝑈𝑜
Initial Potential Energy
𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 = ∆𝑈 Final Potential Energy

When you lift an object above the ground it is said to have POTENTIAL ENERGY
Potential Energy
Ԧ 𝑥Ԧ cos 𝜃
𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝐹∆
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔; 𝑥 = ℎ; 𝜃 = 0; cos 0 = 1
𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑚𝑔∆ℎ = ∆𝑈

Since this man is lifting the package upward

at a CONSTANT SPEED, the kinetic energy
is NOT CHANGING. Therefore the work
h that he does goes into what is called the
mg ENERGY OF POSITION or POTENTIAL
ENERGY.

All potential energy is considering to be

energy that is STORED!
Potential Energy
The man shown lifts a 10 kg package 2 meters
above the ground. What is the potential
energy given to the package by the man?

𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔∆ℎ
𝑚
𝑈 = 10 𝑘𝑔 9.81 2 2𝑚
h 𝑠
𝑈 = 196 J

Note that a single value for potential energy is completely arbitrary. We

can choose any height for 0 J of potential energy. Only the CHANGE in
potential energy is invariable between coordinate systems.
Work done by Gravity
Ԧ 𝑥Ԧ cos 𝜃
𝑊𝑔 = 𝐹∆
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔; 𝑥 = ℎ; 𝜃 = 180; cos 180 = −1
𝑊𝑔 = −𝑚𝑔∆ℎ = −∆𝑈
𝑊𝑔 = −∆𝑈
The work that gravity does at the exact same
time is negative. Gravity is a conservative
h force, which means that the work that the
field does is independent of the path.
mg

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 + 𝑊𝑔 = ∆𝑈 − ∆𝑈 = 0
Remember net work is converted to kinetic
energy. The net work done here is zero, and
the object does not gain kinetic energy.
Practice a little
To push a 50 kg crate across a floor, a worker applies a force
of 200 N, directed 20° above the horizontal. The floor exerts
a 175 N force of friction on the crate. As the crate moves 3.0
m, calculate the work done on the crate by
a) The worker 564 J
b) The force of friction -525 J

c) The force of gravity 0 J

d) The normal force 0J
e) Calculate the total work done on the object 38.8 J

f) Calculate the crate’s final speed 1.24 m/s

Conservation of Energy
𝑣 2 = 𝑣𝑜2 − 2𝑔∆𝑦 Remember Kinematics
𝑣 2 − 𝑣𝑜2 = −2𝑔∆𝑦
1 2 1 2 We can rearrange, and add
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜 = −𝑔∆𝑦
2 2 mass to the equation.
1 1
𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑣𝑜2 = −𝑚𝑔(𝑦 − 𝑦𝑜 )
2
2 2

𝐾 − 𝐾𝑜 = 𝑈𝑜 − 𝑈

𝐾 + 𝑈 = 𝑈𝑜 + 𝐾𝑜  Energy Before   Energy After

Energy is Conserved
The law of conservation of mechanical energy
states: Energy cannot be created or destroyed,
only transformed!

Energy Before Energy After

Am I moving? If yes, Am I moving? If yes,

Ko is present K is present

Am I above the ground? Am I above the ground?

If yes, If yes,
Uo is present U is present
Conservation of Energy

A B C D

In Figure A, a pendulum
In Figure B,is a pendulum
In Figure
is still
C,
InaFigure
pendulum
D, the
is pendulum
at the has
released from above
rest at the
some ground
height
ground
position,position
yet
reached
it isandthe
moving
samewith
height
a above
above the ground
alsoposition.
moving. maximum velocity.
the ground position as A.

It has only potential

It has energy.
BOTH potential
It hasenergy
only Itkinetic
and
has only
energy.
potential energy.
kinetic energy.
 Wait a second!
What happens if you drink 5 of these in a
single day?

𝑇ℎ𝑎𝑡𝑠 25 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠‼!

