MASS AND WEIGHT

Mass:
It is the amount of matter in an object.
It is a measure of an object’s inertia (a resistance to accelerate).
Measured in kilograms
Mass is measured using a balance
The mass of very small objects can be obtained by measuring the mass of many of those
objects, and then divide the mass by the number of the objects to get the mass of one object
Ensure that the pointer is pointing at zero before putting the object on the balance
Weight
It is the force of gravity acting on an object.

SI unit: Newton (N)

The direction of the weight acts downwards towards the center of the earth.

It is sometimes also called gravitational force / gravity.

Weight = mass × acceleration due to gravity

Difference between Mass and Weight:
Density
Density is defined as the mass per unit volume.

Determining density
1. Liquid
a. Use a measuring cylinder to find the volume.
b. Use a balance to get the mass.
c. Use the formula to get the density. D=m/v

2. Regular solid
a. Use a ruler to measure the necessary dimensions.
Then use correct formula to get the volume.
b. Use a balance to get mass.
c. Use d=m/v to get the density
3. Irregular solid
a. Use a balance to get the mass.
b. Pour water to the measuring cylinder. Note initial volume, then add the solid inside and
measure final volume. Find the difference between both, which is the volume of the solid.
c. Or just use the displacement method.
d. Use d=m/v to get the density

Forces
A force is a pull or push that one object exerts on another which produces or tends to produce
a motion, stops or tends to stop a motion.

Force = Mass * Acceleration

SI unit: Newton (N)

Effects of a force

- A Stationary object to start moving.

- A moving object to increase velocity.
- A moving object to decrease velocity.
- A moving object to change its direction of motion.
- Change the shape of an object.

Experiment: force-extension graph:

Hooke’s Law:
Springs extend in proportion to load, as long as they are under their proportional limit.
Load (N) = spring constant (N/mm) x extension (mm)
F=kx
Limit of proportionality is the point at which load and extension are no longer proportional
In the proportional limit, removing the load, returns the spring to its origin length.
Elastic limit is a point at which the spring will not return to its original shape after being
stretched.
Beyond the elastic limit, at any point where we remove the load the spring will not return to
its original length
Force = mass × acceleration
Finding the resultant force of two or more forces acting along the same line:

Balanced Forces:

Forces acting on an object are balanced if the resultant force is zero. When forces are
balanced,

- Acceleration is zero.
- Objects at rest will remain at rest.
- Objects in motion will remain in motion at constant velocity.

Unbalanced Forces:

Forces acting on an object are unbalanced if the resultant force is not zero.

Friction:

The force which resists the motion of one surface on another surface is known as friction.

Remember: In order to reduce friction add lubricants like: lubricating oil, graphite or water.

Turning Effects of Forces

Moments:

The moment of a force is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance from the
pivot to the line of action of the force.

Moment of force = Force × Distance

SI unit: Nm (Newton per meter)

It is a vector quantity as it has both magnitude and direction.

When more than one force acts in one direction, their overall turning effect is just the sum of
their moments.
Principle of a Moment:

For a system to be in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise moment must be equal to the sum
of the anti-clockwise moment.

Sum of anticlockwise moment =sum of clockwise moment

F1×D1=F2×D2

Conditions of Equilibrium:

The resultant force acting is zero or the forces are balanced.

The resultant moment about the pivot is zero.

Types of Equilibrium:

Stable Equilibrium:

Un Stable Equilibrium:

Neutral Equilibrium:

Centre of Gravity:

Centre of gravity of an object is defined as the point through which weight appears to act.
It depends on the distribution of the mass.

The Centre of gravity may also lie outside the object e.g. a ring

Experiment for finding the Centre of Gravity of an Irregular Shaped Lamina:

- Make three holes near the edge of the lamina. The holes should be as far apart as
possible from one another.
- Suspend the lamina through one of the holes using a pin.
- Hang a plumb line on the pin in front of the lamina.
- When the plumb line is steady draw a line on the lamina over the plumb line.
- Repeat the above for other two holes.
- The point of intersection of the three lines is the position of the centre of gravity.

Precautions:

The holes should be small so that not too much of the lamina is removed.

The lamina should be free to swing about its point of suspension.

Stability:

Stability refers to the ability of the object to regain its original position after it has been tilted
slightly.

Stable equilibrium:

 Occurs when an object is placed in such a position that any disturbance effort would
raise its centre of gravity.
 The centre of gravity will still fall in its base so it returns to its original position (as an
anti-clockwise moment is created as shown above by the arrow
Unstable equilibrium

 Occurs when an object is placed in such a position that any disturbance effort would
lower its centre of gravity
 The centre of gravity will no longer fall in its bade so it topples over to fall into a
more stable position ( A clockwise moment is created shown by an arrow)

Neutral equilibrium:

 Neutral equilibrium occurs when an object is placed in such a position that any
disturbance effort would not change the level of its centre of gravity.
 Thus, no such moment is created

How to stabilise an object:

Widen the area of its base.

Lower the centre of gravity.

Linear Momentum
Linear momentum: product of mass and velocity
𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗
Measured in kilogram metre per second (kg m/s) or newton second (N s).
Momentum is a vector since it has both magnitude and direction.
Calculate the momentum of each of the following objects:
(a) A 0.50 kg stone travelling at a velocity of 20 m s−1
(b) A 25 000 kg bus travelling at 20 m s−1 on a road
(c) An electron travelling at 2.0 × 107 m s−1. (The mass of the electron is 9.1 × 10−31 kg.)

Impulse: Product of force and time for which it acts 𝑭𝒕 = 𝒎𝒗 – 𝒎𝒖

If a steady force F acting on a body of mass m increases its velocity from u to v in time t, the
acceleration a is given by a = (v − u)/t (from v = u + at)
Substituting for a in F = ma,
Ft = mv − mu
Where mv is the final momentum, mu the initial momentum and Ft is called the impulse.

Principle of conservation of linear momentum:

When bodies in a system interact, total momentum remains constant provided no
external force acts on the system.
𝒎𝑨𝒖𝑨 + 𝒎𝑩𝒖𝑩 = 𝒎𝑨𝒗𝑨 + 𝒎𝑩𝒗𝑩
Momentum is conserved in an explosion e.g. when a rifle is fired. Before firing, the total
momentum is zero since both rifle and bullet are at rest.
During the firing the rifle and bullet receive equal but opposite amounts of momentum so that
the total momentum after firing is zero.
If a rifle fires a bullet of mass 0.02 kg with a velocity of 650 m/s,
Forward momentum of bullet = 0.02 kg × 650 m/s
= 13 kg m/s
∴ Backward momentum of rifle = 13 kg m/s
If the rifle has mass m, it recoils (kicks back) with a velocity v such that
mv = 13 kg m/s
Taking m = 6 kg gives v = 13/6 m/s = 2.17 m/s.
If an inflated balloon is released with its neck open, it flies off in the opposite direction to that
of the escaping air.

The air has momentum to the left and the balloon moves to the right with equal momentum.
This is the principle used in rockets and jet engines.
A high-velocity stream of hot gas is produced by burning fuel and leaves the exhaust with
large momentum. The rocket or jet engine itself acquires an equal forward momentum.
Crumple zone
The front of a car is designed to absorb the impact of the crash. It has a ‘crumple zone’,
which collapses on impact. This absorbs most of the kinetic energy that the car had before the
collision. It is better that the car’s kinetic energy should be transferred to the crumple zone
than to the driver and passengers.
In a car crash the car’s momentum is reduced to zero in a very short time. If the time of
impact can be extended by using crumple zones, the average force needed to stop the car is
reduced so the injury to passengers should also be less.