Energy consistently changes forms
Energy consistently changes
forms Am I above the ground? NO, h = 0, U = 0 J

Am I moving? Yes, v = 8 m/s, m = 60 kg

1 1
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 = (60 𝑘𝑔)(8 𝑚Τ𝑠)2
2
2 2
𝐾 = 1920 J

Position m v U K ME
(= U+K)

1 60 kg 8 m/s 0J 1920 J 1920 J

Energy changes forms
෍ 𝐸𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 = ෍ 𝐸𝐴𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝐾𝑜 + 𝑈𝑜 = K + U

𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ = (60 𝑘𝑔)(9.81 𝑚Τ𝑠 2 )(1 𝑚)

𝑈 = 588 𝐽
𝐾𝑜 = 1920 𝐽 𝐾 = 𝐾𝑜 − 𝑈
𝑈𝑜 = 0 𝐽 𝐾 = 1920 𝐽 − 588 𝐽
𝐾 = 1332 𝐽

Position m v U K ME
1 60 kg 8 m/s 0J 1920 J 1920 J
2 60 kg 588 J 1332 J 1920 J
Energy changes forms
෍ 𝐸𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 = ෍ 𝐸𝐴𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝐾𝑜 + 𝑈𝑜 = K + U

1 2 2𝐾 2(1332 𝐽)
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 → 𝑣 = 𝑚 = 60 𝑘𝑔
2
𝐾𝑜 = 1920 𝐽
𝑈𝑜 = 0 𝐽 𝑣 = 6.66 𝑚/𝑠

Position m v U K ME
1 60 kg 8 m/s 0J 1920 J 1920 J
2 60 kg 6.66 m/s 588 J 1332 J 1920 J
Energy consistently changes
forms Am I moving at the top? No, v = 0 m/s

How high did he go?

𝑈 1920 𝐽
𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ → ℎ = =
𝑚𝑔 (60 𝑘𝑔)(9.81 𝑚Τ𝑠 2 )
ℎ = 3.26 m

Position m v U K ME

1 60 kg 8 m/s 0J 1920 J 1920 J

2 60 kg 6.66 m/s 588 J 1332 J 1920 J

3 60 kg 0 m/s 1920 J 0J 1920 J

Power
One useful application of Energy is to determine the RATE at
which we store or use it. We call this application POWER!

As we use this new application, we have to keep in mind all the

different kinds of substitutions we can make.

Unit = WATT(W)

1 W= 1 J/s

𝑊 ∆𝑥
𝑃= →𝐹 → 𝐹𝑣
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
What if the Force is not Constant?
If the force is changing then we
must do an integral to calculate
the work done. We want to
integrate with respect to “x.”
The area under the curve here
tells us the work done over a
set displacement.

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝑊 = න 𝐹 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
What if the Force is not Constant?

𝑊 = න 𝐹 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = න(𝑚𝑎) 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑊 = 𝑚න 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑚 න 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑣
𝑣
𝑣2
𝑊 = 𝑚 න 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑚 อ
𝑣𝑜 2
𝑣𝑜
1 1
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑣𝑜2
2
2 2

𝑊 = ∆𝐾 Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem...again.

Example
The force on an object is given by the equation 𝐹 𝑥 = 10𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 ,
where F is in newtons and x is in meters. Determine the work done on
the object in moving from 𝑥 = 1 𝑚 to 𝑥 = 4 𝑚.
𝑥 4𝑚
𝑊 = න 𝐹 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = න 10𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑜 1𝑚

4𝑚
2 3
2
2 2
𝑊 = (5𝑥 − 𝑥 )ቤ = 5(4) − (4) − 5(1) − (1)3
2 3 2
3 1𝑚
3 3

2 2 1 1
𝑊 = 80 − 42 − 5 − = 37 − 4 = 33𝐽
3 3 3 3

𝑊 = 33𝐽
 Springs – Hooke’s Law
Spring forces are variable. The force a spring exerts on an
object varies with the position of the object.

Fs  x
k  Constant of Proportion ality
k  Spring Constant(U nit : N/m) The negative sign only tells us that
“F” is what is called a RESTORING
Fs  kx or  kx FORCE, in that it works in the
OPPOSITE direction of the
𝐹𝑠 = −𝑘𝑥 displacement.
 Elastic potential energy
When you compress or stretch a string, you must apply a force equal to kx.
Your work is converted to elastic potential energy.

𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 = න 𝐹(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 → න(𝑘𝑥)𝑑𝑥

𝑥 𝑥
𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 = න (𝑘𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 න 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑜 𝑥𝑜

𝑥
2
𝑥
𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 =𝑘 อ = 1ൗ2 𝑘𝑥 2 = 𝑈𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 1 2
2 𝑈𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑘𝑥
𝑥𝑜 2
Elastic “potential” energy is a fitting term as springs STORE energy
when there are elongated or compressed.
Example
A slingshot consists of a light leather cup, containing a stone, that is
pulled back against a rubber band. It takes a force of 30 N to
stretch the band 1.0 cm (a) What is the spring constant in the
band? (b) What is the potential energy stored in the band when
a 50.0 g stone is placed in the cup and pulled back 0.20 m from
the equilibrium position? (c) With what speed does it leave the
slingshot?
𝐹𝑠 30 𝑁
𝑎) 𝐹𝑠 = 𝑘𝑥 → 𝑘 = = → 𝑘 = 3000 𝑁/𝑚
𝑥 0.01 𝑚

𝑘 = 3000 𝑁/𝑚

1 2
𝑁 2
𝑏) 𝑈𝑠 = ൗ2 𝑘𝑥 = 0.5 3000 .20 𝑚 = 60 𝐽
𝑚
𝑈𝑠 = 60 𝐽
Example
A slingshot consists of a light leather cup, containing a stone, that is
pulled back against 2 rubber bands. It takes a force of 30 N to
stretch the bands 1.0 cm (a) What is the spring constant in the
spring? (b) What is the potential energy stored in the bands
when a 50.0 g stone is placed in the cup and pulled back 0.20 m
from the equilibrium position? (c) With what speed does it leave
the slingshot?
𝑐) ෍ 𝐸𝑖 = ෍ 𝐸𝑓 → 𝑈𝑠𝑜 + 𝐾𝑜 = 𝑈𝑠 + 𝐾

1 2 1
𝑘𝑥 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2 2
𝑁
𝑘𝑥 2 𝑘 3000 𝑚
𝑣= =𝑥 = 0.20 𝑚 = 48.99 𝑚/𝑠
𝑚 𝑚 0.050 𝑘𝑔
 The Dot Product with Unit Vectors
Work in one dimension is expressed as: 𝑊 = න 𝐹 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Work in multiple dimensions is expressed as: 𝑊 = න 𝐹Ԧ ∙ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ

Remember, the dot product is the multiplication of vector values

that are parallel. With unit vectors, this is calculated in each
dimension and added together.
When like unit vectors are multiplied,
you get 1. When unlike unit vectors
are multiplied, you get 0.
𝑖Ƹ ∙ 𝑖Ƹ = 1 𝑖Ƹ ∙ 𝑗 Ƹ = 0
𝑗Ƹ ∙ 𝑗Ƹ = 1 𝑖Ƹ ∙ 𝑘෠ = 0
𝑘෠ ∙ 𝑘෠ = 1 𝑗Ƹ ∙ 𝑘෠ = 0
The Dot Product with Unit Vectors
Consider the two vectors in Unit Vector form:

𝐴Ԧ = (𝐴𝑥 )𝑖Ƹ + (𝐴𝑦 )𝑗Ƹ + (𝐴𝑧 )𝑘෠ 𝐵 = (𝐵𝑥 )𝑖Ƹ + (𝐵𝑦 )𝑗Ƹ + (𝐵𝑧 )𝑘෠

𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵 = (𝐴𝑥 )𝑖(𝐵
Ƹ 𝑥 )𝑖Ƹ + (𝐴𝑦 )𝑗(𝐵 ෠ 𝑧 )𝑘෠
Ƹ 𝑦 )𝑗Ƹ + (𝐴𝑧 )𝑘(𝐵

𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵 = (𝐴𝑥 ∙ 𝐵𝑥 )(𝑖Ƹ ∙ 𝑖)Ƹ + (𝐴𝑦 ∙ 𝐵𝑦 )(𝑗Ƹ ∙ 𝑗)Ƹ + (𝐴𝑧 ∙ 𝐵𝑧 )(𝑘෠ ∙ 𝑘)

෠

𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵 = (𝐴𝑥 ∙ 𝐵𝑥 ) + (𝐴𝑦 ∙ 𝐵𝑦 ) + (𝐴𝑧 ∙ 𝐵𝑧 )

The dot product of F and dr can be written:

𝐹Ԧ ∙ 𝑑𝑟Ԧ = (𝐹𝑥 ∙ 𝑑𝑥) + (𝐹𝑦 ∙ 𝑑𝑦) + (𝐹𝑧 ∙ 𝑑𝑧)
 Example
Consider the two vectors below in bracket notation:

𝐴Ԧ = 12, −3,4 𝐵 = 2,3, −4

𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵 = ?

𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵 = 12, −3,4 ∙ 2,3, −4

𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵 = 12 2 + −3 3 + (4)(−4)

𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵 = (24) + (−9) + (−16)

𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵 = −1
Example with Work
Consider a particle that moves along a parabolic path 𝑦 = 0.5𝑥 2
The particle moves from A=(0m, 0m) to B=(2m, 2m) under the
influence of a force, 𝐹(𝑥,
Ԧ 𝑦) = (5𝑦)𝑖Ƹ + (10𝑥)𝑗 ෡
Calculate the work done.
𝑑𝑦
𝐹Ԧ = 5𝑦, 10𝑥 𝑦 = 0.5𝑥 2 = 𝑥 → 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑊 = න 𝐹𝑥 ∙ 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐹𝑦 ∙ 𝑑𝑦
2𝑚
𝑊=න 5 ∙ 0.5𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 10𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0𝑚
2𝑚
𝑊=න 2.5𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 10𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
0𝑚
Example with Work
Consider a particle that moves along a parabolic path 𝑦 = 0.5𝑥 2
The particle moves from A=(0m, 0m) to B=(2m, 2m) under the
influence of a force, 𝐹Ԧ = (5𝑦)𝑖Ƹ + (10𝑥)𝑗
෡
Calculate the work done.
2𝑚
𝑊=න 2.5𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 10𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
0𝑚
2𝑚
𝑊=න 12.5𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
0𝑚

12.5 3 2𝑚 12.5 12.5

𝑊= 𝑥 ቚ = (2)3 - (0)3
3 0𝑚 3 3

𝑊 = 33.3 𝐽
 Another Example with Work
What if the path of the particle is given as a function of time?
𝐹(𝑥, ෡ + (4)𝑘෠
Ԧ 𝑦) = (6𝑦)𝑖Ƹ + (𝑥 2 )𝑗 𝑟(𝑡)
Ԧ ෡ + (−𝑡)𝑘෠
= (6𝑡)𝑖Ƹ + (𝑡 2 )𝑗
What is the work done from t=0 to t=3?
𝑥 𝑡 = 6𝑡 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑡2 𝑧 𝑡 = −𝑡

Substitute
𝐹Ԧ = 6𝑦, 𝑥 2 , 4 𝐹Ԧ = 6𝑡 2 , 36𝑡 2 , 4
Take Derivative 𝑑𝑟Ԧ
𝑟Ԧ = 6𝑡, 𝑡 2 , −𝑡 = 6, 2𝑡, −1
𝑑𝑡

𝐹Ԧ = 6𝑡 2 , 36𝑡 2 , 4 𝑑𝑟Ԧ = 6, 2𝑡, −1 𝑑𝑡

 Another Example with Work
What if the path of the particle is given as a function of time?

𝐹Ԧ = 6𝑡 2 , 36𝑡 2 , 4 𝑑𝑟Ԧ = 6, 2𝑡, −1 𝑑𝑡

What is the work done from t=0 to t=3?

𝑊 = න 𝐹Ԧ ∙ 𝑑𝑟Ԧ
3𝑠
𝑊=න 6𝑡 2 , 36𝑡 2 , 4 ∙ 6, 2𝑡, −1 𝑑𝑡
0𝑠
3𝑠 3𝑠
𝑊=න 36𝑡 2 + 72𝑡 3 − 4 𝑑𝑡 = න 72𝑡 3 + 36𝑡 2 − 4 𝑑𝑡
0𝑠 0𝑠
3𝑠
𝑊= 18𝑡 4 + 12𝑡 3 − 4𝑡 ቚ
0𝑠
 Another Example with Work
What if the path of the particle is given as a function of time?

𝐹Ԧ = 6𝑡 2 , 36𝑡 2 , 4 𝑑𝑟Ԧ = 6, 2𝑡, −1 𝑑𝑡

What is the work done from t=0 to t=3?
3𝑠
𝑊= 18𝑡 4 + 12𝑡 3 − 4𝑡 ቚ
0𝑠

𝑊 = 18(3)4 +12(3)3 −4(3) − 18(0)4 +12(0)3 −4(0)

𝑊 = 1458 + 324 − 12

𝑊 = 1770 𝐽
 Try one 
Evaluate the integral 𝑊 = න 𝐹Ԧ ∙ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ
where
𝐹Ԧ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = (8𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧) 𝑖Ƹ + (5𝑧) 𝑗Ƹ − (4𝑥𝑦)𝑘෠
and
෠ 0≤𝑡≤1
𝑟Ԧ 𝑡 = (𝑡) 𝑖Ƹ + (𝑡 2 ) 𝑗Ƹ − (𝑡 3 )𝑘,

𝑊 = −1 𝐽
Force From Potential
Remember that the work that the gravitational field does is equal to
the negative of the change in the potential energy, or

𝑊𝑔 = −∆𝑈

Using the integral definition of work, 𝑊 = න 𝐹Ԧ ∙ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ

We find that 𝑑𝑊 = −𝑑𝑈 = 𝐹Ԧ ∙ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ

We can drop the vector notation because the gravitational force and
the motion are parallel, and divide by dr to find:
𝑑𝑈
𝐹=−
𝑑𝑟
With a Spring
We know this already:
1
𝐹𝑠 = −𝑘𝑥 𝑈𝑠 = 𝑘𝑥 2
2

If we take the derivative of the potential energy function,

𝑑𝑈𝑠 𝑑 1 2
= 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 = −𝐹𝑠
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
We verify the equation:
𝑑𝑈𝑠
𝐹𝑠 = −
𝑑𝑥
Gravity (near Earth)
We know this already:
𝐹𝐺 = −𝑚𝑔 𝑈𝐺 = 𝑚𝑔𝑦

If we take the derivative of the potential energy function,

𝑑𝑈𝐺 𝑑
= 𝑚𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑔 = −𝐹𝐺
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
We verify the equation:

𝑑𝑈𝐺
𝐹𝐺 = −
𝑑𝑦
Gravity (Far from Earth)
Newton’s Universal law of Gravity

𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹𝐺 =
𝑟2
This law of attraction applies to all objects that have mass,
where G is the universal gravitational constant
𝑁 ∙ 𝑚 2
𝐺 = 6.67 ∙ 10−11
𝑘𝑔2

And r represents the straight-line distance between the two

masses, m1 and m2 .
Gravity (Far from Earth)
Consider the work done by gravity in bringing two
particles together. The first particle is brought in “for
free” because there are no forces required. The second
particle interacts with the first according to the
gravitational force: The negative sign indicates
attraction.
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
m1 𝐹𝐺 = − FG m2
𝑟2

Lets consider gravity bringing in the particle from ro to r.

The work done would be:
𝑟
𝑊𝐺 = න 𝐹Ԧ𝐺 ∙ 𝑑𝑟Ԧ
𝑟𝑜
Gravity (Far from Earth)
Since the direction of motion and the force are parallel, we
can drop the vector notation.
𝑟 𝑟
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
𝑊𝐺 = න 𝐹Ԧ𝐺 ∙ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = න − 2
∙ 𝑑𝑟
𝑟𝑜 𝑟𝑜 𝑟

𝑟
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2 1 1
𝑊𝐺 = ቤ = 𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2 −
𝑟 𝑟
𝑟 𝑟0
𝑜

If we take the origin of the second particle to be infinity,

𝑟𝑜 = ∞, then the work is just:
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
𝑊𝐺 =
𝑟
Gravity (Far from Earth)
Remember the work done by gravity is the negative of the
change in potential energy, therefor the gravitation
energy can be written as:
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
𝑈𝐺 = −
𝑟
We can take the derivative with respect to r to verify that it
is the negative of the force:
𝑑𝑈𝐺 𝑑 𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2 𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
= − = 2
= −𝐹𝐺
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝑑𝑈𝐺
𝐹𝐺 = −
𝑑𝑟
Escape Velocity
If you want an object to leave Earth, you have to contend
with Gravity, which will always act upon the object
regardless of how far it travels away from Earth.
To solve for the launch velocity required for an object to
leave Earth we use energy. Take the objects initial
energy to be both Kinetic and Potential, the Kinetic
energy at launch, and the potential Energy at the surface
of the Earth:
1 2
𝐺𝑚𝑀⊕
𝐸𝑜 = 𝑚𝑣𝑜 −
2 𝑅⊕
We take the max height, or distance from Earth to be rmax
And we will let the object stop at that location, K=0.
𝐺𝑚𝑀⊕
𝐸𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = −
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥
Escape Velocity
The Energy must be conserved, therefore:
𝐸𝑜 = 𝐸𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
1 2
𝐺𝑚𝑀⊕ 𝐺𝑚𝑀⊕
𝑚𝑣𝑜 − =−
2 𝑅⊕ 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥
When we isolate the initial velocity, we find:
𝐺𝑀⊕ 𝐺𝑀⊕
𝑣𝑜 = −
𝑅⊕ 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥
We make rmax to be infinity, so the object can actually
escape.
𝐺𝑀⊕ For a different planet,
𝑣𝑜 = just change the mass
𝑅⊕ and radius accordingly
Can you escape a black hole?
Schwartzchild Radius – the
distance from the center of a black
hole, inside of which, no escape is
possible. Consider our new
escape velocity equation, and
recognize that the maximum
speed an object travel is the speed
of light, c.
𝐺𝑀
𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 = 𝐺𝑀
𝑅 𝑅𝑆𝐶 = 2
𝑐
If we were to travel at the speed of
light, we find the radius to be
Inside of this radius even light cannot escape!